Kiln Burning Systems: Raw Mill From Storage Feed Rate

Chapter 3.
1 239
Kiln Burning Systems
by Con G. Manias*
Once raw materials have been selected and blended, and ground and homogenized into a
fine and uniform kiln feed, they must then be subjected to enough heat to allow the
clinkering reactions to proceed. This is the pyroprocessing stage of cement manufacture,
beginning with the kiln feed material extracted from storage and weighed and transported to
the kiln, and finishing with the clinker from the cooler going to clinker storage. A schematic
diagram on different stages of cement manufacturing is shown in Figure 3.1.1
Raw mill from storage
Feed rate
Control
Pre-heater system
+ Calciner
Fuel
Kiln rotation
Kiln
Fuel
To clinker storage
Cooler
Figure 3.1.1. Pyroprocessing system.

1* Managing Director, FCT Group of Companies,
20 Stirling Street,Thebarton, South Australia 5031 ph + 61 8
8352 9999, http://www.fctinternational.com
240 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing
On the gas flow side, the sequence from the

The main chemical reactions to produce the firing end is as follows:
calcium silicates that later give cement its 1. Ambient air preheated by hot clinker from kiln 20°C up
bonding strength occur in the kiln system. There
2. Fuel burns in preheated combustion air in kiln 2000°C t
is a combination of endothermic and exothermic
reactions occurring in an extremely complicated 3. Combustion gases and excess air travel along kiln,
chemical reaction sequence. The raw material transferring heat to kiln charge and kiln refractories 2400°C d
composition, mineralogical composition and the 4. Preheating system for further recovery of heat from
time and temperature profile of these materials in kiln gases into the material charge in the kiln system 1000°C d
the kiln determine the ultimate composition and 5. Further heat recovery from gases for drying of raw materials
mineralogy of the clinker, which in turn
determines the performance of the cement All kiln systems aspire to optimize heat
produced. exchange between the gas streams and
material streams at various stages to
The pyroprocessing stage is generally regarded minimize waste heat and maximize thermal
as the heart of the cement-making process. It is efficiency.
the stage in which most of the operating costs of
cement manufacture appear, and is also therefore
the stage where most of the opportunities for
process improvement exist.
There are many different kiln system

designs and enhancements, but they are all
in essence performing the following
material transformation, in order from the
feed end:
1. Evaporating free water, at temperatures up to
2. Removal of adsorbed water in clay materials
3. Removal of chemically bound water
4. Calcination of carbonate materials
5. Formation of C2S, aluminates and ferrites
6. Formation of liquid phase melt
7. Formation of C3S
8. Cooling of clinker to solidify liquid phase
9. Final clinker microstructure frozen in clinker
10. Clinker cooled in cooler
Figure 3.1.2 shows the transformation

reactions taking place at different stages of
raw material pyroprocessing.
Kiln Burning Systems 241
CO
2
byweight
CaCO3
meal
Portions
Raw
Low-quartz High-quartz
Clay minerals
C
Fe2O3 H2O
C2(A,F)
0 200 400 600 800

Temperature, C
Figure 3.1.2. Clinker reactions in raw meal as a

function of temperature.
Clinker
gases and heat the material
which flows over them.
The chain actually
KILN SYSTEMS
provides a greater surface
Early kiln systems for cement area for contact between
clinker manufacture were based on hot gases and the material
shaft kiln systems. However, as clinging to the chains.
these are of little relevance to the
world at large, this chapter will
deal with rotary kilns only.
The first rotary kiln was

introduced to the cement industry
by Frederik Ransome (1885)
when he took out a patent in
England titled “Improvements in
Manufacture of Cement.” The
first of these rotary kilns were up
to 2.0 m in diameter and 25 m
long, with an “enormous”
production of 30 to 50 ton/day.
Today, some kilns are producing
as much in a day (>10,000 tpd)
as these kilns produced in a year.
Wet Process Kilns
The long wet process kiln, with a

length to diameter ratio (L/D) of
up to 40, was the main clinker
producing plant for most of the
20th century. It is a relatively
simple process, with the main
advan-tage of slurry preparation
being the eases of milling,
handling, blending, storage,
pumping, and metering. It is also
less prone to low level dust
emission.
In wet process systems, the

material preheat system is metal
chains hanging in the cold end of
the kiln, which absorb heat from
Long Dry Kilns
The main problem with long wet kilns is their Dimensionally, long dry kilns are similar to long
poor fuel efficiency, because of the water to be wet kilns. These kilns were developed and
evap-orated from the slurry. This became a severe became popular particularly in North America.
problem only when the cost of fuel escalated Their advantage over wet kilns is potentially
during the 1970s, and only a few wet kilns have improved fuel consumption because the kiln feed
been built since that time. However, there are is dry. However, without any enhanced heat
some rare situations where raw material transfer fittings in the preheating zone, kiln exit
moistures, cheap (waste) fuels, low technology temperatures of 700°C or more meant that water
workforce, or other factors may still favor wet spray cooling was required, and very little
process production. advantage was realized over wet process.
However, kiln internals fitted at a later stage of
Another disadvantage of a wet process kiln is development included kiln chains (similar to wet
that it is limited in production rate because of kilns), kiln metallic crosses, and ceramic heat
mechanical limitations on kiln size. A 1500 tpd exchangers. The crosses and ceramic heat
wet kiln is a large kiln, with 2000 tpd being an exchangers basically split the kiln into 3 or 4
upper economic limit cross-sectional areas over a distance of about 15
without encountering to 20 m, splitting both the feed and gas flow, and
severe maintenance providing improved heat transfer.
prob-lems. Apart from
the sheer weight and With these enhancements, the kiln gas exit
stresses on mechanical temperatures were reduced to 350°C – 400°C,
drives and supports, specific fuel consumption improved some 30% and
shell deflection makes it output increased by 35% to 40% compared to wet
increasingly difficult to kilns.
achieve acceptable
refractory life. Figure Kiln production rates for long dry kilns are
3.1.3 depicts a typical marginally higher than long wet kilns. A
long wet process kiln. typical long dry kiln is shown in Figure
3.1.4.
Figure 3.1.3. Long wet process kiln.

Ki
ln
B
ur
ni
ng
Sy
st
e
m 24
s 3
Figure 3.1.4. Long dry kiln.
Travelling Grate Preheater Kilns (Lepol)

The Lepol kiln was invented in 1928 by Otto Lellep and marketed by Polysius, the combination of names
leading to “Lepol.” This was a major improvement in kiln thermal efficiency, some 50% over the popular
wet kiln process at the time, and led to ready market acceptance of the technology. The tech-nology
reached the stage of 3000 tpd kilns with specific fuel consumption of 3.3 MJ/kg (800 kcal/kg).
These kilns have a short rotary kiln section, L/D of 12 to 15, preceded by a travelling grate
covered by a 150 mm to 200 mm layer of nodulized raw meal. The kiln exit gases at
1000°C or so pass through this nodule layer providing preheat of material before it enters
the rotary kiln at about 800°C. The gases exit the grate section at around 100°C, implying
very efficient recovery of heat. For some grate preheater kiln systems, the kiln feed nodules
experience two separate passes of the hot gases, the first for drying and the second for
preheating and partial calcination. Figure 3.1.5 shows a typical Lepol kiln system.
The nodules or pellets formed as kiln feed can either be produced from dry raw meal mixed
with about 13% moisture in a pan granulator, or produced from raw meal slurry after it has
passed through a filter press and been extruded and sliced into cylindrical pellets.
The raw material properties are critical to the performance of the Lepol kiln system. The
nodules or pellets formed have to be strong and plastic enough to withstand the
mechanical handling and thermal shock on the grate without breaking down. Nodule
breakdown causes blinding of the holes on the travelling preheater grate, increasing
pressure drop, and reducing airflow and hence capacity of the kiln system.
The output of a particular kiln can vary by almost double depending on the suitability of
raw feed for this process and nodule formation in particular.
Figure 3.1.6. The
most common is the
4-stage suspension
preheater, where
gases typically leave
the preheater system
at around 350°C.
The rotary kiln is

relatively short,
with L/D typically
Figure 3.1.5. Lepol kiln.
15. The material
entering the rotary
Cyclone Preheater Kilns kiln section is
The cyclone preheater was first patented in 1934 already at around
in Czechoslovakia by an employee of F. L. 800°C and partly
Smidth. However, the first preheater kiln was calcined (20% to
built and commissioned in 1951 by KHD. This 30%) with some of
system utilizes cyclone separators as the means the clinkering
for promoting heat exchange between the hot kiln reactions already
exit gases at 1000°C and the incoming dry raw started.
meal feed.
Cyclone preheater kilns

can have any number
of stages between 1 and
6, with increasing fuel
efficiency with more
cyclone preheater
Figure 3.1.6. Cyclone preheater kiln.
stages as shown in
Material residence time in the

preheater is in the order of 30
seconds and in the kiln about 30
minutes. Kiln speeds are
typically 2 rpm. Preheater
pressure drops range from 300
mm to 600 mm water, with gas
duct velocities typically 20 m/s in
the preheater and cyclones.
Kiln capacities up to 3500 tpd exist, with specific fuel consumption usually around 750 to
800 kcal/kg (3.2 to 3.5 MJ/kg). The larger capacity kilns are built with two preheater
tower systems to keep cyclone sizes to economic proportions and required efficiency.
Cyclone Preheater Kilns with Riser Duct Firing
The operation of the cyclone preheater kilns can be improved by firing some fuel in the
riser duct to increase the degree of calcination in the preheater. The production rate can
also be increased marginally, depending on the limitation to output for a particular plant.
Preheater kilns can be subjected to flushing of material due to the fluidization of raw meal
that occurs during calcination in the kiln. Increasing the degree of calcination in the riser
(up to 50%) before the material enters the kiln reduces this tendency. Furthermore, burning
some fuel in the riser duct reduces the fuel requirement and thermal loading in the kiln,
thus improving the kiln refractory life.
In this kiln system, the excess air in the burning zone is increased, and the additional oxygen in the
riser duct allows additional fuel to be burnt there. This can be an ideal place to burn some waste fuel
such as waste oils or tires. The limitation as to how much fuel can be burnt in the riser can be limited
by the geometry of the duct, combustion system design, or fuel type. However, even under ideal
conditions, the fuel quantity is limited to about 25% of total fuel because of the limitation to the
amount of excess air that can be passed through the burning zone. Too much excess air will reduce
burning zone temperature to below the levels needed for clinkering. This reduction in burning zone
temperature can be countered by oxygen enrichment, as discussed later in the paper.
Precalciner Kilns
In precalciner kilns, the combustion air for burning fuel in the preheater no longer passes through the
kiln, but is taken from the cooler region by a special tertiary air duct to a specially designed com-
bustion vessel in the preheater tower. Typically, 60% of the total fuel is burnt in the calciner, and the
raw meal is over 90% calcined before it reaches the rotary kiln section. Since the calciner operates at
temperatures around the calcination temperature of raw meal (800°C to 900°C), there may not be a
flame as such. The calciner efficiency is dependent on uniform air flow and uniform dispersion of
fuel and raw meal in the air. Typically, average residence times calculated on gas flow for early units
were about 1 to 2 seconds for coal and oil, and 2 to 3 seconds for natural gas. In recent years, though,
there has been a trend toward larger calciner vessels to reduce some of the combustion problems of
the earlier designs and provide greater flexibility for using lower grade fuels.
Precalciner kilns can have very large outputs in excess of 10,000 tpd, with specific fuel consump-tion
below 3 MJ/kg (700 kcal/kg). There are many different configurations, with one, two, or three
preheater towers operating with one or two calciner vessels in either an in-line configuration or
separate line configuration. Some (mostly recent) designs include a separate precombustion
preheater tower.
chamber. An in-line calciner

has kiln exhaust gases and
Precalciner kiln
tertiary air making up the
systems can
combustion air (reduced
operate only in
oxygen levels) for the
conjunction with
calciner as shown in Figure grate coolers, as
3.1.7, while the separate there is no
line system has tertiary air provision for
only with 21% oxygen tertiary air off-
forming the combustion air take with plane-
as is shown in Figure 3.1.8. tary coolers.
A separate line system
therefore has a better
combustion environment L/D ratios are
and may be preferred for typically low at 10
difficult fuels. It has a to 14, and kiln
further advantage when speeds are in the
converting preheater kilns order of 3.5 rpm.
to precalciners in that there Kiln residence
is minimal inter-ference time is typically
with the operating preheater 20 to 25 minutes.
kiln during the construction
phase for the new separate
line preheater tower and
tertiary air duct.
Figure 3.1.8. Separate line calciner system

with two preheater towers.
Other Systems
Figure 3.1.7. In-line calciner system with single
produce clinker in other
The rotary kiln has been the reactors including a flash
standard clinkering unit forcalcining/clinkering and fluid
cement production over the pastbed calcining/clinkering vessels
century. During that time, there
have been various attempts to
The motivation has been to reduce capital and operating costs or to allow smaller economic
clink-ering plants to be built in remote locations.
The author was involved with one such project during the 1980s, where clinker was produced in a
fluid bed fed with raw meal. Although this did not proceed to commercialization, it was noted that the
clinker produced from this pilot plant was much more reactive than any conventionally produced
clinker, and gave cement strengths 20% higher than those produced from good quality rotary kiln
clinker. This was thought to be due to the absence of overburning in the fluid bed clinker because of
the more uniform temperature that can be achieved. The mineral structure certainly showed much
finer alite and belite crystals in the 10 to 20 µm range. This gives some indication of the potential
quality improvement possible through better control of rotary kiln temperature.
Critical data on the kiln systems discussed above are summarized in Table 3.1.1. The data reflects
mechanical, operational, thermal, fuel, production, and efficiency parameters of each kiln system.
Table 3.1.1. Summary of Critical Data Information on Different Kiln Systems

Kiln
system ∆P, Exit gas,
3
Kiln SFC Residence exit mm Nm /kg
3
systems rpm tpd/m L/D kcal/kg kWh/t time, min T, °C H2O clinker
1300– 150– 150–
Long wet 1 0.45–0.8 30–35 17–25 180–240 3.4
1650 230 180
1100– 380– 150–
Long Dry 1 0.5–0.8 30–35 20–30 180–240 1.8
1300 400 200
950– 100– 250–
Lepol 1.5 1.5–2.2 12–15 20–25 30 2.0
1200 120 400
Cyclone 750– 500–
2.0 1.5–2.2 14–16 25 30–40 350 1.5
preheater 900 700
720– 300– 500–
Precalciner 3.6 3.5–5.0 10–14 25 20–30 1.4
850 360 700
VITAL KILN OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

The following parameters are typical for any kiln operation and considered critical in
optimizing the performance of a kiln.
Material Residence Time
The residence time of material in the kiln is governed by the kiln slope, the speed of rotation,
and any internal restrictions either by design (dam rings) or through kiln ring formation.
The residence time, t, can be calculated from Equation 1:

t = 1.77 x L x θ x F (1)
pxDxn
1• Burning zone heat loading
Where 2• Secondary air velocity
t = residence time, min 3• Burning zone gas velocity

L = kiln length, m 4• Kiln exit gas velocity
p = kiln slope, degrees 5• Kiln exit gas temperature
D = kiln diameter, m 6• Preheater tower gas velocities
n = kiln speed, rpm 7• Preheater tower pressure drops
 = angle of repose of material, (40
8• Preheater tower exit gas temperature
degrees)
9• Volatile concentrations
F = constriction factor (usually1 if no dams,
lifters etc.) 10• Material residence time
11• Cooler grate loading
Kiln Degree of Fill
This is the percentage of the kiln cross-sectional

area filled by the kiln charge, and is usually in the
range of 5% to 17% for most rotary kilns. It
should be noted, though, that a fill degree of more
than 13% could impair heat transfer in that some
of the material in the center of the charge will not
be exposed to enough heat. It is sometimes seen
that a kiln ring could coincide with high or erratic
free lime in the clinker, possibly because the fill
degree has exceeded limits for ensuring that all
kiln charge material is uniformly heated.
Kiln Slope
Rotary kilns slope from the feed end to the

discharge end for material to travel in that
direction utilizing gravitational force. The slope
is typically 2% to 4%, or 1 to 2°, and is decided
in conjunc-tion with the kiln rotational speed. A
lesser slope with a higher rotational speed may
improve heat transfer because of the greater
tumbling of kiln charge.
Kiln Capacity
When designing a kiln for a certain capacity, or
when evaluating an existing kiln for potential
output, there are a number of key parameters that
must be evaluated. These include:
1• Cooler air supply

2• Kiln dust cycles
There are design limits for all of the above that may vary between different processes, but any of
the above could be the limitation to a kiln’s output. These limitations will typically manifest
them-selves as kiln instability and ring or coating buildup, excessive dust loss, poor refractory
life, poor clinker quality, or high fuel consumption. Usually, however, the limitation is found to
be more a question of a fan capacity, a burner capacity, or milling of raw materials or coal.
CLINKER COOLERS
Cooling of clinker takes place at two locations: 1) in the kiln after the material passes the burning
zone region, and 2) in the specially designed clinker coolers after the material falls out of the kiln.
The rate of cooling can be critical to the clinker quality and performance of cement. The rate of
cooling in the kiln is determined by the flame and resulting heat flux, flame temperature, and
speed of material flow through the kiln. As the clinker temperature exiting the kiln is normally
1200°C to 1250°C, the clinker characteristics have been already largely established before the
clinker enters the cooler. A long flame gives slow heat-up and slow cooling of the kiln charge
before it falls from the kiln. This will tend to produce clinker with large alite and belite
crystals, resulting in a coarse-grained clinker matrix with poor reactivity and poor grindability.
Slow cool-ing can also result in reversion of C2S from the α' phase to the less reactive β form,
or in extreme cases even to the unreactive γ form, and can even allow C3S to revert to C2S and
CaO. All of these have a negative impact on cement strength.
A further quality problem can arise if there are high levels of MgO in the clinker, because
slow cooling allows large periclase crystals to form such that when these hydrate slowly in
concrete, the expansion can cause the concrete to rupture.
There are two main types of coolers used in cement clinker production. These are the satellite (or
planetary) type and the oscillating grate type. The 1990s saw tremendous advances in clinker cooler
technology that greatly improved heat efficiency and potential output from a given kiln system.
Clinker coolers perform the function of:

1• Transporting clinker from the kiln to the clinker delivery system
2• Cooling the clinker to a safe temperature for subsequent transport
3• Finalizing the clinker mineralogy through rapid cooling
4• Preheating combustion air by heat exchange with hot clinker
Coolers are treated in more detail elsewhere in this publication and will not be
elaborated on further here.
mitigate this risk.
KILN BURNERS Sadly though, it is often the case that

evaluation and choice of burners either for
Combustion and the Cement Process new kilns or replacement systems is based
on capacity and purchase price only,
Pyro-processing is the heart of the cement-making without much indication of how they will
process. It is usually the major cost element and kiln perform with the specific kiln under
performance dictates the efficiency, plant output, consideration.
emissions, product quality, and plant run factors.
Combustion will be the major factor in determining The combustion system should be
kiln performance, and seemingly small considered as an integral part of the pyro-
improvements here can have a major impact on the processing system, including kiln, cooler,
economics of running the whole plant. An additional tertiary air ducts, calciner etc., and be
5% to 10% production in a year will impact designed with due consideration of this total
spectacularly on the profit line given the large system.
proportion of fixed costs at a cement plant.
Kiln Aerodynamics
The cement kiln requires a particular heat transfer
It is surprising how small differences in cooler
regime for best fuel economy, optimum prod-uct
throat, cooler bull nose, kiln hood, tertiary air off-
quality and maximum production. Generally, a short
hot burning zone at the front of the kiln is optimal. takes, secondary air temperature and velocity, and
This gives rapid heat up and cool down of clinker to air leakage points to name a few can have an
give the best reactivity, reduced back end temperature enormous effect on the air flow patterns in the
for minimizing heat losses in the exit gases and from combustion environment of the rotary kiln.
shell radiation, best use of I.D. fan capacity, and
reduced NOx formation. This needs to be balanced Tertiary air inlet design and location, and
against refractory heat load and kiln operating stability. tertiary air temperature and velocity will
The flame must not impact on the kiln charge or likewise deter-mine the airflow patterns in a
refractories and complete combustion must occur in flash calciner.
the kiln to reduce potential for build up and ring
formation.
When deciding on a burner, it can be false

economy to simply select on the basis of initial
purchase price alone, and suffer long-term poor
performance for the plant or extended
commissioning times. The capital investment in a
cement plant is substantial and it is high risk to
entrust the performance of this investment to a
relatively low-cost component (the burner
system) without taking all reasonable steps to
The fuel introduced by the burner will clearly be influenced by the secondary and tertiary
air flow patterns, given that 85% to 100% of the combustion air comes from this source and
the momen-tum of these large airflows dominates the combustion region. Typical
aerodynamic patterns in two different kiln combustion zones are shown in Figure 3.1.9-a,b.
Hood
Flame
(a)
Satellite coolers with inlets

to kiln radially off-set
Flame
(b)
Figure 3.1.9-a,b. Some typical kiln aerodynamic patterns encountered during kiln studies.
Total System Considerations in Design
In order to ensure that all relevant factors are taken into account in combustion system
design, process parameters and kiln system design must be considered when designing a
burner for a given application.
In particular, modeling techniques can be used to analyze the fuel/air interaction in

combustion environments and for predicting heat release and heat flux profiles. Such
modeling takes into consideration specific parameters including:
KILN BURNER TYPES
1• Geometric design of cooler, cooler bull The following section will cover the types
nose, cooler throat, kiln, off-take ducts, burner and operational features of different
posi-tion, burner angle, burner channels (types, burners used in cement manufacturing.
numbers and sizes), calciner size and shape, and
tertiary air inlet
Turbulent Jet Diffusion Burners
2• Process design, such as fuel rate, type, For most kiln burners, fuel/air mixing occurs
properties; primary air mass and velocity; as a result of secondary air entrainment into
secondary air and tertiary air temperature, mass the fuel and primary air jet. Friction between
and velocity; production rates; heat transfer the different jet streams creates local
(convection, conduction, radiation); and heat fluxturbulence at the boundaries with the fuel jet
profiles developed expanding as it entrains surrounding air. The
nature and rate of mixing is determined by the
As no single modeling technique can provide all relative momentum of the various jet streams
the answers, a combination of physical and math- as well as the system aerodynamics.
ematical modeling provides the best information
for arriving at an optimized burner design.
Observation from a fuel/air mixing model using
acid-alkali techniques is shown in Figure 3.1.10.
The overriding consideration when implementing
results of modeling work is understanding the
limitations and the conclusions that can be drawn
from each technique, as well as ensuring that the
techniques used have been adequately validated.
Figure 3.1.10. Fuel/Air mixing modeled using

acid-alkali techniques.
In a rotary kiln, the secondary air to be entrained into the fuel jet is limited to that coming
from the cooler, and the expansion of the fuel jet is constrained by the diameter of the kiln.
If the burner jet momentum (fuel and primary air) is less than that required for complete
entrainment, then fuel/air mixing will be inadequate for good combustion, and a long, lazy
flame with high CO is the likely result.
If the burner momentum is greater than that required for complete secondary air entrainment,
then the excess momentum of the fuel jet is dissipated in pulling back exhaust gases from
further down the kiln into the flame. This so-called “recirculation” has a positive effect in
stabilizing the flame (making it less susceptible to minor process fluctuations) and in protecting
refractory surfaces from burning fuel particles. Note though, that too much recirculation can be
detrimental to fuel efficiency and produce an overly aggressive combustion environment. An
ideal flame from use of secondary air entrainment and recirculation is shown in Figure 3.1.11.
Secondary
air
Primary air and

fuel
Secondary
air
Recirculated
combustion gases
Figure 3.1.11. Idealized flame in rotary kiln showing secondary air entrainment and
recircula-tion of combustion gases indicating adequate burner momentum for satisfactory
fuel/air mixing.
Good burner design therefore requires optimizing fuel jet momentum and
primary air mass and velocity to create a recirculatory flame while interacting
with that particular kiln system’s aerodynamics. The secondary air temperature,
mass, velocity, and directional flows must all be considered in the design process
as these affect the burner system design. The variables to
opti-mize include primary air mass and velocity, axial and
radial flow splits, fuel jet momentum, and burner insertion
length and direction. A typical multi-fuel burner
used in a rotary kiln is shown in Figure 3.1.12.
Figure 3.1.12. Typical multi-fuel burner.
Excess Air Levels

One symptom of combustion
problems is the need to oper-
Flue gas heat loss

ate with abnormally high
excess air levels to avoid high
CO at the kiln inlet. While
5% to 10% excess air is
Incomplete Optimum
normal to achieve good combustion operating
combustion, levels above this range
represent a severe economic
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
loss to the plant. This loss Oxygen level in kiln-exhaust gas, %
manifests as high specific fuel Figure 3.1.13. The effect of excess air on heat loss and fuel
consumption (losses in efficiency.
exhaust gases), and high

specific energy consumption (greater volume of exhaust gases), as well as lost output for a
given kiln (normally fan or draft limited). Figure 3.1.13 shows a relationship between
excess air and fuel efficiency during the kiln operation.
Flame Stability
Unstable flames adversely affect kiln operation as well as being unsafe to plant and personnel.
An unstable flame is one that has a varying ignition point and a variable stand off distance from
the burner tip as shown in Figure 3.1.14. There is a high risk of flame out, and substantial
amount of unburnt fuel between the burner tip and the ignition point that is a potential
explosion risk. Gas burners are more prone to instability because of the high ignition
temperature, slow flame propa-gation speed, and narrow flammability limits for this fuel.
Flame envelope
Unstable flame – results in

uncontrolled heat transfer –
Unburnt gas Risk of ‘flame out’ and explosion
Figure 3.1.14. Unstable flame due to variable point of ignition.
Ensuring early ignition of fuel entering the combustion zone enhances flame stability. In
some applications, this can be by a continuous pilot burner, but in rotary kilns this is best
achieved by ensuring recirculation of hot gases as the ignition source for new fuel. Once a
kiln is up to operat-ing temperature, radiation from refractory provides the ignition energy.
External circulation from properly designed burners brings hot combustion gases back into the com-
bustion region to help stabilize the ignition point. Internal circulation can be even more effective.
Internal circulation can be induced by the use of a bluff body to create a low pressure region
in the center of the burner nozzle that then draws hot combustion gases back into this region.
This can then act as the ignition source for the new fuel. Bluff bodies, though, can suffer
heat damage in this demanding location (see Figure 3.1.15).
Reverse flow
Primary air
Gas
Primary air
Bluff body
Figure 3.1.15. Stabilization of flame with internal recirculation created by bluff body.
A more durable means of creating internal flame re-circulation is the use of swirl in either
the fuel or primary air jet stream as shown in Figure 3.1.16. However, swirl would broaden
the flame that can adversely affect refractory life due to flame impingement (see Figure
3.1.17). In gas firing, the most effective design uses limited swirl for both primary air and
gas fuel. In oil firing, primary air swirl is typically used, while for solid fuel firing swirl is
often unnecessary for producing a stable flame. Each case is designed on the merits of the
fuel and the combustion environment in which it will operate.
Burner
Flame envelope
Figure 3.1.16. Flame stabilized by internal circulation.
20,000
14,000
6000
5000
4750Dia.
N C
L
2498 2600
Outlet Dam
cone 2498 ring 4600
Discharge Cam
zone section
Figure 3.1.17. Flame impingement on refractory in

the absence of re-circulation.
4290 Dia.
and air. This produces t Jet precession

flames with different e
T
characteristics (compared
Gyro-Therm Burners h
to turbulent diffusion jet
The Gyro-Therm®
“Precessing burners) that have been
Jet” burner technology has been proven to give operational
designed to be mechanically very and environmental
simple, but the novel fluid- advantages in kiln firing.
mechanical flow provides a
genuinely new way of mixing fuel This emerging
Figure 3.1.18. Cross

sectional diagram of the
precessing jet nozzle and
the flow field generated
from it.
The flame itself does not precess. The effect is to produce large-scale mixing, via the
“stirring” action of the jet and a rapidly spreading flame. This is in contrast to the fine scale
mixing of turbu-lent jet diffusion burners. The precessing motion is generated without any
moving parts within the Gyro-Therm nozzle.
The resultant effects of this new technology include:
1• Sub-stoichiometric combustion within flame envelope with complete combustion at the

flame boundaries in a normal kiln environment
2• Highly luminous flames enhancing heat transfer to kiln charge
3• Low axial velocity of fuel jet giving short bulbous flame
4• Low thermal NOx formation
5• No primary air needed for gas fuel and a stable flame anchored to the nozzle
Although the flame spreads more than that from a conventional turbulent jet nozzle, the amount of
spread can be controlled. This fact is important in rotary kilns where direct impingement of a flame on
the product could produce instability or reducing conditions which would be detrimental to product
quality or damage the refractory. A simple but extremely effective flame shaping tech-nique is built
into the burner. The technique for flame shape adjustment is based on a high momentum gas jet
injected at a critical point into the precessing jet flow field. This jet (termed the center body jet, CBJ)
is expelled through the center body of the precessing jet nozzle, modifying the pressure fields within
the vicinity of the burner in such a way that the fuel gas is directed more toward the kiln axis. As the
proportion of gas is increased through the center body jet, the flame spread is reduced and the heat
flux profile lengthened. An air channel is provided for burner cool-ing and for flame shaping during
the warm-up phase. A schematic of Gyro-Therm burner with gas channel for flame adjustment and
cooling air is shown in Figure 3.1.19.
PJ Gas
Flame shaping gas

Cooling air
Figure 3.1.19. The design of the Gyro-Therm

burner includes an additional gas channel for
flame shape adjustment and optional cooling air.
to 3 seconds), combustion can be sensitive to
fuel properties. Some fuels such as petcoke –
CALCINER BURNERS because of its low volatile content, and
natural gas – because of its more stringent
Calciner combustion is quite different from kiln
combustion prerequisites, require more
combustion. Often, there is no defined flame in the residence time (larger calciner) for
vessel, with oxidation of the fuel occurring under satisfactory combustion.
“flameless” conditions. As for any combus-tion
environment, satisfactory fuel/air mixing is the first Calciner burner designs can vary from a simple
requirement for good combustion. pipe through which to introduce fuel, to more
Calciner aerodynamics are dominated by the sophisticated designs that are smaller versions of
tertiary air due to its mass and comparatively kiln burners. In most cases, a simple pipe will
high velocity at the calciner inlet. The airflow perform as well as the more complex designs if
patterns can become quite complex with it is correctly located and designed. This is obvi-
changes in the calciner cross section producing ously a cheaper capital and operating cost
effects such as strong recirculation zones and solution. Only in rare cases will primary air be
streaming as depicted in Figure 3.1.20. required in a calciner burner to overcome any
serious aerodynamic problems.
Figure 3.1.20. Typical aerodynamic problems encountered in

calciner operation that impair calciner combustion.
r
efractory profiles to produce much improved
calciner aerodynamics and hence greatly improve
calciner combustion.
Due to the short residence time in calciners (2

OXYGEN INJECTION
The technical benefits available from using oxygen to replace air for combustion in cement
kilns have long been recognized. These benefits arise from increased flame temperature
(leading to improved heat transfer rates), faster reaction rates with some difficult fuels, and
reduced combus-tion gas volume (due to less nitrogen).
In general, this will lead to reduced specific fuel consumption (less waste gas volume and
better heat transfer) and increased production from a particular kiln. The effect on NO x
emissions will be variable, but with small amounts of oxygen substitution NO x will
usually increase as a conse-quence of elevated flame temperature.
However, the cost of oxygen has generally been prohibitive in the past, preventing the
wholesale use of oxygen to enhance cement kiln performance.
The availability of cheaper production methods for oxygen such as the vacuum swing
adsorption process, together with increased demand for cement, have combined in some
regions to make the strategic use of oxygen a viable alternative for increasing production.
This is particularly so where short term peaks in demand are encountered and oxygen
injection can be implemented without significant plant down time for modifications.
Oxygen injection can be carried out either in the kiln or calciner. A process evaluation of the
specific kiln system will reveal the most advantageous point. Generally, this will involve
identifying bottlenecks to increased production and how these can be addressed through the use
of oxygen. A modeling strategy for designing oxygen-injecting system for a calciner is shown in
Figure 3.1.21. Strategic use of oxygen can impart the following processing benefits:
determine the design of
1• Allow more fuel to be burned in either the kiln the oxygen injection
or calciner where fan capacity is limiting output, system into the calciner.
and therefore increase output
2• Reduce gas velocity in the burning zone, kiln back

end, calciner exit, through the preheater tower, or
through the bag filter or electrostatic precipitator
3• Reduce pressure drop through the kiln system

because of reduced gas velocities
4• Reduce preheater exit temperature because of

higher feed-to-gas ratio Figure 3.1.21.
5• Increase calciner residence time Modeling to
• Increase flame heat transfer to
temperature and material
However, there are also potential risks of overheating refractories and kiln charge or calciner
feed unless due consideration is given to the design of injection points and oxygen lances.
KILN THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS

The function of the kiln system is to convert the raw meal into clinker in the most efficient
way and to produce clinker with an optimal mineralogy for acceptable cement performance.
Typical chemical analysis of raw meal, clinker, and select processing parameters are given
in Table 3.1.2.
Table 3.1.2. Typical Composition of Raw Meal, Clinker, and Relevant Processing
Parameters
Parameters Raw meal Loss free Coal ash Clinker
SiO2 14.4 22.3 54.3 22.6
Al2O3 3.2 5.0 26.2 5.2
Fe2O3 1.8 2.8 16.7 2.9
CaO 42.4 65.7 0.6 65.0
MgO 1.30 2.02 0.8 2.0
SO3 0.37 0.57 0.1 0.6
K2O 0.60 0.93 1.2 0.9
Na2O 0.17 0.26 0.1 0.3
TiO2 0.17 0.26
Mn2O3 0.12 0.19
P2O5 0.11 0.17
Cl 0.03 0.05
LOI 35.5 0 0 0
SR 2.9 2.9 1.3 2.78
AR 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.77
LSF 91.7 91.7 0.3 91.1
C3S 60.6 60.6 -610.1 53.6
C2S 18.3 18.3 616.0 24.4
C3A 8.4 8.4 41.2 8.8
C4AF 8.5 8.5 50.8 8.9
The hypothetical compounds are calculated using the Bogue equations to determine the percent-age
of calcium silicates (C3S and C2S), calcium aluminate (C3A) and calcium alumino ferrite (C4AF)
phases, which would be present in the clinker if all reactions proceeded to completion under
equilibrium conditions. In reality, the calculated or hypothetical composition differs from actual
analysis of clinker by X-ray diffraction or microscopic analysis. This is because chemical
equilibrium is reached only occasionally, and the degree to which actual analysis differs from the
calculated analysis is influenced by the heat treatment of the material. In addition, small amounts of
trace elements can have a profound effect on the eventual mineralogical composition of clinker.
In general, it is found that:

1• Alite content is usually higher than the calculated amount by an average of 13%
2• Belite is usually lower than the calculated amount by an average of 6%
3• Aluminate and ferrite phases can be either higher or lower, but on average are 2%
lower than calculated
The critical stages for clinker quality are:

1• The heat-up rate of the kiln charge after the calcination process
2• The maximum temperature and residence time at that temperature
3• The cooling rate to below 1200°C
These stages determine the size of alite and belite crystals and their reactivity, the formation of
these crystals (α, β, γ), and the nature of the liquid phase, as well as the position in the structure
where minor elements such as Mg, Na, and K, are found; all are critical to cement quality.
Some aspects of plant operation that help kiln performance are kiln feed size,
homogeneity, kiln time/temperature profile, heat balance, and volatile and dust cycles;
these are discussed in the following sections.
Kiln Feed Sizing
The kiln feed must be ground finely enough, within the context of the raw materials
mineralogy, to allow the particles to react together within the time and temperature
conditions in the kiln. Coarser particles require a higher reaction temperature and are likely
to form relicts of the larger particles they originate from as alite and belite clusters.
Kiln Feed Homogeneity
Localized chemical variations that occur when kiln feed is not properly homogenized mean there
are different localized requirements for raw meal to form clinker. In a kiln situation, this will
imply that some of the easier-to-burn regions may be overburnt in order to completely burn the
diffi-cult-to-burn regions. The difference between well homogenized and poorly homogenized
kiln feed can be an increase of up to 200°C in the operating temperature of the burning zone, the
associated high fuel consumption, high NOx, poor refractory life, and poor product reactivity.
Localized variations can also be created by deposition of coal ash on the kiln charge or
irregular return of kiln dust back to the kiln.
Time/Temperature Profile
The kiln charge must spend sufficient time at a high enough temperature to reach near
complete reaction to form clinker minerals. There must be no material flushing or
underburning, as this produces poor quality clinker. The material bed must tumble
adequately to ensure uniform heat-ing through the mass.
If clinker is underburnt, it will form small crystals of alite surrounded by abundant (solidified)
liquid phase, whereas the belite will exist in discrete clusters. There may also be significant free
lime present together with alite and belite, which has not had the opportunity to completely
react. Overburnt clinker will have large alite and belite crystals, and exhibit poor reactivity.
Kiln Heat Balance

A summary of a typical kiln heat balance during clinkering reaction is shown in Table 3.1.3.
Table 3.1.3. Summarized Data on a Typical Kiln Heat Balance

Endothermic reactions kJ/kg kcal/kg
Dehydration of clays 170 40
Calcination 1990 475
Heat of melting 105 25
Heating raw mats (1450°C) 2050 490
Sub total 4315 1050
Exothermic reactions kJ/kg kcal/kg
Crystallization dehydrated clay 40 10
Heat of formation, clinker minerals 420 100
Crystallization of melt 105 25
Cooling of clinker 1400 335
Cooling of CO2 500 120
Cooling of water 85 20
Sub total 2550 610
Net heat for clinker formation
(endothermic heat – exothermic heat) 1765 420
Add Inefficiencies
kJ/kg kcal/kg
Heat losses related to inefficiencies Dry Wet Dry Wet
during the kiln operation process process process process
Evaporation of water 20 2100 5 502
Heat losses, gas, clinker, dust 840 1250 201 299
Radiation, convection loss 650 360 156 86
Total heat consumption =
(endothermic heat – exothermic heat)
+ heat losses due to inefficiencies 3275 5475 782 1307
The heat of formation (Q) of the clinker minerals is a function of the chemical composition and the
mineralogical composition. It can be expressed as kcal/kg in a general equation as follows:
Q = 2.22% Al2O3 +5.86% hH +6.48% MgO+7.646% CaO– 5.116% SiO2 – 0.59% Fe2O3 (2)
Where hH = % water of crystallization in the clay, g/100g clinker, and all analyses are on clinker.
If alkalies are present, the heat of formation is reduced by about 2 kcal/kg.
Kiln Volatile and Dust Cycles
The kiln burner is the main source of heat input to the rotary kiln and is primarily
responsible for setting the heat flux profile in the kiln. However, there are other significant
but insidious factors which need to be considered.
Firstly, there are dust cycles in the system which move heat around, such as:
1• Dust cycle between the cooler and kiln, where 5% to 10% of the clinker is recycling
between the two, moving high grade heat from the kiln to the cooler, and returning back to
the kiln at lower temperature.
2• Dust cycle between the burning zone and the back of the kiln, removing heat from the
burn-ing zone to the back of the kiln. This can be about 10% of the kiln throughput.
3• Dust cycle between the kiln and the preheater kiln, taking some 10% of kiln feed and
associ-ated heat back into the preheater.
4• Dust cycles between cyclone stages, where 20% to 30% of material flow is returned
back to higher cyclones.
5• Kiln dust losses, amounting to some 10% of kiln feed, which are lost to the kiln system.
These dust cycles can limit a given kiln’s output, as increasing gas velocities through the system
will eventually render the kiln inoperative. The increasing dust loads will increase kiln back end
temperatures and reduce kiln burning zone temperatures, leading to kiln instability.
Secondly, there are phase changes that move heat within and around the system in the
form of latent heat of the materials. This includes:
1• Volatile materials which vaporize in the burning zone (predominantly alkali sulfates,
and chlorides) and recondense in cooler parts of the system, releasing the latent heat
2• Liquid phase materials which melt in the hotter parts of the kiln and resolidify in the
cooling section of the kiln
3• Some phase changes occurring in the main clinker minerals as they cool
These materials are not usually in the pure
form, but form a eutectic mixture with an
Other less insidious factors are the sensible heat overall melt-ing point below that of the pure
of introduced streams, the secondary air heat salts. In practice, these salts generally will
input to the kiln, the calcination reaction, and appear in the melt in the temperature range of
heats of formation of the various components. 600°C to 800°C.
The heat exchange occurring within a kiln is The volatile compounds cannot readily escape from
therefore a multi-dimensional phenomenon. the kiln system because they condense (before they
can be removed in the exit gas stream) and re-enter
KILN RINGS AND BUILDUPS the kiln. Their concentration will therefore continue
to build, sometimes reaching a concentration in the
The formation of kiln rings and subsequent
recycle stream significantly greater than the
buildups result from melt formation followed
concentration in the raw materials. As they pass
by solidification that act as binder for dust
particles to agglomerate. There are also other through a sticky condition during the
factors that lead to different mechanisms and melting/vaporization and recondensing stages, they
types of ring formation as are discussed in the can be catalysts for forming coating buildup in the
following sections. preheater tower and rings in the back end of the
kiln. These can be particularly disruptive to kiln
Kiln Volatiles operation in the cyclone preheater tower, and older
preheater kilns can run into severe opera-tional
The kiln volatiles referred to in cement manufacture
problems because the effect of the volatile cycle
are those compounds that volatilize in the burning
was unrecognized in their design.
zone of a rotary kiln and recondense in the cooler
parts of the kiln or preheater. They are usually
sodium or potassium sulfates and chlorides, but can
also include certain calcium salts. Their melting
points and relative volatilities in the kiln burning
zone are given in Table 3.1.4.
Table 3.1.4. Melting Points and

Relative Volatilities of Different
Compounds in Kiln
Burning Zone
Volatile compounds Melting point, °C
KCl 776
K2SO4 1069
NaCl 801
Na2SO4 884
CaCl2 772
CaSO4 1280
As a guide, the acceptable concentration limits of these materials (as % of clinker) in the kiln riser are:
Na2O and K2O < 3% to 5%
SO3< 3% to 5%
Cl < 1.2% to 1.6%
The factors that influence the volatility of these materials are:
1• The gas velocity in the burning zone has a strong influence on the volatility of these materials. A
higher gas velocity reduces the vapor pressure of volatiles in the atmosphere, increasing their
volatility. A kiln operating beyond its design limitations could be adversely affected.
2• A higher burning zone temperature as required for harder burning mix will increase volatility.
3• A higher CO2 concentration in the kiln will increase volatility of sodium and potassium.
4• Reducing conditions will increase the volatility of sulfur, while higher oxygen
levels will decrease it. The equilibrium reaction is
Me(SO4)m = nMeO + mSO2 + m/2O2 (3)
A low oxygen level shifts the equilibrium to the right. The volatility of sodium and
potassium is less affected by oxygen levels than that of sulfur.
1• Increased water vapor promotes formation of alkali hydroxides that are more volatile
than the sulfates. Potassium volatility is increased at 1200°C, while sodium volatility is
increased at 1400°C.
2• SO2 (from the fuel) reduces the volatility of potassium, while the sodium
volatility is unaffected.
3• The mineralogical composition of raw materials producing volatiles is a major determinant
of the alkali volatility, depending on the alkali carriers. Mica > illite > feldspar. Also, an easier
burning material means lower burning zone temperature and hence less volatility.
4• The fineness of raw meal has an indirect effect if it produces an easier burning mix.
A further factor is the alkali-to-sulfur ratio. Alkalies will preferentially combine with any
chloride present. The best alkali-to-sulfur ratio is when there is just enough sulfur present
to combine stoi-chiometrically with the remaining alkalies. If there is an excess of sulfur,
then calcium sulfate will form from which the sulfur will volatilize completely.
If there is an excess of alkalies, alkali aluminate can form which will cause stiffening
problems in concrete and mortar. There are also likely to be rings and buildup formed in the
kiln system from a variety of other alkali salts produced.
In some cases, where low alkali cement is the target, and there is an alkali bypass installed. Alkali
volatility is an advantage, and CaCl2 can be added to the mix to promote alkali volatility.
The rings form when sticky ash impinges and
deposits onto the refractory surface. As the
Preheater Kiln Middle Rings kiln turns, some of the kiln charge material
adheres onto the sticky ash. The ring
These are dense hard rings that form at 7 to 10
gradually builds as more and more ash and
kiln diameters from the kiln discharge and are
charge material stick on top of each other as
typi-cally 15 to 20 m long. They are clinker-like
the kiln operates.
in appearance and composition.
Clinker Rings/Cooler Inlet Deposits

The mechanism of bonding is freezing of the
clinker phase when clinker dust is carried from These types of rings form at the kiln
the burning zone and deposited on a cooler discharge end or as buildup in the cooler inlet.
refractory surface (< 1250°C) behind the burning Such a ring is due to the liquid phase
zone. The liquid phase freezes and binds the solidifying and binding clinker pieces
clinker particles together. The kiln charge together. It is usually a symptom of slow
material is still too fine to break up the formation cooling in the kiln.
at that point, and it will continue to grow.
Kiln Charge Balls
This type of buildup is the result of a long cool These can form upstream of sinter rings, and can be
flame in the kiln, together with high burning up to 1 m in diameter. They are made up of a
zone gas velocities laden with dust. combination of calcined material generated by
stripping and balling up of old coating, agglomera-
Sinter Rings
tion of clinker and salt melt, or a ring acting as a
Sinter rings form at the beginning of the burning dam and retaining material for a long time.
zone, and they also have an appearance and Chemically, they are usually made up of a
composition like clinker. These rings establish at relatively low melting point eutectic mixture.
the point in the kiln where the liquid phase is
beginning to form, but during the course of a
kiln turn, the melt comes into contact with a
cooler surface and resolidifies, binding clinker
particles together. This process can repeat until a
ring forms. This type of ring is most likely to
develop where there is a long and flat heat flux
profile in the kiln.
Coal Ash Sinter Rings
These rings tend to develop when high ash coal is

used at a position 7 to 8.5 kiln diameters from the
discharge end. The rings are usually dense, often
layered, sometimes glassy, and have a compo-
sition and mineralogy similar to clinker.
Minimization of Kiln Buildup and Rings

Kiln rings can be minimized by:
1• Stable kiln operation, such as uniform feed rate, chemical composition, and fineness
of coal and raw meal, and a well-designed combustion system
2• Lower kiln system velocities and dust loads
3• Lower volatile cycles attained by:
– choice of raw materials
– minimize < 20µ material in raw meal
– discard some kiln dust to control % volatiles in kiln
– eliminate cold air leakage into the P/H to avoid cold spots
4• Avoid sinter rings by controlling liquid phase level and selecting refractories less
prone to clinging by liquid phase
5• Avoid coal ash rings by using lower ash coal or improving burner design
6• Avoid clinker rings by burning closer to the kiln discharge (burner design) and using
blasters for any snowmen in cooler
7• Maintain an oxidizing environment in the burning zone
8• Maintain a short heat flux profile (burner design)
9• Optimize chemistry and mineralogy of raw mix to give an easier burning kiln feed
10• Optimize kiln aerodynamics to avoid high velocity areas and flame impingement
CONCLUSIONS
The heat transfer processes occurring inside a kiln are multi-dimensional and extremely
compli-cated. There is no single factor that can be considered in isolation when seeking to
optimize kiln performance and product quality.
The raw materials and kiln feed preparation will have a major impact on kiln performance
and will set the blueprint for fuel economy, kiln stability, clinker quality, refractory life, kiln
throughput, and environmental impact. The kiln operation and the combustion system will
determine as to what extent the potential inherent in the raw materials will be realized.
An optimization approach to a cement manufacturing plant should therefore consider a

total holistic approach from the quarry to the lorry, examining each stage in detail and
the impact of each stage on the total plant operation and economics.
REFERENCES
Ransome, F., Improvement in Manufacture of Cement,
English Patent #5442, May 2, 1885.

Kiln Burning Systems: Raw Mill From Storage Feed Rate

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Chapter 3.

Kiln Burning Systems

Raw mill from storage

Figure 3.1.1. Pyroprocessing system.

On the gas flow side, the sequence from the

There are many different kiln system

Figure 3.1.2 shows the transformation

0 200 400 600 800

Figure 3.1.2. Clinker reactions in raw meal as a

The first rotary kiln was

Wet Process Kilns

The long wet process kiln, with a

In wet process systems, the

Figure 3.1.3. Long wet process kiln.

Figure 3.1.4. Long dry kiln.

Travelling Grate Preheater Kilns (Lepol)

The rotary kiln is

Cyclone preheater kilns

Material residence time in the

Cyclone Preheater Kilns with Riser Duct Firing

chamber. An in-line calciner

Figure 3.1.8. Separate line calciner system

Table 3.1.1. Summary of Critical Data Information on Different Kiln Systems

VITAL KILN OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

Material Residence Time

The residence time, t, can be calculated from Equation 1:

Where 2• Secondary air velocity

t = residence time, min 3• Burning zone gas velocity

This is the percentage of the kiln cross-sectional

Rotary kilns slope from the feed end to the

1• Cooler air supply

Clinker coolers perform the function of:

KILN BURNERS Sadly though, it is often the case that

When deciding on a burner, it can be false

Satellite coolers with inlets

Total System Considerations in Design

In particular, modeling techniques can be used to analyze the fuel/air interaction in

Figure 3.1.10. Fuel/Air mixing modeled using

Primary air and

Excess Air Levels

Flue gas heat loss

exhaust gases), and high

Unstable flame – results in

Figure 3.1.14. Unstable flame due to variable point of ignition.

Figure 3.1.17. Flame impingement on refractory in

and air. This produces t Jet precession

Figure 3.1.18. Cross

Kiln Burning Systems 257

The resultant effects of this new technology include:

1• Sub-stoichiometric combustion within flame envelope with complete combustion at the

Flame shaping gas

Figure 3.1.19. The design of the Gyro-Therm

Figure 3.1.20. Typical aerodynamic problems encountered in

Due to the short residence time in calciners (2

2• Reduce gas velocity in the burning zone, kiln back

3• Reduce pressure drop through the kiln system

4• Reduce preheater exit temperature because of

KILN THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS

In general, it is found that:

The critical stages for clinker quality are:

Kiln Feed Sizing

Kiln Feed Homogeneity

Kiln Heat Balance