materials

Article
Application of FTIR Method for the Assessment of
Immobilization of Active Substances in the Matrix of
Biomedical Materials
Dorota Kowalczuk 1, * and Monika Pitucha 2
1 Chair and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics,
the Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
2 Independent Radiopharmacy Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, the Medical
University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
* Correspondence: dorota.kowalczuk@umlub.pl; Tel.: +48-81-448-7380




Received: 17 August 2019; Accepted: 11 September 2019; Published: 13 September 2019


Abstract: Background: The purpose of the study was to demonstrate the usefulness of the Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) method for the evaluation of the modification process of
biomaterials with the participation of active substances. Methods: Modified catheter samples were
prepared by activating the matrix with an acid, iodine, or bromine, and then immobilizing the active
molecules. To carry out the modification process, the Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total
reflectance (FTIR-ATR) method was used. Results: FTIR analysis indicated the presence of the
immobilized substances in the catheter matrix and site-specific reactions. Conclusion: We surmise
that the infrared spectroscopic technique is an ideal tool for the assessment of the drug immobilization
and the changes occurring in the course of the modification process.

Keywords: FTIR analysis; biomaterial characterization; biomaterial modification; immobilization

1. Introduction
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a universal analytical tool for evaluation of a
wide range of materials [1,2], especially for identification of unknown materials [3]. The FTIR technique
has been used to identify pure substances [4], mixtures [5], impurities [4,6], and compositions of
various materials [7,8]. It has also been helpful in the elucidation of different processes concerning
plenty of compounds or materials. Papers available in the specialist literature report application of
infrared spectroscopy for the analysis of structural changes [9] as well as for monitoring production
(bioproduction) processes [10–12]. From the viewpoint of pharmaceutical sciences, the study of
substance content in formulations, the study of substance release from formulations, and other kinetic
processes, including substance penetration or distribution, are important applications of mid infrared
spectroscopy [13,14].
FTIR spectroscopy has also been helpful in performing more advanced analyses aimed at the
characterization of artistic materials [14] and disease diagnosis [15,16]. With regard to its medical
applications, the use of FTIR for protein structure characterization based on the amide linkage of the
peptides is of great importance as well [16]. FTIR spectroscopy is a pivotal technique for characterization
of polymeric and biopolymeric materials [17,18]. The FTIR technology has proved to be useful in
identification and characterization of homopolymers, copolymers, or polymer composite, and it has
been successfully applied in the evaluation of polymerization process, characterization of the polymer
structure, polymer surface, polymer degradation, and polymer modification [17,19,20]. More common
applications of FTIR methodology include: Quality verification of materials; analysis of thin films
and coatings [21]; decomposition of polymers and other materials, often through thermogravimetry

Materials 2019, 12, 2972; doi:10.3390/ma12182972 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 2972 2 of 13

combined with FTIR [22,23] and mass spectrometry; microanalysis of materials to identify contaminants;
monitoring of emissions; and failure analysis [24–26]. The speed of FTIR analysis makes it particularly
useful in screening applications, while its sensitivity allows many advanced research applications.
Thus, infrared spectroscopy is a valuable technique for analysis of pharmaceuticals, polymers and
plastics, food, environment, and falsified materials, including medicines [27–29]. Advance techniques
of FTIR are as follows: Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR), Fourier
transform infrared-photo acoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS), Fourier transform infrared imaging
spectroscopy (FTIR spectrometer combined with an optical microscope, FTIR-Microscopy), Fourier
transform infrared microspectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared nanospectroscopy (nano-FTIR
spectroscopy), which achieves nanoscale-level spatial resolution by combining IR spectroscopy and
scattering-type near-field scanning microscopy [1,2,9,10,29,30]. Infrared nanospectroscopy opens up
new possibilities for chemical and structural analysis and quality control in various fields, ranging
from materials’ sciences to biomedicine [30].
Over the past years, much attention has been focused on modification of biomaterials and
their potential applications in medical implants or other biomedical devices. The advanced FTIR
technologies are also considered very helpful in assessing material changes [31–38]. Therefore, it is
not surprising that the universality of FTIR methods has often been reported by researchers [31,32,34].
Infrared spectroscopy has been widely used for characterization of materials (e.g., latex, silicone,
polyurethane) subjected to different physicochemical treatment when better hydrophilicity, lubricity,
haemocompatibility, biocompatibility, or antibacterial activity were aimed at [31–35]. Evaluation of the
modification progress relied on comparing the surface spectra of the untreated and treated materials.
Registration of the material sample spectra after each subsequent stage of modification enabled
identification of even the smallest changes without the infrared spectra library searching [31,32,35].
A variety of material modifications related to the use of physical (plasma, microwave or UV
radiation, electron beam irradiation), chemical (e.g., ozone oxidation, enzymatic oxidation, surface
graft polymerization, site-specific reactions), or physicochemical treatment were monitored by means
of infrared spectroscopic instrumentation [31–38].
A qualitative FTIR analysis is often the first step in the analytical process of a material.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic method, however, provides a quantitative analysis as
well. What is more, FTIR is a relatively cheap technique that might permit direct semi-quantitative
measurements of various organic entities, including the adsorbed/immobilized compounds. As a
result of using a standard calibration curve of known concentrations, such measurements become
quantitative [39,40]. The advantages of the FTIR quantitative procedure include direct evaluation of the
adsorbed/immobilized amount as well as exact measurement of compounds that are hard to quantify,
since they do not absorb UV-visible light, or they require expensive analytical procedures [39].
The FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometric analysis provides very rapid, accurate, and
generic approaches to the characterization not only of chemical compounds and biomolecules, but also
potential biomarkers and microorganisms, including microbial pathogens [41].
IR spectrochemical analysis in combination with the chemometric technique (for example partial
least square discriminant analysis, partial least square regression) can also be applied as a new
diagnostic tool in microbiological and medical diagnostics [42,43].
Vibrational spectroscopy, like FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, plays an important role in assessing
the covalent and non-covalent functionalization of biomaterials obtained through the incorporation
of various functionalities at the material matrix or surface, including immobilization of active
compounds [44,45]. These complementary methods can be used for the discrimination between
covalent and non-covalent immobilizations. The appearance of new functional groups in the FTIR
spectra of functionalized materials may testify to covalent modifications, while the shift of spectral
bands characteristic of the material or immobilized molecule may indicate non-covalent interactions
(Van der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonds) [17,19,46,47].
Materials 2019, 12, 2972 3 of 13

In the previous studies, we used FTIR-ATR method for analysis of the multistep modification of
biomaterials with the covalent immobilized molecules [46,47]. Continuing the modification research,
we have developed a two-step method of non-covalent immobilization of the active substance in the
material matrix.
The aim of this study was to present some examples of biomaterial modification in order to point
out the importance of FTIR spectroscopy in the evaluation of the presence of an active substance
introduced to a biomaterial matrix, site-specific changes, as well as to elucidate the mechanism
of immobilization.

2. Materials and Methods

All chemicals used for the modification process of biomaterials were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich
(Poznan, Poland), and POCH (Polish Chemical Reagents, Gliwice, Poland) companies. The modification
process of biomaterials was performed using the selected patented procedures [48,49], adapted for the
presented research.

2.1. Preparation of P-2-CA-Treated Catheter Samples

The samples were prepared by immobilization of pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (P-2-CA, from Sigma-
Aldrich Sp. z o.o., Poznan, Poland), on commercial polyurethane intravenous catheters (BD Becton
Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). The catheters were cut into 1 cm long fragments and activated
in an acid solution under gentle stirring at 50 ◦ C. Then the samples were removed, rinsed several
times with distilled water, and dried. In the next stage, the samples were placed in Eppendorf tubes,
immersed in 1 mL of 2 mg mL−1 solution of pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde in dichloromethane, and incubated
in closed tubes for 30 min, at 60 ◦ C with stirring at 100 rpm, and then in open tubes to evaporate the
solvent. Next, the catheters were removed, rinsed with water, and left to dry overnight.

2.2. Preparation of Sparfloxacin-Treated Catheter Samples

The samples were prepared by immobilization of sparfloxacin obtained from Sigma-Aldrich,
on commercial latex catheters (Rusch, Germany). The catheters were cut into 0.5 cm long fragments and
activated with 2% methanolic iodine solution for 1 h under gentle stirring at 40 ◦ C. Next, the samples
were removed, rinsed with distilled water, and dried. In the next stage, the samples were placed in
Eppendorf tubes, immersed in 1 mL of 2 mg mL−1 solution of sparfloxacin and incubated in closed
tubes for 12 h, at 60 ◦ C with stirring at 100 rpm. Then the catheters were removed, rinsed with water,
and left to dry overnight.

2.3. Preparation of Sethacridine-Treated Catheter Samples

The samples were prepared by immobilization of ethacridine lactate obtained from Sigma-Aldrich,
on commercial polyurethane intravenous catheters (BD Becton Dickinson). The catheters were cut into
1 cm long fragments and activated with 1% methanolic bromine solution for 1 h under gentle stirring
at 40 ◦ C. Next, the samples were removed, rinsed with distilled water, and dried. In the next stage,
the samples were placed in Eppendorf tubes, immersed in 1 mL of 2 mg mL−1 solution of ethacridine
and incubated in closed tubes for 1 h at 60 ◦ C with stirring at 100 rpm, and then in open tubes about
5 h. Then the catheters were removed, rinsed with water, and left to dry overnight.

2.4. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Characterization

FTIR with transmittance mode was used to characterize the presence of specific chemical groups
in the tested catheter samples. FTIR measurements were carried out on a Nicolet 6700 spectrometer
(Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Warsaw, Poland) equipped with a deuterated triglycine sulfate detector
(DTGS/KBr) and a versatile Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) sampling accessory with a diamond
crystal plate. Spectra were recorded in the spectral range of 4000–600 cm−1 at 4 cm−1 spectral resolution,
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2spectral
sampleresolution, 2 sample/background
gain, and 32 sample gain, and 32scans
sample/background
using OMNIC 8.1scans usingsoftware
computer OMNIC(Thermo
8.1 computer
Fisher
software (Thermo
Scientific Inc.). Fisher Scientific Inc.).

3. Results and Discussion

We have been
We been doing
doingresearch
researchinto
intoimmobilization
immobilizationofof active substances
active substanceson on
thethe
surface (or (or
surface in the
in
matrix)
the of biomaterials
matrix) for for
of biomaterials many
manyyears.
years.In In
ourour
work, ininorder
work, ordertotoassess
assessthe
the effectiveness
effectiveness of the
modification process, we have used mainly Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). For this
purpose, the FTIR spectra of the chemically treated and untreated samples were collected in the
mid-infrared region
mid-infrared regionusing
usingattenuated
attenuatedtotal
total reflection
reflection (ATR)
(ATR) sampling
sampling modemode
andand
thenthen compared.
compared. In
In this
this paper,
paper, we present
we present the selected
the selected results
results of theofevaluation
the evaluation
of theofmodified
the modified biomedical
biomedical materials.
materials.

3.1. Surface Characterization of the Porphyrin-Coated Catheter

Bacteria that
that form
formaaheterogeneous
heterogeneousand andorganized
organizedbiofilm
biofilmstructure
structure show
show increased
increased resistance
resistance to
antibiotics andand
to antibiotics theytheyare therefore difficult
are therefore to eradicate
difficult by means
to eradicate of a conventional
by means antibioticantibiotic
of a conventional therapy.
However, promisingpromising
therapy. However, results have beenhave
results obtained
beenwith the use
obtained withof athe
photodynamic therapy (PDT)
use of a photodynamic with
therapy
cationic
(PDT) withporphyrins as a photosensitizer.
cationic porphyrins Studies have
as a photosensitizer. shown
Studies havethat the positive
shown that the charge
positiveofcharge
cationic of
porphyrins determines
cationic porphyrins the activity
determines theagainst
activityGram-positive and Gram-negative
against Gram-positive bacteria. It
and Gram-negative has been
bacteria. It
proved that PDT is highly useful in eliminating bacterial, fungal, protozoan,
has been proved that PDT is highly useful in eliminating bacterial, fungal, protozoan, and viraland viral infections [50–52].
PDT is a promising
infections [50–52]. PDT technology for the treatment
is a promising technologyoffor infectious diseases
the treatment of caused
infectious by diseases
antibiotic-resistant
caused by
bacteria [52]. It canbacteria
antibiotic-resistant be used[52].especially
It can for
be the
usederadication
especially of forbiofilms from theof
the eradication surface of catheters,
biofilms from the
prostheses, drains [53],
surface of catheters, and for the
prostheses, treatment
drains of the
[53], and forlocalized infections
the treatment of the[54]. Thus, photodynamic
localized infections [54].
antimicrobial chemotherapy
Thus, photodynamic (PACT) chemotherapy
antimicrobial may be an alternative
(PACT) tomay
the conventional antibiotic
be an alternative to thetherapy [50,52].
conventional
In PACT, the combination of a photosensitizer (light absorbing molecule) and
antibiotic therapy [50,52]. In PACT, the combination of a photosensitizer (light absorbing molecule) light, in the presence of
oxygen,
and light,results
in theinpresence
the formation of cytotoxic
of oxygen, resultsfree radicals
in the (reactive
formation of oxygen
cytotoxicspecies) that lead
free radicals to the
(reactive
selective destruction
oxygen species) that of microbial
lead cells [55].destruction
to the selective Taking intoofaccount
microbial the cells
effectiveness
[55]. Takingof PACT, we covered
into account the
aeffectiveness
catheter with a porphyrin photosensitizer with a view to prevention
of PACT, we covered a catheter with a porphyrin photosensitizer with a view toof biofilm formation on the
catheter
preventionsurface. The catheter
of biofilm formation wasonmodified by activating
the catheter its surface
surface. The catheterwith
wasa modified
solution ofbynitric acid and
activating its
then immobilization
surface with a solution of pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde.
of nitric acid and thenInimmobilization
the acidic environment and in the presenceIn
of pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde. of the
air,
the tetrapyrrolic
acidic environment chain and wasinformed [56,57] of
the presence on air,
the catheter surface (Scheme
the tetrapyrrolic chain was 1): formed [56,57] on the
catheter surface (Scheme 1):
H

NH N
H +2H+, temp.,air
4 H H H (Scheme 1)
N - 4H2O
H O N NH
1H-pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde
Molecular Formula:
C5H5NO H
Porphyrin
Molecular Formula:
C20H14N4

Scheme 1.
Scheme Synthesis of
1. Synthesis of porphyrin.
porphyrin.

In the course of time, the surface of the catheter became reddish-violet suggesting the formation
In the course of time, the surface of the catheter became reddish-violet suggesting the formation
of porphyrin (Figure 1).
of porphyrin (Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Catheter sample untreated

Figure 1. untreated (A) and porphyrin-coated
(a) and porphyrin-coated (b).
(B).
Figure 1. Catheter sample untreated (a) and porphyrin-coated (b).
The FTIR
The FTIR analysis
analysis (Figure
(Figure 2)
2) of
of the
the modified
modified catheter
catheter surface
surface confirmed
confirmed our our visual
visual observations.
observations.
The The FTIR
untreated analysis (Figure
polyurethane 2) of
catheter the modified
(Sample 1) catheter
exhibited surface
a confirmed
typical our
distribution
The untreated polyurethane catheter (Sample 1) exhibited a typical distribution of absorption bands visual
of observations.
absorption bands
The untreated
for this
this type
type of polyurethane
of material.
material. The catheter
The vibrational (Sample
vibrational band 1)
band at exhibited
at 3330
3330 cm −1 a typical
cm−1 corresponds distribution
correspondsto toN-H of absorption
N-Hstretching bands
stretchingvibrations.
vibrations.
for
for this type of
thematerial. The vibrational
2800toband−1
cm2800at 3330−1 cm corresponds to N-H stretching vibrations.
−1
The
The peaks
peaks inin range
the from
range 3000
from to
3000 arecmconnected with C-H with
are connected asymmetrical
C-H and symmetrical
asymmetrical and
The peaks in the range from 3000 to 2800 cm −1 are connected −1 with C-H asymmetrical and
stretching vibrations. The double peak in the region of 1680–1740 cm (C=O
symmetrical stretching vibrations. The double peak in the region of 1680–1740 cm−1 (C=O stretching stretching vibrations),
symmetrical stretching −1
vibrations.
1500The double peak in the region of C-N
1680–1740 cm (C=O stretching
−1
the bands above
vibrations), the 1500 cm
bands above(probably cmN-H bending
−1 (probably vibrations
N-H and
bending stretching
vibrations and vibrations), and
C-N stretching
vibrations),
the strong the
bands bands
in the above
region 1500
of cm
1300–1000 cm −1 (asymmetrical
−1 (probably N-H bending
and vibrations
symmetrical and C-N
O-C-O stretching
vibrations), and the strong bands in the region of 1300–1000 cm (asymmetrical and symmetrical
−1
vibrations),
vibrations)
O-C-O and
are
stretching the strong
associated
vibrations) bands
with the
are in the of
bonds
associated region of 1300–1000
urethane
with the groupof
bonds cm−1 (asymmetrical
(Scheme
urethane2):group (Scheme and 2):symmetrical
O-C-O stretching vibrations) are associated with the bonds of urethane group (Scheme 2):
O NH NH O
O C NH R NH C O
C R C
O O
O O
Scheme
Scheme2.2.Organic
Organicunit
unit typical
typical of
of aa urethane polymer.
urethane polymer.
Scheme 2. Organic unit typical of a urethane polymer.
Similar assessmentsofof
Similar assessments polyurethane
polyurethane based-materials
based-materials havehave been presented
been presented earlier Besides,
earlier [58,59]. [58,59].
Similar
Besides, the assessments
available of polyurethane
publications [59,60] based-materials
report that the have
band
−1 been
at 1702 presented
cm earlier [58,59].
−1 is assigned to the
the available publications [59,60] report that the band at 1702 cm is assigned to the hydrogen-bonded
Besides, the
hydrogen-bonded available publications
C=O (hydrogen [59,60]
bonding report
between that the
C=O and band
N-H) at 1702 cm
of urethane
−1 is assigned to the
C=O (hydrogen bonding between C=O and N-H) of urethane linkage, while the peak linkage, whilecm
at about 1720 the
−1
hydrogen-bonded
peak at about 1720 C=O (hydrogen
cmgroup.
−1 bonding between
is related to free C=O group. C=O and N-H) of urethane linkage, while the
is related to free C=O
peakIn at about
the 1720ofcm
case
−1 is related to free C=O group.
porphyrin FTIR spectrum, the bands
main can bands can be assigned
In the case of porphyrin FTIR spectrum, the main be assigned accordingaccording
the publishedthe
In
published the case
data. The of porphyrin
bands3300 FTIR
at about spectrum, the main bands can be assigned according the
cm 3300 cm cm and 960 cm aretorelated to N-H bond stretching and
−1 −1 −1 −1
data. The bands at about and 960 are related N-H bond stretching and bending
publishedfrequencies
bending data. The bands at
of thering aboutring
pyrrole 3300 cm and1),960
−1 cm −1 areofrelated
−1 is to N-H
cm−1bond stretching and
frequencies of the pyrrole (Scheme 1),(Scheme
the zone ofthe zone
3100–2900 3100–2900
cm assigned is
to assigned
C-H bondtoofC-H the
bending
bond frequencies
of thering
porphyrin of the pyrrole ring (Scheme 1), the zone of 3100–2900 cm −1 is assigned to C-H
(Schemering (Scheme
region1),of the region of
cm1500–1680
−1 , and thecm −1, and the band at about −1 are1350 cm−1
porphyrin 1), the 1500–1680 band at about 1350 cm assigned
bond
are of the porphyrin
assigned to C=C ring (Scheme 1), the region ofvibrations,
1500–1680 respectively,
cm−1, and the whileband at theabout 1350 cm−1
to C=C stretching andstretching and C=N
C=N stretching stretching
vibrations, respectively, while the band at about band
760 cmat
−1 about
refers
are assigned
760 cmC-H
−1 referstoto
C=C
thestretching
bondand
C-Hvibrations C=N vibrations
bending stretching [61].
vibrations, respectively, while the band at about
to the bond bending [61].
760 cmThe
−1 refers to the C-H bond bending vibrations [61].
The FTIR
FTIR spectra
spectra of the unmodified
of the unmodified and and modified
modified catheter
catheter are are similar.
similar. However,
However, severalseveral new
new
The FTIR
porphyrin-specific spectra
peaksof the unmodified
appear in the and
spectrum modified
of the catheter
modified are similar.
catheter, However,
especially several
at 1650
−1 new
cm −1
porphyrin-specific peaks appear in the spectrum of the modified catheter, especially at 1650 cm (C=C
porphyrin-specific
(C=C stretching peaks
vibrations), appear in the spectrum of the modified catheter, especially at 1650 cm −1
1350 cm1350 cm−1stretching
(C=N stretching vibrations), and 760 cm
−1 (C=N −1 (=C-H −1 (=C-H bending
stretching vibrations), vibrations), and 760 cm bending vibrations)
(C=C stretching vibrations), 1350 cm−1 (C=N stretching vibrations), and 760 cm−1 (=C-H bending
vibrations)
vibrations)
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2. Fourier
Figure 2.
Figure Fouriertransform infrared
transform spectroscopy
infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy spectra
(FTIR) of theof
spectra untreated polyurethane
the untreated catheter
polyurethane
Figure 2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of the untreated polyurethane
(Sample 1) and P-2-CA-treated catheter with the formation of porphyrin (Sample 2).
catheter (Sample 1) and P-2-CA-treated catheter with the formation of porphyrin (Sample 2).
catheter (Sample 1) and P-2-CA-treated catheter with the formation of porphyrin (Sample 2).
3.2. Surface Characterization of the Catheter Coated with a Chemotherapeutic
3.2.
3.2.Surface
SurfaceCharacterization
Characterizationofofthe theCatheter
CatheterCoated
CoatedwithwithaaChemotherapeutic
Chemotherapeutic
In order to restrict the catheter-associated infections, it is recommended that the conventional
In
In order
order to
to restrict
restrict the catheter-associated infections, it isis recommended that the
the conventional
antibiotic therapy should the catheter-associated
be applied, and the catheters infections,
shoulditbe recommended
impregnated that
with silver conventional
or antibiotics.
antibiotic therapy
antibiotic therapy should be applied,
should be isapplied, and
and of the catheters
themany
catheters should
should be impregnated
be impregnated with silver
silver or
Modification of biomaterials the subject scientific studies. One of thewith strategies or
is
antibiotics.
antibiotics.Modification
Modification of
ofbiomaterials
biomaterials isisthe
the subject ofofmany scientific studies. One of ofthe strategies
incorporation of an antibacterial substance intosubject
the matrix many
of the scientific studies.
biomaterial (notOne
only theits
to strategies
surface)
isis incorporation
incorporation of
of an
an antibacterial
antibacterial substance
substance into
into the
the matrix
matrix of of the
the biomaterial
biomaterial We (not only
only to
(notperformedto its
its
from which the substance could be gradually released (drug-eluting biomaterials). a
surface) from which
surface) modification
from which by the substance
theactivating
substancethecould
could be gradually released (drug-eluting biomaterials). We
two-step latex be gradually
catheter released
with the iodine(drug-eluting biomaterials).
solution and then incorporatingWe
performed
performed aatwo-step
two-step modification
modification by activating
activatingthe thelatex
latexcatheter
catheterwith withthe iodine solution
solutionand andthen
the antimicrobial molecule from the byfluoroquinolone group-sparfloxacin the iodine3):
(Scheme then
incorporating
incorporating the antimicrobial molecule from the fluoroquinolone group-sparfloxacin (Scheme3):
the antimicrobial molecule from the fluoroquinolone group-sparfloxacin (Scheme 3):
CH3
CH3

HN F
HN F
N N
H3C N N
H3C

F COOH
F COOH
NH2 O
NH2 O
Scheme
Scheme3.3.
3.Structure
Structureof
of sparfloxacin.
Scheme Structure of sparfloxacin.
sparfloxacin.

This
Thisgroup
This groupof
group ofantibiotics
of antibioticswas
antibiotics wasselected
was selectedwith
selected withregard
with regardto
regard toaaabroad
to broadspectrum
broad spectrumof
spectrum ofantimicrobial
of antimicrobialactivity,
antimicrobial activity,
activity,
good
good penetration properties, and hence their efficacy against the “young” and “old” biofilm and
good penetration
penetration properties,
properties, and
and hence
hence their
their efficacy
efficacy against
against the
the “young”
“young” and
and “old”
“old” biofilm
biofilm and
and
long-time
long-time persistence in the biofilm
long-time persistence in the biofilm [62]. [62].
The
The presence
The presence of
presence of sparfloxacin
of sparfloxacin on
sparfloxacin on the
on the surface
the surface of
surface of the
the biomaterial
biomaterial was
biomaterial was confirmed
was confirmed by
confirmed by assessing
by assessing the
assessing the
the
catheter
catheter surface at each stage of its modification using the
catheter surface at each stage of its modification using the FTIR method. FTIR method.
The
The FTIR
The FTIR spectrum
spectrum of sparfloxacin
of sparfloxacin
sparfloxacin showsshows
shows many many absorption
many absorption bands
absorption bands (Figure
bands(Figure
(Figure3). 3).
3). The
The most
The most
most
characteristic −1 −1
bands can to: amine (νN-H in NH
characteristic bands can be assigned to: Primary amine (νN-H in NH2 2) at 3460 cm−1 and 3340 cm−1,,,
at 3460 cm cm
−1 −1
characteristic bands be assigned to: Primary amine (νN-H in NH 2) at 3460 cm and 3340 cm
carbonyl −1 −1
carbonyl(νC=O)
(νC=O)in in COOH
COOH at 1714 cm
cm−1,,, carbonyl
carbonyl (νC=O)
(νC=O)in in 4-quinolone
4-quinolonering ringatat1639 cm
cm−1,,,aromatic
−1 −1
carbonyl (νC=O) in at1714
1714cm carbonyl (νC=O) in 4-quinolone 1639cm aromatic
aromatic
ring
ring (νC=C)
(νC=C) in the region
region of
of 1585–1400
1585–1400 cmcm−1−1 (with
(with
−1 N-H
ring (νC=C) in the region of 1585–1400 cm (with N-H in NH2), C-N bonding (νC-N in C-NH
N-H in in
NH NH
2 ), 2), C-N
C-N bonding
bonding (νC-N (νC-Nin C-NHin 2),
2 ), C-O
C-NH 2),
C-O bonding
bonding (νC-O (νC-O
in in
COOH) COOH)
in the in the
range range
of of
1350–1260 1350–1260
cm −1 ,and
cm −1,and C-F stretching vibrations in the
C-F stretching vibrations in the range of
C-O bonding (νC-O in COOH) in the range of 1350–1260 cm−1,and C-F stretching vibrations in the
range
rangeof
1250–1100 cm−1 [46].
of1250–1100
1250–1100 cm
cm−1[46].
−1
[46].
Materials 2019, 12, 2972 7 of 13
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Figure3.
Figure FTIRspectrum
3.FTIR spectrumof
ofsparfloxacin.
sparfloxacin.
Figure 3. FTIR spectrum of sparfloxacin.
The spectrum
The spectrum of ofthe
theiodine-activated
iodine-activated latex
latexcatheter
catheter (Figure
(Figure4, Sample 1) shows
4, Sample the absorbance
1) shows bands
the absorbance
The spectrum
characteristic of of
latex: the
C-H iodine-activated
stretching
bands characteristic of latex: C-H stretching vibrations latex
vibrations catheter
(CH 3 and (Figure
CH 4,
groups)Sample
in the 1) shows
range of
(CH3 and CH groups) in the range of 3000– the
3000–2850 cm−1 ,
absorbance
bands characteristic of latex: C-Hrange
stretching −1 , C-H
C=C cm
2850 stretching
−1, C=C vibrations
stretching invibrations
the of thevibrations
in 1680–1600
rangecm of (CH 3 and
1680–1600 CHcmgroups)
blending C-H in
−1,vibrations, thein-plane
range
blending of
at 3000–
about
vibrations,
2850 cm
1450–1350 −1 , C=C
cm −1 stretching
and out of vibrations
plane at about in the
840 cm −1
range of
[54], 1680–1600
as well as cm
the −1 ,
bands C-H thatblending
appeared vibrations,
under the
in-plane at about 1450–1350 cm and out of plane at about 840 cm [54], as well as the bands that
−1 −1
in-plane
influence atof about
iodine 1450–1350
at about cm
1550 −1 and
cm −1 , out
1050 ofcm −1 , probably
plane at about as840
a cm −1 [54], as well as the bands that
result of oxidation in the double bond
appeared under the influence of iodine at about 1550 cm−1, 1050 cm−1, probably as a result of
appeared
region [63].
oxidation under
in the influence
the double bond region of iodine
[63]. at about 1550 cm , 1050 cm , probably as a result of
−1 −1

oxidation
In the
In the inFTIR
the double
FTIR spectrum bond
spectrum of theregion
of the [63].
modified material
modified (activated
material with iodine
(activated withandiodine
treatedand
withtreated
sparfloxacin)
with
In the
there are bands
sparfloxacin) FTIR spectrum
characteristic
there of the
are bandsofcharacteristic modified
sparfloxacin,of material
which (activated
definitelywhich
sparfloxacin, confirms with iodine
its presence:
definitely and treated
The intense
confirms with
bands
its presence:
sparfloxacin) −1 there are −1
bands
at 3419
The cm bands
intense and 3295
at cm
3419 cmcharacteristic
associated
−1 and 3295 with N-Hof sparfloxacin,
cm associated which
−1 asymmetric definitely
and symmetric
with N-H confirms
stretching
asymmetric and itssymmetric
presence:
vibrations, the
The
peaksintense
at 1717 bands
cm −1 at
and3419
1631 cm −1 −1
cm and 3295
correspondingcm −1 associated with N-H asymmetric and symmetric
to νC=O in COOH and to νC=O in 4-quinolone
stretching vibrations, the peaks at 1717 cm and 1631 cm corresponding to νC=O in COOH and to
−1 −1
stretching
νC=O vibrations,
ring, respectively,
in 4-quinolone and the
the
ring, peaks
drugatpeaks
1717 and
respectively, cm −1 and 1631 cm−1 corresponding to νC=O in COOH and to
overlapping
the drug peakswith the bands of the
overlapping withmatrix corresponding
the bands of the matrix to
νC=O in
stretching 4-quinolone
vibrations ring,
of the respectively,
aromatic and
ring the
and drug
C-O, peaks
C-N, overlapping
C-F bonds
corresponding to stretching vibrations of the aromatic ring and C-O, C-N, C-F bonds of sparfloxacin of with the
sparfloxacin bands of the
molecule matrix
in the
corresponding −1 .
in theto
range of 1450–1100
molecule stretching
range cmof vibrations
1450–1100 cm−1of . the aromatic ring and C-O, C-N, C-F bonds of sparfloxacin
molecule in the range of 1450–1100 cm . −1

Figure 4. FTIR spectra of the iodine-activated latex catheter (Sample 1) and sparfloxacin-treated
Figure 4.
Figure FTIR spectraof
4. FTIR of the
the iodine-activated
iodine-activated latex
latex catheter
catheter (Sample
(Sample 1) and sparfloxacin-treated
1) and sparfloxacin-treated
catheter (Samplespectra
2).
catheter (Sample
catheter (Sample 2).
2).
3.3. Surface Characterization of the Catheter Coated with an Antiseptic
3.3. Surface Characterization of the Catheter Coated with an Antiseptic
Another strategy for the protection of the biomaterial against the formation of a bacterial
Another
biofilm strategy for of
is the introduction theanprotection of the
antiseptic into biomaterial
its matrix against
instead the formation of a bacterial
of an antibiotic.
biofilm is the introduction of an antiseptic into its matrix instead of an antibiotic.
Materials 2019, 12, 2972 8 of 13

3.3. Surface Characterization of the Catheter Coated with an Antiseptic

Another strategy for the protection of the biomaterial against the formation of a bacterial biofilm
Materials
is 2019, 12, x FOR
the introduction ofPEER REVIEW into its matrix instead of an antibiotic.
an antiseptic 8 of 13
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Thus, in a similar manner as before, polyurethane-based catheters were subjected to a two-stage
Thus, in aInitially,
modification. similar manner as before, polyurethane-based
the polyurethane catheters
material was activated were
using were subjected
a bromine to a two-stage
solution and then
Thus, in aInitially,
modification. similar manner
the as before, polyurethane-based
polyurethane material was catheters
activated using a subjected
bromine to a two-stage
solution and then
treated with
modification. ethacridine lactate
Initially, the (Scheme
polyurethane 4):
material was activated using a bromine solution and then
treated with ethacridine lactate (Scheme 4):
treated with ethacridine lactate (Scheme 4):
NH2
NH2 -
O CH3 HO O-
O CH3 HO O
+
H2N N+ H3C O
H2N N
H H3C O
H
Scheme 4.
Scheme Structure of
4. Structure of ethacridine
ethacridine lactate.
lactate.
Scheme 4. Structure of ethacridine lactate.
The intense fluorescence of the catheter under UV light at 366 nm, similar to the fluorescence of
The intense fluorescence of the catheter under UV light at 366 nm, similar to the fluorescence of
ethacridine solution,
The intense may indicate
fluorescence the
of the presence
catheter of ethacridine
under UV light atin thenm,
366 catheter matrix
similar to the(Figure 5).
fluorescence of
ethacridine solution, may indicate the presence of ethacridine in the catheter matrix (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Ethacridine solution (a), the untreated catheter (b) and the ethacridine-treated catheter (c).
Figure5.5. Ethacridine
Figure Ethacridine solution
solution(A),
(a), the untreated catheter (B)
(b) and the ethacridine-treated catheter
catheter (C).
(c).
The above observations confirmed the FTIR analysis of the modified catheter. The FTIR spectra
The above observations confirmed the
the FTIR analysis of
of the
the modified catheter. The FTIR spectra
obtained above
The for theobservations confirmed
bromine-activated catheter FTIR
and theanalysis modified
ethacridine-treated catheter.
catheter areThe FTIR
shown inspectra
Figure
obtained
obtained for the bromine-activated catheter and the ethacridine-treated catheter are
for the bromine-activated catheter and the ethacridine-treated catheter are shown in Figure shown in Figure 6.
6. −1
6. The FTIR spectrum of ethacridine lactate [64] exhibits the bands in the region of 3500–3100 cm
The FTIR spectrum of ethacridine lactate [64] exhibits the bands in the region of 3500–3100 cm−1
which areFTIR
The assigned to N-H
spectrum asymmetric
of ethacridine and symmetric
lactate exhibitsstretching
the bandsvibrations of primary aromatic
which are assigned to N-H asymmetric and [64]
symmetric stretching in the region
vibrations of 3500–3100
of primary cm−1
aromatic
amine
which and hydrogen-bonded
are assigned N-H
to N-H asymmetricstretching vibrations.
and vibrations.
symmetric The The appearance
stretching of
vibrations these bands
of bands
primary in the FTIR
amine and hydrogen-bonded N-H stretching appearance of
−1 these in aromatic
the FTIR
spectra
amine of the
and modified catheter
hydrogen-bonded N-Hlocated at about
stretching 3450, 3320,
vibrations. The and 3200 cm
appearance of , indicates
these bands the
in presence
the FTIR
spectra of the modified catheter located at about 3450, 3320, and 3200 cm−1, indicates the presence of
of ethacridine
spectra of the in the catheter
modified cathetermatrix.
located Alongside
at about this, the
3450, appearance
3320, and 3200 of −1a, relatively
cm indicates strong
the band at
presence of
ethacridine in the catheter matrix. Alongside this, the appearance of a relatively strong band at 1630
1630 cm−1 corresponding
ethacridine to C=N stretching
in the catheter vibrations of the acridineofring can provide further evidence
cm−1 corresponding to C=Nmatrix. Alongside
stretching this,ofthe
vibrations theappearance a relatively
acridine ring can providestrong furtherband at 1630
evidence of
of
cm the incorporation to
−1 corresponding of C=N
ethacridine intovibrations
stretching the catheterof matrix.
the acridine ring can provide further evidence of
the incorporation of ethacridine into the catheter matrix.
the incorporation of ethacridine into the catheter matrix.
Materials 2019, 12, 2972 9 of 13
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

Figure 6.6. FTIR

Figure FTIR spectrum of ethacridine
spectrum of ethacridine lactate
lactate (a);
(a); FTIR
FTIR spectra
spectra of
of the
the bromine-treated
bromine-treatedcatheter
catheter
(green line) and the ethacridine-treated catheter (red line) (b).
(green line) and the ethacridine-treated catheter (red line) (b).

In
Inthe
the case
case ofof immobilization
immobilization of ofsparfloxacin
sparfloxacinand andethacridine,
ethacridine,nono vibrational
vibrational bands
bands indicating
indicating a
acovalent
covalentbinding
bindingofofthe thedrug
drugwith
withthe
theformation
formationofofaanew newmoiety
moietywere
wereobserved.
observed.Contrary
Contrarytotothe the
previous
previousstudies,
studies, when
when sparfloxacin was covalently
sparfloxacin was covalently bound
boundon onaacatheter
cathetercoated
coatedwith
witha aheparin
heparinlayer,
layer,
we observed the appearance of an intense vibration band belonging to a new
we observed the appearance of an intense vibration band belonging to a new functional group functional group formed
as a result
formed asofa linking
result ofthe aminothe
linking group of the
amino drugofwith
group the carbonyl
the drug with thegroup of the
carbonyl oxidized
group of theheparin
oxidized[46].
An increase
heparin [46]. in the band intensity or shifting to lower wavenumber values compared to pure
substances (shift of
An increase in 10–40 units)
the band could suggest
intensity Vantoder
or shifting Waals
lower type interactions
wavenumber values or hydrogen
compared to bonds
pure
between
substancesthe (shift
introduced
of 10–40 drug and could
units) matrixsuggest
structure.
Van Thedersubstances have
Waals type probably or
interactions been incorporated
hydrogen bondsto
the matrixthe
between by introduced
a process ofdrug
activator-enhanced diffusion
and matrix structure. Theand/or by thehave
substances changes in thebeen
probably polymer structure
incorporated
made
to theby the activating
matrix agentofwhich
by a process were observeddiffusion
activator-enhanced in the spectrum
and/or of
bypolyurethane
the changes in polymer treated
the polymer
with iodine.
structure made by the activating agent which were observed in the spectrum of polyurethane
polymer treated with iodine.

4. Conclusion
Materials 2019, 12, 2972 10 of 13

4. Conclusions
To sum up, our studies clearly indicate that the FTIR method with attenuated total reflection
(ATR) is an important, indispensable, and effective tool for the assessment of the immobilization of
active substances in the matrix of biomedical materials. Moreover, the fact that FIR-ATR is a relatively
inexpensive, rapid, simple, and nondestructive technique, without sample pretreatment was of great
importance in selecting the most appropriate experimental technique for the presented analyses.
Three examples have been presented in order to illustrate the significant role of the combination
of library searching focused on identification of characteristic spectral bands of the polymer, with the
analysis of the registered spectra focused on identification of the functional groups of active compounds
introduced to polymer matrix
Obtained modified biomaterials containing the immobilized, pharmacologically active substance
are suggestive of potential applications in medicine to prevent the formation of bacterial biofilms that
commonly trigger infections.

Author Contributions: D.K. created the concept, designed the study, and coordinated FTIR analyses. The resources,
review, and funding acquisition were performed by M.P. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Polish Ministry of Scientific Research and Information Technology,
grant number N N405 385037.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank students Agata Gladysz and Jakub Krol (at Chair and Department of
Medicinal Chemistry, the Medical University of Lublin) for preparing modified biomaterials.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

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