Notes Physics-XII

Physics = XII 1c
¦

^ Heat is total hotness of body. Heat is a form of Energy that energy transferred
from one body to another body due to the difference of temperature between them.
Heat is measured total kinetic energy of the molecules.
The total internal energy of the molecules.
Heat is not a property of a system. Heat is measured by calorimeter.
The units of heat is:
(1) M.K.S = Joule.
(2) C.G.S = Calorie 1Kcal = 1000 cal. Kcal = 4.186J.
(3) F.P.S = (BTU) British thermal unit. 1 BTU = 1055J.
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^ Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
It is thermal condition. Temperature is property of heat exchange.
Temperature measures average kinetic energy of molecules.
Temperature is property of substance and it is measured by thermometer.
The S.I unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
½

ë
When heat energy has been transferred to a body, it causes to be heat energy and instead
it becomes internal energy of the body. Heat is not the energy that an object contains but it is
form of energy transferred. We can say heat is energy in transit from hot to cold body.
ëth
In 18 century Physicists believed that heat is form of fluid substance called caloric is
invisible and weightless and assume that hot body keep more caloric then cold body and when
heat flow from hot body to cold body.
Heat Lost = Heat Gain
But in caloric theory cannot explain production of heat by friction or mechanical work.
ë
½
In 1798 Count Rumford rejected the caloric theory and he proved the production of heat
by friction or mechanical work. He observed that heat was produced by boring a cannon. He
observed that a blunt borer provided an inextensible supply of heat. He showed that the heat
liberated was not related with mass of the metal bored but is depended on the work done against
the friction.

In 1840 also supported the Rumsford theory also his idea that heat is form of energy
which is transfer to from one form to another form.
Also he proved the relation between heat energy and mechanical work also show that
work is directly proportional to the heat.
WQ Or W = JQ
[
ë
There are three scales of temperature which are used all over the world.
(1) Centigrade or Celsius Scale. (2) Fahrenheit Scale.
(3) Kelvin of Absolute Scale.
[
The Centigrade Scale of temperature, the lower fixed point (Melting Point) is marked as
0OC and upper fixed point (Boiling Point) is marked as 100OC at standard pressure the space
between these two fixed points (0O and 100) is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is called a
degree centigrade is denoted by 1 C. This scale is used in scientific method.
[
The Fahrenheit scale lower fixed point is 32OOF an upper fixed point (212) is divided into
(212-32) = 180 equal part. Each point denoted by F. This scale is used in Clinical
Thermometer.
! [
It is not a new but centigrade scale with new zero of the scale taken at ±273OC is called
absolute zero. In the Kelvin Scale the lower fixed point is marked at 273K and upper fixed point
is marked at 373K the space between these fixed point is divided into (373-273) = 100 equal
part. Each part is called a degree Kelvin and is denoted by (1K) Kelvin scale of temperature is
approved by S.I system of unit.
"# ë$%&['ë(&%)*[ #[
ÿ
According to this relation:
´
U 0 U 32
100 180
100
U0 ( U 32)
180
5
( U 32) ´
U0 ´
9
Z:\opt\scribd\conversion\tmp\scratch6663\52789467.doc
Physics = XII 2c
ÿ

According to this:
c
U 32 U0
c c
180 100
180 ´
c U 32 ( ) ´
U0 ´
c
100
9 ´
c U 32 c
5
9
c ´
32 c
5
ÿ
U 0 U 273
100 100
100 ´
( U 273) U0
100
C = K ± 273
OR
K = C + 273.
ÿ
U 0 U 273

100 100
100 ´
( U 273) U0
100
C = K ± 273
OR
K = C + 273.
ÿ
· U 32 U 273

180 100
100
( · U 32) U 273
180
5
( · U 32) 273
9
5
( · U 32) 273
9

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The property of the substance change in uniformly is called thermometric property.
Example: The best example of the thermometric property is mercury. When temperature is
increased after then mercury increase in uniformly.
ë ,
When substance is heated then expand in size of object due to heat or change in size of
object by heating is called thermal expansion.
ë , [
Solid expansion depend size, shape if one dimension increase in length, if two dimension
and three dimensions then increases area and volume.
When solid heated expand in length, area or volume.
Thermal Expansion Liquid & Gases:
Liquid and gases expand in volume.
Gases expansion depend at constant volume or constant pressure.

There are two kinds of thermal expansion.
(1) Linear Expansion: Expand the length of an object due to heating is called linear expansion.
The linear expansion in one dimension.

:
Suppose a metallic rod L is its length when rise the temperature also increase in length
(L') of an object after then.

Physics = XII 3c
- :
ÿL L (1)
ÿL a ÿT (2)
now eq: (1) and (2) is combined.
ÿL LÿT
ÿL = aLÿT (3)
now here a is constant proportional (a) is called coefficient of linear expansion.
For eq (3) we make the formula of (a).
ÿo
(4)
o ÿ
Now here:
L = original length.
ÿL = change length.
L'= length of rod after heating.
T = original temperature.
T' = rise temperature.
ÿT = change temperature
ÿL = L' ± L
ÿT = T' ± T

# ,
³Change in length of about per unit length per degree (Kelvin) rise in its temperature and its unit
K-1.
:
ÿL = L' ± L
ÿT = T' ± T
ÿo
oÿ
o 'U o
o.ÿ
By crossing multiplication:
a . L.ÿT = L¶ ± L OR
L¶ ± L = aL.ÿT
L¶ = L + aL.ÿT now (L) is common.
L¶ = L (1+ÿT) (5) proved.
ë , !,
The Expansion of an object in volume due to heating or change in volume of an object by
heating is called volume expansion. The volume expansion is example of three dimension.
Fig:

:
Suppose an object consist on a length (L) width (W) and height (h) means in (v) cubic form
when temperature is rise then increase or change in length, width and height means change in volume
(ÿv).
V = L.w.h.
Now here.
V = original volume.
ÿV = change volume.
V¶ = Volume of rod after heating.
ÿT = rise temperature.
- :
ÿV V (1)
ÿV ÿT (2)
Now eq: (1) and (2) to combine.
ÿV V ÿT
V = V . ÿT (3) (B is constant proportional is called coefficient of volume expansion).
ÿë
Now from eq: (3) we make the formula of . (4)
ë .ÿ
is called coefficient of volume expansion define as change in volume by original
volume and rise temperature per Kelvin and its unit K-1.
Physics = XII 4c
ÿ
·
.ÿ
ÿV = V¶ ± V
ÿT = T¶ ± T.
'U
· By cross multiplication.
.ÿ
.V.ÿT = V¶ ± V or
V¶ = V + VÿT (V) is common
V¶ = V(1+ÿT) (5)
To Prove
= 3
Suppose metallic rod consists on (V) cubic or volume. It means it consists on Length (L),
width (w) and height (h).
Now here:
Fig:
L = Original length at 0OOC.
w = Original width at 0OC.
h = Original height at 0 C. O
V = is original volume at 0 C.
Now initial volume.
V = L.w.h (1)
Final or change volume:
V¶ = L¶ w¶ h¶
L¶ = L (1+ÿT)
w¶ = w (1+ÿT)
h¶ = h (1+ÿT) as:
V¶ = change volume when temperature .
L¶ = change length.
w¶ = change width.
h¶ = change height.
V¶ = L¶ w¶ h¶ (2) Now in eq: (2) putting the value of L¶, w¶, h¶.
V¶ L (1+ÿT). w (1+ÿT). h ((1+ÿT)
V¶ = L w h (1+ÿT)3
V¶ = V(1+ÿT)3
V¶ = V(1+3 x 1 x ÿT + 3 x 1 2 ÿT2 + 3 ÿT3)
V¶ = V(1+3 ÿT+ «««««.
V¶ = V (1+3 ÿT)
V¶ = V + 3V ÿT
V¶ ± V = 3V ÿT
ÿV = 3V ÿT ÿV = .V.ÿT
ÿV = 3VÿT
VÿT = 3VÿT
= 3a proved.

,
Thermal expansion is widely used in the bridges, rail-roads, thermostat, thermometer.
There are two application of thermal expansion:
(1) Bimetallic thermostat (2) Bimetallic thermometer.

' Bimetallic = Bi means two and metallic means metal when
two different metal in contact OR Joined together is called Bimetallic.

ë It is a device used for maintain a required temperature.
å : Some thermostat work on bimetallic principle, they are used to control the
temperature of iron, hot water, storage tank, balance wheel of watches, refrigerator.
: All substance do not expand equally.

Aluminum expands twice much as steel, and if different metal brass and
steel join together. When temperature is rise then expand both but bras is expand more then
steel.
Physics = XII 5c
(- In an electrical heating circuit, the bimetallic strip work as an electric
contact breaker. When contact is broken and current stops to flow. When temperature falls, the
strip contracts and the contact is restored, the heating starts again, in this way a desired
temperature is maintain.

' Bimetallic thermometer is used to read temperature of hot regions.

å : Its is used in automobiles and air thermometer.
: It works on the principle different expansion.
: A thin bimetallic flat spiral is taken whole one end is fixed and other end is
attached to spindle of pointer which move over scale, when temperature is rise then spiral is
expand clockwise direction, in this cause the pointer to move, the scale help read the
temperature.
:
#.
Any simple of a gas has four parameters such as mass (m), volume (v), Temperature (T)
and pressure (P) from these if any one is kept constant then relation between others is called a
gas law.

' / #.
This law states that ³At constant temperature volume of given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional with pressure.
Let we consider sample of a gas in a container for which we consider.
m = Mass of the gas.
V = Volume occupied by the gas
P = Pressure up on the position fitted in the container equal to its internal pressure.
T = Absolute temperature of gas due to collision of molecules.
Then keeping the temperature constant we can write the relation for its volume and
pressure.
- :
ë Ñ

ë

c c c ë

Hence for Boyle¶s Law product of pressure and volume of the gas always remain
constant.
For different states of the gas in the container we can write the above equation as:
ë ë ë

Graphically relation between the pressure and volume a curve is obtained as shown in the
figure.

/ #.
This law states that ³At constant pressure and volume of given mass of a gas is directly
proportional with the absolute temperature´.
Let we consider sample of a gas in container for which we have:
m = Mass of the gas.
V = Volume occupied by the gas
P = Pressure up on the position fitted in the container equal to its internal pressure.
T = Absolute temperature of gas due to collision of molecules.
Then keeping the pressure constant we can write the relation for its volume and pressure.
Physics = XII 6c
-
ë Ñ

ë

ë

Hence for the Charles¶s Law ratio of volume and temperature of gas is always constant.
For the different states of gas we can write the equation for Charles¶s law as:
1 2 3
............. Constant. (2)
1 2 3
Graphically relation between volume and temperature straight line is obtained as shown
in the figure:
:
#.
Boyle¶s Law and Charles¶s Law are combined to form a single law for a gas which is
called the general gas law. From the Boyle¶s Law we have the relation.
ë Ñ

Again from Charles¶s Law we have the relation.
ë Ñ

By comparing equations (1) and (2)
ë Ñ

ë
Which is equation for General Gas Law. In the Rm is constant of proportionality called
the General Gas constant. Its value depends upon the mass of sample of the gas.
For the different samples of same gas this constant have different values.

0 #.
It is the modified from of General Gas Law since the General Gas constant have different
values of the given samples of same gas so scientists felt this as a great difficulty. To over come
this difficulty Avogadro scientist use his hypothesis according to which if mass of +23 the gas
considered in moles because one mole of gas contains No. of Molecules (NA 6.02x13 ). For
this number of molecules a constant-1 of-1 gas is defined called the Universal Gas Constant. Its
value for one mole is R=8.314J Mol K . Its number of moles (n) in the sample of gas then its
value be come nR.
Replacing General Gas constant by nR in the General Gas equation
We can write
ë
ë
This equation is termed as the Universal Gas constant equation OR the Ideal Gas Equation.
½
The amount of heat required to rise temperature. It is denoted by C¶.
- : ÿ Ñ ÿ
ÿÿ
C' is constant proportional is called heat capacity, its unit (J/K)
[
½
Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by
unit degree centigrade OR Kelvin is called the specific heat.
If we consider µm¶ as the mass of substance and µÿT¶ as the rise in its temperature then
heat supplied to the substance for the purpose can be given as
ÿ Ñ
Greater is mass of the substance, greater is heat supplied for the same rises of temperature.
ÿQ ÿT (2)
C ÿQ/mÿT (3)
When µC¶ is the constant of proportional called the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Its value depends up on the nature of substance.
If m = 1kg (Unit mass of substance)
ÿT = 1K (Unit degree rise in temperature)
ÿQ = 1J (Unit heat supplied)
1r
Then unit of specific heat capacity will or J x 1Kg-1K-1
1 1
Physics = XII 7c
-[
½
Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by
one Kelvin is called the molar specific heat.
If we consider µn¶ as the number of moles of substance and µÿT¶ as the rise in
temperature then heat supplied to the substance for the purpose can be given as:
- : ÿQ ÿT
ÿQ m
ÿQ mÿT
ÿQ = CmÿT (3)
number of moles = mass of substance / molecular mass.
n = m/M or m = nM
now in eq (3) putting the value of m.
C = ÿQ/Mn.ÿT
MC = ÿQ/nÿT (4)
Where µMC¶ is the constant of proportionality called the Molar specific heat capacity of
the substance. Its value depends up on the nature of substance.
If: n = 1mol (one mole of substance)
ÿT = 1K (unit degree rise in temperature)
ÿQ = 1J (unit heat supplied)
1r
Then unit of Molar specific heat capacity will be o= J mol-1K-1
1 1
#.
½ , -
[
½
Specific heat capacity of a substance can be measured by using the law of heat exchange.
This law states that ³when two bodies at different temperatures (one hot other cold) are brought
in thermal contact then mixture is formed. In the mixture hot body will loss and cold body will
gain the heat´.
Heat lost by hot body = heat gained by cold body.
Since measurement of heat can be done by specific heat formula, so if we consider m1, c1,
T1 as the mass, heat capacity, temperature of hot body and m2,c2,T2 as the mass, heat capacity,
Temperature of mixture, then for loss and gain of heat during the process we can write in the
above equation as:
Formula: Heat lost = Heat gained
Metal heat lost = Water heat gained
MmCm x ÿT = MwCwÿT
Ñ Ñ ÿ
which is the formula to find specific heat capacity for hot body.
ÿ

Kinetic theory of the gases consists on the fundamental assumptions.
(1) A gas consist on particle is called molecule. Each molecule is consist on an atom or group of
atom and all molecules stable condition.
(2) In finite volume large number of molecules and in standard condition in cubic meter 3x1025
molecules.
(3) Molecules move in all directions, they are collision with one another and collision with container
of the wall.
(4) The molecules -1
separated distance is large as compare its size or dimension and diameter of
molecule 3x10 m.
(5) There are no any exert force of attraction or repulsion one another , they are collision each other
or collision with container of wall.
(6) Newton law is applicable.
$
-

Pressure of a gas can be calculated using kinetic theory of gases.

(1)

where F is the force and F is net rate of change of momentum of the collision molecules and (A) is the
surface area.

: Consider container of side L. fig:
Let container contain some gas. 3
So volume of the container V = L .
Let (N) = total number of molecules.
V = velocity of the particle.
m = mass of particle.
V is resolve into component Vx, Vy, and Vz. Fig:
Now change of momentum.
Change momentum = (final momentum ± Initial momentum).
ÿP = Pf-(-Pi)
ÿP = Pf + Pi = mvx + mvx
ÿP = 2mvx (1)
Now (t) is divided both sides.
Physics = XII 8c
d =2L
ÿP/ÿT = 2mvx/ÿt (2) S = d/t s = Vx
t = d/s ÿP/ÿt = f
ÿP/ÿt = 2mvx/2L/Vx ÿt = 2l/Vx
ÿPÕÿt = mv2x or ÿP/ÿt = f1 = mvx2/L (3) Net force on one mole.
ÿP/ÿt = f1 (the change of momentum is called Net force of the one molecule)
Calculate the total force by all molecules, along x-axis.
F = f1 + f2 + f3 ««««..fn.
. 1 2 12 2 2 32 2
1 , · .................
o o o o o
(12 2 2 ......... 2 ) (4)
o
now apply the pressure

(5) as: A = L2

A = Area
In eq (5) putting the value of (F) and (A)

(12 2 2 ......... 2 )

o
(12 2 2 ......... 2 ) (6)
o3
Now apply density =m/v or mnv.
As:
nv = N/V3 V = Volume
nv3 = N/L or N = No. of molecules.
L = N/nv
Now in eq (6) putting the value of (L3)

( 2
2 2 32 ......... 2 )
1

(12 2 2 32 ......... 2 )

2 2 2 32 ......... 2
ë( 1 )

2 2 2 3 2 ......... 2
2 ( 1 )

P = 1/3 vx2 (7)
Since v2 is resolved into component.
v2 = v2x + v2y + v2z.
as molecule move x-axis.
vy = vz = vx
v22 = v2x2+v2x+v2x
v = 3v x (vx2 = 1/3 v2)
now in eq (7) putting the value of (v2x)
1
ë U2 Proved
3
Interpretation of Pressure (p K.E):
According to equation of interpretation of pressure.
1 U 2
ë
3
1
U 2
3
1
/ U 2
3

1
U 2
2 multiply and divide
3
2 1
U 2
3 2
2
( / ) .
3
C o n s t a n t .
. .
Physics = XII 9c
$
ë
1 2
According to eq of kinetic theory of gases ë
3
1 As:
2
3
1 ' 2
=mnv
3 ë
1 '
ë 2 (1)
3 ë
According to General Gas Law. Pv = nRT (2)
Putting in eq (1)
1 U
2
3
1 U
2
or No. of moles
3
3
2

as mv2 = 3KT (½) is multiply both sides.
1 2 3
(3/2) K is constant.
2 2
K.E = constant x T. ½mv2 = K.E.
K.E T
$
#.
ÿ
^
ë

' / 'Ô
ë ' / ' Ô
ë ' / ' Ô
ë '
ë ' /
ë onstant/
ë 1/

1
( ) ( ) Proved.

ÿ
^
now eq (1) again.
PV = NKT

constant , V = (constant) x T , V T (2)

ë -.2ë 3 ) 3.

It is branch of physics that deal with the transformation of heat energy into mechanical
energy or in work.

ë
[ A collection of a matter that has in boundaries. Example: Balloon, glass of water,
gas cylinder.
[ Outside the system is called surroundings.

% [ A system in which transformation of both matter and energy.

: hot water in a glass.
A system in which transformation only energy.

: hot water in closed beaker.
$
A system in which transformation of neither matter nor energy.

Physics = XII 10c
(-
ë
Suppose a system such as gas cylinder fitted with moveable piston. When amount of heat
is rise then change of volume and uniform pressure on the wall. If piston is move cross section
areas (A)_ and exerted force by gas F = P x A. We assume that the gas expands slowly and
piston covered distance (ÿy). After than work done by gas on the system ÿw = Fÿy
P = F/A or F=PxA
ÿw = P x A x ÿy A x ÿy = ÿv
ÿw = P x ÿV ÿV = (V2 ± V1)
ÿw = P(V2 ± V1) (A)

#.
ë
^ :
Energy cannot be create nor be destroyed but can be transfer one form to another form.
Thermodynamics process between two equilibrium state difference of heat energy (ÿQ)
and work done (ÿw) and same value for any path. This quantity is equal change value of
characteristics property of the system is called the ³internal energy´ (ÿu).
³ A system which absorbs (ÿQ) amount of heat and equal to work done plus internal
energy is called First Law of Thermodynamics.
- :
ÿQ = ÿw + ÿu
Or ÿu = ÿQ ± ÿw ÿu = (uf-ui)
The change value of amount of heat (ÿQ) and work done (ÿw) is called internal energy (ÿu).

:
Suppose a system its initial state A(p1, v1, t1) by change another state (p2, v2, t2). Let a
system between A and B point absorbs amount of heat (ÿQ) and work done (ÿw).
As (ÿQ1 ± ÿw1) = (ÿQ2 ± ÿw2) = (ÿQ3 = ÿw3).
So we change say the change in amount of heat also different work done. This system
equal to internal energy.
[
(1) If no heat in system then ÿu = 0
ÿQ ± ÿw = ÿu or ÿQ ± ÿw = 0
We can say internal energy of the system remain constant or zero.
ÿu = (uf ± Ui) uf = ui

#.
ë
$ !+ -.2$ 3 4)! 3
A process that take place at constant pressure is called Isobaric.
Suppose a gas cylinder with insulated walls and piston. Let the piston is movable and
frictionless.
When (ÿQ) is absorbed by the gas, it expands, and internal pressure increase and
molecules push the piston move and covered some distance such as; when internal pressure is
equal external pressure.
The change of state take place initial state (P1, V1, T1) and final state (P2, V2, T2), when
heat increase then applied internal pressure in molecules (P=F/A) and F is force and A is cross
section area then (F = P x A) and molecules covered some distance then work done by the
system.
- : As
ÿw = F x ÿy F=PxA
ÿw = P x A x ÿy A x ÿy = ÿV
ÿw = P x ÿV (1) ÿV = (V2 ± V1)
V2 = final volume
Now apply the First Law of Thermodynamics: V1 = initial volume
ÿQ = ÿw + ÿu (A)
Now in eq (A) putting the value of (ÿw).
ÿQ = P x ÿV + ÿu (B)

Physics = XII 11c
$ -.2 $ 3 )3
A process in which volume remains constant is called Isochoric Process.
Suppose a gas cylinder with insulated wall and fixed piston, when heat is absorb by it, the
(k.e) of the molecules increase. So also collision between molecules increase in this cause the
pressure increase, then change can be take place at initial (P1, V1, T1) and final state (P2, V1, T2)
since volume remains constant, no any work done because piston is fixed ÿw = 0.
Now apply the First Law of Thermodynamics
ÿQ = ÿu + ÿw
ÿQ = ÿu + 0
ÿQ = ÿu (1) when heat increases also internal energy increases
and - ÿQ = -ÿu (2)

$ + -.2 $ 3 ) 3
³A process in which temperature remains constant. Suppose a gas cylinder that has
insulated wall and moveable piston, and temperature remains constant applied the load bar.

$ ,
When load bar decreases on the piston then expand, and temperature of the gas remain
same then initial state (P1, V1, T1) and final state (P2, V2, T1) where V2 > V1 and P2 < P1 then
internal energy remain same ÿu = 0
Apply First Law of Thermodynamics.
ÿQ = ÿu + ÿw

ÿQ = 0 + ÿw
ÿQ = ÿw (1)

! $
When load bar applied on the piston then volume id decrease and load bar increase and
temperature remain same but pressure is increase and work done also decrease. When work
done decrease then heat also decrease. Applied First Law of Thermodynamics.
ÿu = 0 ÿQ = ÿu + ÿw

ÿQ = ÿw
Or - ÿQ = - ÿw (2)
But (-ÿQ) is rejected by Isothermal system. (in this system Boyles Law is valid)
!+ -.! 3 !
A process in which no heat flow or out in a system´ (ÿQ = 0) is called Adiabatic Process.
Suppose a gas container with movable piston and insulated wall and no heat in or out in a
system, but applied load bar achieved the adiabatic process.
! ,
When load bar decrease then piston is expand and volume is increase then work done
(+ve) and internal energy is decrease thus initial state (P1, V1, T1) and final state (P2, V2, T2) in
this process no (ÿQ) applied (ÿQ = 0)
Applied First Law of Thermodynamics.

ÿQ = ÿu + ÿw ÿQ = 0
ÿw = -ÿu (1)
When work done is (+ve)
then internal energy is decrease.
! !
When load bar is increase then volume decrease and pressure is increase also internal
energy between molecule increase but work done decrease then applied First Law of
Thermodynamics.
ÿQ = ÿu + ÿw

ÿu = ± ÿw (2) ÿQ = 0
In this process heat is zero and internal energy is (+ve) and work done is negative.
Physics = XII 12c
-½

There are two important molar heat capacities of a gas.
-
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1k at
constant volume, it is denoted by Cv.
! -
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1k at
constant pressure, it is denoted by Cp.

53"
The expression of Cp ± Cv was derived by Robert Mayer in 1842. ³Assume that system
constant on number of moles in cylinder provide with piston.

36$
In this case the piston is fixed and gas is heated, the path (ab) is constant volume, and
increase the temperature.
ÿQv = nCvDT
Here ÿv = 0 also ÿw = 0
Now apply the First Law of Thermodynamics
ÿQ = ÿw + ÿu
ÿQ = ÿu (2)
ÿu = nCvÿT (3)

$ !
In this process, the piston is moveable when heat is absorb the gas molecules and change
the volume increase work done but pressure is constant (Cp) along the path (ac) then heat
absorbed.
ÿQp = nCpÿT (2)
When piston move covered (ÿy) distance then work done W = F x ÿy
W = PA x ÿy = P x ÿv
Apply the First Law of Thermodynamicss:
ÿQp = ÿw + ÿ4
ÿQp = ÿu + p x ÿv (4)
Now putting the value of (ÿQp)
and ÿu in eq (4)
nCpÿT = nCvÿT + P.ÿv (5)
according to the General Gas Law.
PÿV = nRÿT
Now in eq (5) putting the value of (PÿV).
nCPÿT = nCvÿT + nRÿT
nCPÿT = nCvÿT + nRÿT
(Cp ± Cv)
Cp ± Cv = R 73" +
[ #.
ë
In 1850 Lord Kelvin and Rudolf clausius introduced the Second Law of Thermodynamics
process.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics consists on two statements (1) clausius statement
(2) Kelvin statement.

This statement consists on refrigerator, which will work without a supply of energy.
Refrigerator is a machine for conveying heat transfer lower temperature to higher temperature in
other word it is possible to make heat flow from cold body to hot body.
But exist statement it is impossible to hat flow from cold body to hot body without
expenditure of energy or no any energy release during mechanical work.
[
This statement consist on a heat engine, the Kelvin statement is second kind. It is
impossible to divide engine which work in continuous cycle process. This statement explain that
heat transfer from hot body to cold body.
OR heat energy transfer to mechanical energy.
OR it is impossible to total heat energy convert to mechanical energy.
:
Clausius Statement (Refrigerator) Kelvin Statement (Heat Engine)

Physics = XII 13c
4 [
Suppose Kelvin statement is false. When heat engine is energy take and completely
convert into work, no heat is lose. If this perfect heat engine connected with refrigerator, so, the
work can be used to operate the refrigerator that heat transfer from cold body to hot body
without expenditure of work.
Kelvin statement is rejected total heat convert to work, but when heat engine connected
with refrigerator after then total heat convert into work and it is impossible to lower temperature
convert to high temperature. But when heat engine connected with ordinary refrigerator after
then low temperature convert to high temperature.
So Kelvin statement prove clausius statement and calusius statement prove that Kelvin
statement.

:

ë
½
It is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Heat engine derive heat
from source and convert into work and some part of energy is rejects.
³Sadi Carnot in 1824 introduced the carnot engine, it consists on following points:
1. It consists on cylinder, its wall insulator and its base conductor.
2. The piston of cylinder insulator, frictional less and weightless.
3. At least one mole of gas working substance.
4. The working conditions through cycle process is called carnot cycle.
5. The efficiency of Carnot Engine is not possible hundred percent. According to second
law of thermo dynamics.
The carnot cycle consist on four process.
(1) Two Isothermal (2) Two adiabatic process.
$ ,
Suppose a cylinder fill a same gas at constant temperature and piston is moveable. The
piston is expand when load bar on piston decrease and constant temperature absorb the gas
molecules and volume increase also work done (+ve) but pressure decrease, the initial state
P1,V1,T1 and P2,V2,T1 and heat (Q1) is absorb.
Work from A to B when volume increase.
As
P = -ve, ÿW = +ve , ÿV = +ve, Q1 = heat absorb uniform
!,
Suppose engine is placed on an insulator then no heat enters or leaves in a system and
load bar decrease and move, piston expand more volume change from V2 to V3 and Kinetic
Energy of the molecules decrease, also pressure decrease but work done more (+ve) then change
statement from V2, P2, T1 to P3,V3,T2 temperature falls from T1 to T2.
Work from B to C also volume more increase.
As P = -ve , ÿW = +ve, ÿV = +ve, ÿQ = 0
$
Le the heat engine placed on a heat reservoir, suppose gas a compress by load bar
increase, and heat is rejected by system, when gas compress then volume decrease, but pressure
increase and word done (-ve) (Q2) at constant temperature, the change statement from P3,V2,T2
to P4,V2,T2 with heat rejected.
Work from C to D then volume decrease.
As P = +ve, ÿW = -ve, ÿV = -ve, Q2 = -ve
8 !
Finally engine placed on insulator medium an gas compress more, when load bar increase
more, also work done (-ve) but pressure increase then return to initial state P1,V1,T1.
Work from D to A then volume return original state.
As P = +ve, ÿW = -ve, ÿV = -ve, ÿQ = 0
:

Physics = XII 14c

c
c c

As:
c W = work done
c c c c
c c
Q1 = heat absorb
c c
cc Q2 = heat release

c c U

c c

c c

c c

c c
cc

c c
cc

c c
cc

According to equation efficiency depend on heat absorb (T1) and heat release (T2)
and independent on work done.
(1) Efficiency zero when ratio T1 and T2 or Q1 and Q2 is equal.
(2) T1 increase and T2 constant then increase efficiency but when absolute zero (0 K)
then maximum efficiency or hundred percentage efficiency.
(3) If T2 decrease then efficiency is increase, if T2 is zero then maximum efficiency.
(4) If T2 increases then efficiency is decreases.
(5) If T1 increases then efficiency is increases.

Entropy is based on second law of thermodynamic, entropy introduced clausius in 1865.
First law of thermodynamic is called law of energy, and second law of thermodynamic is
called law of entropy.
Entropy is measure the molecules of disorder. The entropy increases or remains constant
or disorder increase or remains constant. When volume of molecules increase also disorder
increase and entropy also increase.

:
Suppose equal number of black and white ball, contained in a box, the blackball occupy
one half and other half occupy the white balls, when box and shake them white and black
disorder or disturbed, we can say disorder increase and entropy also increase.
According to Second Law of Thermodynamics, when an isolated system undergoes a
change the entropy of the system either increase or remain constant.

Ô cc Ô
Ôc c c
c Ô
V
ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccV
V

unit of (ÿs) JK-1

Physics = XII 15c
5

In order to complete its outermost orbit, an atom either gains or looses electron in both
cases. The atom is called electric charge. When atom gains electron it is negatively charge and
when atom lose electron it is positively charge, so that both charges positive and negative is
called electric charge.
Electric charge is a scalar quantity; it is denoted by q which is measured by unit coulomb.
Where 1C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons and charge of electron 1e = 1.6x 10±19 C.

When two electrically charge bodies are brought closed to each other they either attract or
repulse each other.
%"
The force of attraction or repulsion between charges is called electrostatic force.
Same charge repels each other and unlike charge attracts each other.

! #.
Charles Coulombs in 1784, after performing a series of experiments derived the relation,
which can used to torsion balance and find magnitude of electrostatic force acting between two
charges.
³According to this law the electrostatic force between the two bodies is directly
proportional to product of their charges and inversely proportional square distance between
them´.
Let q1 and q2 are the charges on the bodies respectively (r) distance between them.

-

F q1 .2 q2 (i)
F 1/r (ii)
Now combine (i) and (ii)
F q1 . q2/r22
F = k q1 q2/r (iii)
Where k is coulomb constant of free space

ë
- .

(1) Free space between charges (2) Medium between charges
then k = 1/4 ʌ ȟ 0 here (ȟ0 ) represent primitivity of free space
it value is 9 x 109 N.m2/c-12
2
. 2
ȟ0 = 8.85 x 10 c 2/N.m2.
F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 q1 q2/r (iv)
For the medium between them insulator object then value of k = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 (ȟr)
The value of ȟr different for different medium. It is represent (ȟr) relative permittivity.
F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 ȟrq1 q2/r2 (v)
ȟ = ȟ0 ȟr
F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ q1 q2/r2 (vi)
ë

$
(q1q22) VÖ
F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 (vii)
r
Where VÖ is unit vector that specifies the direction of the force.

The force exerted on charge q2 by charge q1 is.

F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 (q1q22) VÖ (viii)
r
If q1, q2 have the same sign.

F = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 (q12q2) VÖ (ix)
r
If q1, q2 have opposite sign

When a body electrically charged is place in space, a regions is created its around electric
force is called electrical field.
Physics = XII 16c

%"
A space around electrical force is called electric field.
It will be either attraction or repulsion such a region is called electric field.
The electrical force experience by the charged body will be different at different position;
in the electric field it is indication of the fact, that strength of electric field is different at
different position.
$
The electrical force acting per unit charge at a point in electrical field is called intensity
of electrical field.
%" The force per unit charge is called electric intensity.

Let F is electrical force acting on a body caring charge q at a point in electrical field then
the intensity at this point will be (F/q).

-
Intensity = force/charge or E = F/q and it is unit E = N/c.
The direction of the electric intensity is same in the direction of electric force.
The electric intensity show the strength and direction of electric force.
Electric force is vector quantity, also electric intensity is vector quantity.

Let q is charge on the point charge and field intensity is determined at a distance (r) from
it, in this respect we place a unit charge q' at the specific distance and find electrostatic force
acting on it. If F is a force acting on it then:

-
According to electric intensity
E = F/q' (i)
According to Coulombs law F = kq . q'/r2 (ii)
Now in equation (i) put the value of 2(ii)
E = kq . q'/q' . r
E = kq/r2 (iii)
This relation can be written as E = k . q . 1/r2. as k is Coulombs constant q is charge and
r is distance.
ë
E a 1/r2 (iv)
It means electric intensity inversely proportion square distance.

#

Every point electric field, electrical force acts if a charge is place there.
A line which represents the direction of electric force at any point in electrical field is
called line of electric force.
1. Space consist the number of line and lines is imaginary but field is real.
2. Lines of Electric Force are directed away from positive (+ve) charge and they are
directed towards the negative (-ve) charge show in figure (i)
3. Electric field provides Faraday and Maxwell and electric field is vector quantity, because
the direction of intensity and direction of force is same.
4. Lines of electrical force never cross each other
5. Number of lines of electric force per unit area at any point in electrical field gives
intensity of field.
6. Positive (+ve) charge always towards the negative (-ve) charge

Physics = XII 17c
,
Electrical field is a space, where line of electrical force is spread. If a frame of any area is
placed at any point in the field some of lines will passes through it.
Number of lines of electrical force passing through the surface of area is called electric
flux.
The number of lines cross per unit section area is called electric flux.

%"
The dot product of electric intensity and cross section area of surface is called electric
flux. The electric flux is denoted by Greek word phi (Ø).

- : Electric flux = E . ÿA
ǻØ=E.ǻA (i)
ǻ Ø = E . A Cosș (ii)
In equation (ii) ș is angle between electric field and cross area of surface and angle
between them is Cosș because electric field cross area cannot change direction.
The direction of area of frame is always perpendicular to the face of frame.

[
1. Flux is positive (+ve) when å < 90O
ÿ Ø = E ÿA coså
ÿ Ø = E ÿA cos45
ÿ Ø = EÿA (+ve) (1)
2. Flux is zero when å = 90O
ÿ Ø = E ÿA coså
ÿ Ø = E ÿA cos (90O)
ÿØ=0 (2)
3. Flux is negative (-ve) when å > 90O
ÿØ = EÿA coså
ÿØ = EÿA cos(180O)
ÿØ = EÿA (-ve) (3)
4. Flux is maximum when å = 0O
ÿØ = EÿA coså
ÿØ = EÿA cos(0O)
ÿØ = EÿA (maximum) (4)
The S.I unit of electric flux is Newton . meter square per coulomb
ǻ Ø = N . m2/c

,
The electric flux per unit cross area is called flux density.
Flux density = electric flux/cross area
Flux density = ǻ Ø / ǻ A = E . ǻ Ø / ǻ Ø = E
Flux density = (E) or Electric intensity.
It shows that flux density and intensity of the field are same.

,+

Let consider a sphere of radius (r) and a point charge (q) is present its center to find
electric flux passing through the sphere, it is to be divided into small parts of different area.
Let ǻ A1, ǻ A2, ǻ A3,««««««««« ǻ An. Are areas of the small parts
respectively. As all these parts are at same distance from point charge (center). So intensity of
electric field at all the parts will be same, let (E) is electric intensity.
Basically ǻ Ø = E . ǻ A when å = 0 (maximum flux)
Electric flux passing through every part of the sphere.
When electric flux passing through part first then
ǻ Ø1 = E . ǻ A1
When electric flux passing through second part
ǻ Ø2 = E . ǻ A2
When electric flux passing through third part then
ǻ Ø3 = E . ǻ A3
Now when electric flux passing through nth part then
ǻ Øn = E . ǻ An
Sum of these electric flux will give the electric lines passing through sphere.
ǻ Ø = ǻ Ø1 + ǻ Ø2 + ǻ Ø3 + «««««««««««««. ǻ Øn.
Now putting the values
ǻ Ø = E . ǻ A1 + E . ǻ A2 + E . ǻ A3 + «««««««« E . ǻ An.
ǻ Ø = E (ǻ A1 + ǻ A2 + ǻ A3 + ««««««««. ǻ An).
Physics = XII 18c
ǻ Ø = E (Area of sphere)
2
ǻ Ø = E (4ër
2
)
E = k . q/r
Now putting the value of (E)
ǻ Ø = k . q/r2 . 4ër2
ǻ Ø = 1/4 ʌ ȟ0 . q/r2 . (4ër2)
ǻ Ø = q/ ȟ0
This relation gives electric flux passing through the sphere, it is clear from this relation
that the electric flux does not depend upon radius or size of sphere. Infact this relation indicates
that, whatever may be the shape of closed surface, it is enclosed point charge (q), the electric
flux passing through it will be q/ ȟ0.

/ #.
This law states: The electric flux passing through a close surface is equal to 1/ȟ0 times,
the total charge enclosed by it.
In order to prove this law, let us consider a closed surface of any shape there is number of
charges q1, q2 and q3. to find electric flux passing through the close surface, we suppose that the
point charge are enclosed by three mini-spheres separately.

The electric flux passing through first sphere will be:

ǻ Ø1 = q1/ ȟ0
The electric flux passing through second sphere.
ǻ Ø2 = q2/ ȟ0
The electric flux passing through third sphere.
ǻ Ø3 = q3/ ȟ0
Sum of these electric flux gives total electric flux passing through close surface.
ǻ Ø = ǻ Ø1 + ǻ Ø2 + ǻ Ø3.
ǻ Ø = q1/ ȟ0 + q2/ ȟ0 + q3/ ȟ0
ǻ Ø = 1/ ȟ0 (q1 + q2 + q3)
ǻ Ø = 1/ ȟ0 (total charges enclosed) or (q/ȟ0 )
This is according to Gauss¶s Law.

/ #.

Consider an insulator sphere of radius (r). Let charge q uniformly disturbed on its
surface.
Let p point outside the sphere at distance r from center O. Consider closed sphere
as Gaussian surface.
Due to spherical symmetric charge disturb, the field has the same magnitude with respect
to ever point on the close surface.

Mathematically:
ǻ Ø = E.ÿA OR E.ÿA coså
O
When å = 0
ǻ Ø = E.ÿA cos(0)
ǻ Ø = E.ÿA
ǻ Ø = E (area of sphere)
ǻ Ø = E (4ër2) (i)
from Gausses law ǻ Ø = q/ ȟ0 (ii) now equation (i) and (ii) compare
E(4ër2) = q/ ȟ0 (iii)
E = 1/4ëȟ
2 0
q/r2 (iv)
E = kq/r (v)
Case ± I (b)

If the point under consideration is on the surface of charge sphere, the field is taking at
the point outside, but infinitely closed to sphere. r = a where a is radius of charge sphere.
Field at a point at distance r from charge sphere.

2
E = 1/4ëȟ0 q/r (iv)
r = a we have that E = 1/4ëȟ0 q/a2 (iv)
If charge density per unit area then * = q/A
A = 4ër2 or 4ëa2
Physics = XII 19c
* = q/4ëa2 OR q = *4ëa2 (v) now equation (iv) & (v) compare
E = 1/4ëȟ0 *4ëa2/a2
E = */ ȟ0
Case ± I (c)

Consider a point p inside a charge sphere very close to the center of the sphere. The
Gaussian surface passing through p has radius r less than a. Therefore, encloses no charge.
Since q = 0 then flux Ø = 0
E=0
Conclusion: The field must be zero everywhere inside a charge sphere.

Let ı is charge density of a charge sheet then ı = q/A. we suppose a smooth pipe of area
A cross section passes perpendicularly through the sheet and specific point is enclosed at one of
its end. According to Gauss¶s Law the electric flux passing through the pipe will be:

ǻ Ø = 1 . q/ ȟ0
As ı = q/A and q = ı . A then
ǻ Ø = 1 . ı . A/ ȟ0 (i)
Let E is intensity of electric field at given point p then it will be same in whole the space,
the space enclosed by end of the pipe, therefore, electric flux passing through each end will be
(E . A) therefore, total electric flux passing through the pipe will be
ǻ Ø = E . A1 + E . A2
ǻ Ø = 2E . A (ii)
Now compare equation (i) and (ii).
2E . A = ı . A/ȟ0
E = ı/2 ȟ0 VÖ (iii) VÖ show the unit vector.
This relation given the intensity of electric filed at point closed to the sheet, that intensity
does not depend upon the distance from sheet, it means intensity of the field is uniform in the
space near the infinite sheet.

$
.
Let at a point in space between two oppositely charge infinite sheet and ı is charge
density of each plate infinite size, such that opposite charge both sheets creates common electric
field of uniform intensity, in space between sheets.
According to second application of Gauss¶s Law the intensity of electric field at a
point, due to each sheet will be

E = ı/2 ȟ0
Therefore, in this case total intensity of field at point will be:
E = E1 + E2 as E1 = ı/2 ȟ0
E = ı/2 ȟ0 + ı/2 ȟ0 E2 = ı/2 ȟ0
E = 2ı/2 ȟ0
E = ı/ ȟ0
+
If a charge is displacing in against of electrical force, in an electrical field, the work done
required store in the charge form of energy is called electric potential.
%"
The work done per unit charge against the electric field is called electric potential.
Let q is the charge to be displaced and E is intensity of electric field. Then the force
required will be E = F/q then F = E . q
If ǻ r is displacement then work done required will be
Work done = F . ǻ r then according the definition of electric potential.
Electric potential = work done per charge
ǻ V= ǻ w /q (1)
The unit of electric potential is joule/coulomb.
+

Every point is electric field has its own value of electric potential. It can be obtained by
determining amount of work done is displacing a unit charge from the original point at zero
potential to that point at maximum potential.
The different of electric potential at two point an electric field gives potential difference
between two points is called potential difference.
Physics = XII 20c
In other words the amount of work done is displacing unit charge from one point
to another gives potential difference of the point is called potential difference.
Potential difference = work done/unit charge.
ǻ V = ǻ W/q
ǻ V = F x ÿr/q F=q.E
ǻ V= q . E . ǻ r/q
ǻV=E.ǻr (2)
For longer displacement we can written as V = E .ÿr
The unit of potential difference is volt. If in displacing 1C charge from one point to
another, the work done required 1 joule, then the potential difference of two points is one volt.
"
+ .$
If charge qo is moved from p to q against the intensity then potential difference.
Mathematically:
VQ-VP = WP Q/qo as WP Q = F . ÿr
ÿV = F.ÿr/qo = qo E.ÿr/qo E = F/qO
ÿV = E.ÿr (i) F = EqO
ÿV = -E ÿr
E = -ÿV/ÿr (ii)
The negative sign indicate that electric intensity will be positive when the rate of change
of potential with distance is negative. The maximum rate of change of potential with respect to
distance is called potential gradient. It is vector quantity thus electric field is negative, potential
gradient the rate of change of potential. Unit of electric intensity E=Volt/Meter
E = Joule/Coulomb/meter
E = J/C.m OR N.m/C.m = N/C
E = V/m OR N/C Both are units of electric intensity.
+
! . .

Consider an isolated point charge placed at origin. Consider two points A & B in a straight
line, which are far away from each other in electric field. Let a test charge qo be placed at A.
The potential difference between A and B cannot be evaluated using ÿV = -E.ÿr. Because
electric intensity does not remain constant. E 1/r2. The length of each step ÿr should be so
small, that electric intensity, within each step is nearly constant.
ë+

Now potential difference between A and B can be added algebraically, because potential
is scalar quantity.
VA B = VA 1 + V1 2 + V2 3 + ««.. Vn B
Calculation of VA 1
ÿr = r1 ± rA
r = VÔ .V1
Average distance r = rA + r1/2
Square the both sides
r2 = (rA + r1/2)2
r2 = (rA + rA + ÿr/2)2 as r1 = (rA + ÿr)
2 2
r = (2rA + ÿr/2)
r2 = (2rA/2 + ÿr/2)2
r2 = (rA + ÿr/2)2
r2 = rA2 + 2rA.ÿr/2 + ÿr2/4
r2 = rA2 + rA ÿr + ««««.
Neglecting
2
ÿr22 term, it is2so small then, we get r2 = rA2 + rA (r1-rA) as ÿr = (r1-rA)
r2 = rA + rAr1 ± rA
r = rA.r1
r = VÔ .V1
ÿV1 = -E.ÿr
ÿV1 = -E (r1 ± rA)
ÿV1 = - Kq/r2 . (r1 ± rA)
Now use the value of (r)
ÿV1 = - Kq/( VÔ .V1 )2 . (r1 ± rA)
ÿV1 = - Kq (r1 ± rA/r1 . rA)
ÿV1 ± Kq (r1/r1 rA ± rA/r1 rA)
ÿV1 = -Kq (1/rA ± 1/r1)
ÿV1 = Kq (1/r1 ± 1/rA)
VA 1 = Kq (1/r1 ± 1/rA)
Similarly V12 = Kq (1/r2 ± 1/r1)
V23 = Kq (1/r3 ± 1/r2)
Vn B = Kq (1/rB ± 1/rn)
By adding, we get VA B = Kq (1/rB ± 1/rA)
Physics = XII 21c
! +
Absolute in the potential at a point in electric field with respect to reference point, whose
is potential is assumed to be zero. OR The zero reference point taken to be at infinite.
Absolute potential at a point is the work done in moving charge from infinity to that point
against the electric intensity. OR The absolute potential is at point where work done is zero or
reference point also called absolute potential.
VBA = Kq(1/rB ± 1/)
VAB = Kq(1/rB ± 1/)
VB = Kq (1/rB)

ë
Electron volt is unit of energy in atomic physics. When charge move from high potential
to low potential, the electric potential energy is decreased and appeared kinetic energy.
ÿV = ÿW/q
ÿW = qÿV
K.E = qÿV
qÿV = 1/2 mV2
from this equation 1 electron volt = (1 quantum of charge) (1 volt)
1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 C . 1 volt.
1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J as C.V = J
4+ [

The surface consist of said point all having same potential OR A point where electric
potential is same is called equi potential.
Consider an isolated point charge. The radial electric lines are perpendicular to the equi
potential line.
VB ± VA = Kq (1/rB ± 1/rA)
Since rB = rA and VB = VA

A simple electric instrument, which is used to store electric charge called capacitor. In the
simplest form capacitor is composed of two parallel metallic plates. If the plates are connected
to the terminals of the battery, electric charge is stored. In fact the (-ve) terminal of battery
supplies (-ve) charge to the metallic plates connected it and the opposite plate will became (+ve)
charge. Due to electrostatic attraction, the negative charge supply to the capacitor remains store
in its considerable period. Before the charge is supplied to capacitor, its plates are zero potential,
so there potential difference is zero. As soon as the charges supplied potential different created
both plates. The potential difference created between the plates is directly proportional charge
supply to capacitor.
-
qV
q=C.V (i)
where C is constant it represents capacitance of the capacitor.

The ratio between charge stored in capacitor and potential difference created between the
plates is called capacitance.
C = q/V
The unit of capacitance is farad.
If by storing one coulomb charge in capacitor the potential difference created between the
plates is 1 volt, the capacitance is farad.

Let a is area of each plate, d is their separation distance and capacitor is connected to
battery in parallel and battery, which is supply charge.
After the charge is supplied by the battery, the charge density of each plate is:
* = q/A
according to Gauss¶s Law in third application, an electric field of uniform intensity is
created in space between opposite plates, this intensity will be
E = */ ȟ0
E = q/A . ȟ0
As d is separation or space between plates, so that potential difference created between
the plates will be
V=E.d
V = q . d/A ȟ0
When capacitor is store charge in capacitance will be:
C = q/V now putting the value of V in this equation.
C = q/q . d/A . ȟ0
OR C = q . A . ȟ0/q . d
C = ȟ0 . A/d
Physics = XII 22c
This relation gives capacitance of capacitor when free space between plates. But
for the capacitor with an insulator element between the plates then relative primitively ȟr, the
capacitance will be:
C' = ȟr . ȟ0 A/d
!

1/ Parallel combination. 2/ Series combination:

Õ + !
If two or more capacitor connected with a battery in such a way that, one plate of each
capacitor connected to (-ve) terminal and other plates to (+ve) terminal, it gives parallel
combination of the capacitor. Let us consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3
connected in parallel to battery. Which can supply charge q and voltage v. In this type of
connection, the charge supplied by the battery is distribute every capacitor, the distribution of
charges in capacitance, let q1 store in C1 capacitor and q2 store in C2 capacitor and q3 store in C3
capacitor of capacitance. Respectively them:

q = q1 + q2 + q3 (i)
as all the capacitors are connected parallel each other with terminal of
battery, so it will be same potential difference for all the capacitor, equal supplied by the battery.
Let the V1, V2 and V3 are voltage for these capacitors respectively them.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (ii)
As q = C . V then q1 = C1 V, q2 = C2 V and q3 = C3 V now putting these values in eq (i)
We will get
CV = C1 V + V2 V + C3 V
CV = V (C1+C2+C3)
C= C1+ C2 + C3
Where C gives equivalent capacitance and this relation is used to find equivalent
capacitance of capacitor when connected in parallel.
[ !

If all the available capacitors are connected in plate to plate matter with terminals of
battery, it gives series combination of these capacitors.
Let us consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 respectively, connected a
series to a battery, which can supply charge q and voltage V.
In this type of connection, all the capacitors get same charge stored which will be equal
to the charge supplied by battery. Let q1, q2 and q3 are the charges stored in the capacitors
respectively then:
q = q1 = q2 = q3 ---------------(1)
the voltage supplied by battery is distributed among the capacitors connected in series.
Let V1, V2 and V3 are voltages for the capacitors respectively then:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ------------(2)
As q = CV so V = q/C
:. V1 = q/C1, V2 = q/C2 and V3 = q/C3.
By putting these values in eq (2) we get:
q/C = q/C1 + q/C2 + q/C3
or q/C = q/C1 + q/C2 + q/C3
or q/C = q (1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3)
or 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
where µC¶ is ³equivalent capacitance´ of the capacitors. This relation is used to

find equivalent capacitance of the capacitors connected in series.

Physics = XII 23c
¦

¦¦¦
$:
In pervious chapter we study about behaviour and effect of electric charge and forces
between charge and electric potential.
In this chapter we study about properties and effect of electric charge, when charge is in
motion mean¶s study about electrodynamics and we study current flow in conductor, because
maximum. No of free electron in conductor and current cannot flow through insulator. Because
electron is tightly bounded in insulator material and study about resistivity.

The flow of charge through any conductor per time or rate of flow of charge. It is denoted
by (I).

-
q I =
t.
S.I unit of current I = C . = Ampere.
Sec
A= C
Sec
When one coulomb charge passing through any conductor per second.
Smaller units:
1 mA = 10-6-3 A.
1ȝ A = 10-9 A.
1Ș A = 10 A.

Current can be flow in two ways.
1. Electronic current. 2. Conventional current.
1.c
When electron flow any conductor towards the (+ve) charge by battery.
OR
Electron move from low potential to high potential.
2.c
When (+ve) charge move towards the (-ve) in conductor by battery.
OR
When proton move from high potential to low potential.

" %/ #.
%/ #. Ohm¶s law in 1826 was discovered by German Scientist George Simon ohm. Who
found relation b/w current and potential diff: (p.d).
[
This law state that current (I) flow in conductor is directly proportional to potential
difference (v) b/w ends of conductor.
-
I Į v
I = K V (1)
Where (K) is constant and it is called conductance of conductor.
Conductance is reciprocal of resistance.
K = 1
R
OR
Conductance is inversely proportional to resistance.
Eq (1) again
I = KV. K = I/V = 1amp/1volt = 1K
I = 1 V
R
V = IR (2).
Where (R) is also constant called Resistance of conductor.

Physics = XII 24c
"
Opposition flow of current through conductor.
Resistance depend upon the nature of the material.
S-I unit of Resistance.
R = V = Volt
I Ampere
Ohm = Volt
Ampere.
= V
A
(Ohm) is denoted by Greek word .
Ohm = one Ampere current flow through one volt.
#
" [
"
K = 103 m = 10-3
6
M = 10 = 10-6
9
M = 10 Ș = 10-9
"
The resistance of a conductor depends upon following factors:
1)c Length of the conductor, if longer conductor greater resistance.
R Į L (1)
(Resistance is directly proportional to the length of conductor).
2)c Cross section Area of the conductor. Thicker wire have less resistance.
R Į 1 (2)
A
(Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross section Area of conductor).
3)c Material of which conductor is made.
Now combine these relations.
RĮL
A
=L R (3)
A
Area () (rho) is constant called Resistivity.
" 3"
When resistance of conductor 1 meter length and cross section area is 1m2.
= R A (3)
L
If = length = 1m
Area = 1m2
R = 1m2 R = 1
1m 1
R = (4)
0
"
= RA = m2
L m
= m

When Electric current flows in conductor then conductor is heated and temperature
increases, then atoms of conductor vibrate from their mean position and vibrational amplitude
also increases in result probability of the collision of free electron with atom increases.
So when collision of atom with electric current increases, then flow of electron decreases,
when temperature increases then collision of atom with electron increases, but drift velocity and
speed of current decrease then resistance increase.
Experimentally change in resistance of conductor with tempt.
When resistance of conductor OOC = RO.
And resistance of conductor at tOC = Rt.
Then change in tempt = (tOC ± OOC) = ¨t
Change in Resistance = (Rt - RO) = ¨R.
¨R Į RO (1)
¨R Į ¨t (2)
Physics = XII 25c
Now eq (1) and eq (2) is combine.
¨R Į RO ¨t.
¨R = a RO ¨t (3).
a = ¨R OR (Rt ± RO) (4)
RO .¨t RO. ¨t
a is constant called temperature coefficient of Resistance.
ë

"
Change in Resistance per unit original resistance and rise tempt.
OR
Fraction change in resistance per unit Kelvin.
Į = Rt ± Ro
Ro .¨t
Rt ± Ro = a Ro .¨t
Rt = Ro + a Ro .¨t
Rt = Ro (1+ a ¨t) (5)
Unit of a:
a = ¨R
RO.¨t
a= = 1
.K k
a = ( K-1) Proved.

ë

"
Fractional change in Resistivity per Kelvin is called.
Resistivity is Directly proportional to the resistance of metal.
When A = 1m2 and L = 1m then R = L/A or R = x 1/1
= R
Then
Į = (t ± O) (6).
PO.¨t
Į = ¨ = (Change is resistivity per original resistivity and rise temperature)
O.¨t
Į = (t ± O)
O.¨t
(t ± O) = Į O.¨t
t = O + Į O.¨t
t = O (1+ Į ¨t) (7).
The unit of tempt of coefficient of resistivity.

Į = ¨ = . m x 1 = ( K-1)
O¨t . m k
Problem = (2) Area of circle

R= .L A = ʌ r2
A d = 2 r.
R= L r=d
A 2
R. A = . L
R . ʌd2 = .L A = ʌ ( d )2
4 2
2 2
d = 4 .L A = ʌ d
ëR 4
4ë o
d=

Physics = XII 26c
!
"
An electric circuit containing large number of circuit elements. As (resister, capacitor and
inductor) and batteries called network the connection of circuit component may be in series or
parallel.
c "
Suppose three resistor R1, R2 and R3 connected in series, in this connection difference
potential difference cross each resistor, but same current flow each Resistor.
If applied the p.d = V
Then using ohm¶s law.
V = IR
V1 = IR1 (1)
V2 = IR2 (2)
V3 = IR3 (3)
According to ohm¶s law the voltage drop V1, V2 and V3 across Resistor R1, R2 and R3.
If applied voltage each Resister.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (4)
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
R = R1 + R2 + R3 (5)
The equivalent Resistance is greater then individual Resistor.
2)c "
Consider three Resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel, in this connection
same potential difference cross each Resistor, but different current cross each capacitor.
So same potential difference applied, but different equal Electric charge cross each Resistor.

If applied (p.d)v then
Using ohm¶s law. V IR =
Or I V/R = (a)
Current flow R1 I1 = V = (1)
R1
Current flow R2 = I1 = V (2)
R2
Current flow R3 = I1 = V (3)
R3
Now equal Resister of Resistance = R
Result applied p.d then current
I = V
R
Since Result
I = I1 + I2 + I3 (4)
V = V + V + V
R R1 R2 R3
V = V ( 1 + 1 + 1 )
R 1 R1 R2 R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R = R1 R2 R3 (5)
So equivalent Resistance is less then Single or Individual Resistance.
+. " +.
When potential difference or (P.E) is applied across in conductor the current flow through
it for time, when current flow through conductor. They collide atom of the conductor in these
collision electron lose energy. Which the atom of conductor gain energy then the vibrational
energy of atom increase and rise tempt or which appear heat.
OR When (potential difference) is applied cross conductor electrical energy in dissipated lost
form of heat is called power dissipation in Resistor.
, Suppose a circuit consists on a battery, connected with Resistor, when
potential difference is applied current flow through circuit.
So moving charge (Q) work done Through applied p.d.
p.d = Work done
charge
V = W
Q
W = V x Q (1)
So when work done then energy is dissipated.
W = V x Q (1)
So charge work done per time = W or energy spent
t. time
The power is dissipated as heat.
Power = Workdone
time
Physics = XII 27c
P = W = VxQ (2)
t t
Rate of transfer electrical energy.
P = V x Q Q = I
t t
P = V x I (3)
Unit of power dissipation P = volt x Ampere
P = VA Or J/Sec
According to ohm¶s law V = IR
P = V.I
P = I.R.I
P = I2 . R 2
P = (V/R) . R
P = V22/R2 . R
P = V /R
+.
It is device we use electric energy is convert into other form of energy is called electric
power. The unit of electric power
P = V22/R as V = IR or R = V/I
P = V /V/I
P=V.I
P = Volt . Amp
P=V.A
or P = Joule/Second or J/S
V . A = Watt
Other units power = Watt
1KW = 1036 watt.
1MW = 10 watt.
1GW = 109 watt.
1 K.Watt hour = 1000 watt hour = 1000 5
W. 60 x 60 sec
1 KWh = 1000 . 3600 W.S or 36x10 Joule
1 KWh = 3.6 x 106 Joule or 3.6 MJ

A source which is workdone per unit charge this source is called electromotive force.
A source which supply the energy and energy is lost or dissipated by Resister.
Thus maintain flow of current in circuit. OR
A source which maintain flow of current in circuit. So strength of source is called
electromotive force OR
When electron flow in circuit lose energy when work done per unit charge by source.
emf = Workdone = ¨ W
Charge q
emf = ¨ W = J/C.
Q
[

It is device, which convert other form of energy into Electric energy.
1. Cell = Which convert chemical energy in Electric energy.
2. Generator = Which convert mechanical energy in Electric energy.
3. Solar cell = Which convert light into electric energy.
So electro motive force is cause and potential difference is effect.
Unit
e m.f = ¨w = J/C
q
,
-

Suppose photocell connected in circuit and some value of resistance, this resistance of
cell is due to electrolyte present between the two electrodes of cell called internal resistance
denoted by (r) and cell or emf and internal resistance connected in circuit. It is measured by the
potential difference and also connected external resistance (R).

According to Ohm¶s law
V = IR
I = V/R
As V=E I = E/(R+r)
E = Electromotive force E = I (R+r)
R = External resistance E = IR + Ir
r = Internal resistance E = V + Ir
V = E-Ir
When no current in circuit and no any potential difference after than potential difference
is equal electromotive force.
E=V

Physics = XII 28c
98
- -

$

- Power of attracting small pieces of Iron.
-
A space around the magnetic force.
- In 1819 Christian Oersted discovered Relation between electric and
magnetic field.
When electric charge flow in wire compass needle is deflected mean¶s electric field in
wire produce magnetic field around it, and magnetic field consist on North and South Poles
same poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
When metal is rubbed with non-metal one is lose free electron and other is gain free
electron.
When electric charge is at the rest then it carries electrostatic force of attraction or
repulsion each other.
When current flow in wire, it produce both electric and magnetic field. Christian Oersted
discovered electric and magnetic field, when moving charge is in conductor then compass
needle is deflected. It means that electric current in a wire produce magnetic field around it.
So moving charge produce both electric and magnetic field, but electric current through
conductor produce only magnetic field. Because electric fields are moving electron is
neutralized by fix proton in conductor, the field around moving charge is vector quantity
because it change direction and it is denoted by µB¶ is called magnetic field.
Same way when bar Iron is rubbed with magnetism then bar Iron become magnet is
called artificial magnet.
In 19th century Ampere and Farady made successful, research in electro magnetism.
They give idea about magnetic field and direction of magnetic field and Magnetic flux,
electromagnetism induction and discuss about transformer.
-

In 1819 Christian Oersted professor of physics discovered relation between electric and
magnetic field.
Suppose thick copper wire and passes it through horizontal pieces of card board, play
small compass needle on the card board along a circle with the center at the wire, all the
compass needle will point in the direction of north, south poles. Now passes a heavy current
through wire, it will be seen needle rotate and create the tangential of circle. If current reversing
also needle rotate reversing, if current stops also needle again point along needle again point
along north, south direction.
In 1820 (Ampere) observed that when current flow in two parallel wires in the same direction
attract each other.
But when current flow in two parallel wires in opposite direction, they repel each other.
Consider charge (q) moving with velocity and uniform magnetic field around it and
making angle (ș) with field.
Experimentally show that the force on moving charge (q) is proportional to the following
factor.
1)c Magnitude of charge (q) = F Į q.
2)c Velocity of charge (V) = F Į V.
3)c Strength of the magnetic field (B) = F Į B.
4)c Direction or ș between electric and magnetic field. (ș) = F Į Sinș
Now combine following factors.
F = q V B Sinș (1)
If ș = 0
Then force is zero.
F = 0 (2)
If ș = 90
Then force is maximum.
F = q V B (maximum) (3)
F = q (V x B).
Unit of magnetic field.
B = F = N
qv C±m
Sec
B = N = N
C .m A.m
Sec ±1
B = N . A . m±1 = Tesla
B = Tesla.

Physics = XII 29c
-

Suppose a wire carrying current (I) when charge flow in conductor, then charge covers
length (L) of conductor also cross section area of conductor. And there is number of electron (n)
and charge of electron.
Fig:
Length of conductor = L.
Cross section area of conductor = A
No. of electron = n
Charge of electron = e
Total moving charge q = ne LA (1)
LxA = V
When charge move in conductor also produce magnetic field.
Picture.
F = q (V X B) (2)
F = neL q (V X B)
If c is unit vector in the direction of V.

V = c V
F = neL A (cVx B )
F = neAV ( Lc x B) V = cc
F = neAV ( L x B) L = cc
nAeL = q. and
nAe V or nAe L = q = I L = V
t t t
F = I (L x B) (3)
Angle (ș) = b/w L x B then.

F = I L B Sinș (4)
If ș = 90
F = I L B (max. force) (5)
ë4 "

When current is passed through wire suspended in uniform magnetic field ± plane of coil
is parallel to the field. Thus magnetic field is rotating, it experience torque. Consider a
rectangular coil (abcd) let the coil is placed in uniform magnetic field (B), and the plane of coil
is parallel to the field.
Here ab = cd = (L) length coil.
bc = ad = (b) width of coil.
I = current flow in coil.
Picture
In case if two forces on zero angle or parallel magnetic field and coil then force will be
zero.
ab = cd = L (length of coil)
ad = bc = b (width of coil)
In case sides of ab and cd when current flow and angle is 90O then force on side
F: = BIL (1)
Physics = XII 30c
Force on ab = is upward = Anti clockwise.

And cd is downward = clockwise.
When forces is upward and downward mean¶s couple force.
Torque of couple = magnitude of forces x perpendicular distance.
Ĳ = F: x b (2) F: = B I L.
Ĳ = BILxb F: = B I L Sinș.
Ĳ = B I (L. b) ș = 90.
Ĳ = BI A (3). L. w = A.
If (N) is turn of coil
Ĳ = BILN (4)
Here L is length and F1 force on side ab and F2 force on side cd and direction given. I (L
x B) In this case F1 and F2 direction of the force equal and opposite direction, F1 direction out of
the plain paper and F2 direction into the plain paper, so in this case same magnitude and opposite
direction is called couple force.
And coil turn under the influence of torque then torque is parallel to the field.
So coil makes angle with field (cos Į)
So torque and filed is parallel (Wcos Į)
Then
Ĳ = B I L ( W cos Į )
Ĳ = B I L W cos Į
Ĳ = B I A cos Į (5) LW = A
If Į = 90
Ĳ = 0 (6).
If = 0 then
= BIA maximum
-
,
,
-
$%"
(1)c When current is in wire the line of force around in perpendicular plane.
(2)c When current is same direction then line of force attracted each other.
(3)c When current is opposite direction then line of force repels each other.
(4)c When current is wire then magnetic field consists on two poles south pole and
North pole.
i.c South pole upward.
ii.c North pole downward.
-
,
The scalar product of magnetic field and cross section Area is called magnetic flux, it is
denoted by (ǻØ)
Magnetic flux = magnetic field (B). Cross Area (A).
ǻØ = B. ǻ A (1)
Magnetic field and cross section Area parallel to each other and angle between then (cosș).
ǻØ = B. ǻ A cosș (2)
So magnetic flux is scalar product
Because number of magnetic flux can not change indirection.
Special cases
If å = 0O
ǻØ = B. ǻ A (maximum) (3)
When B and ÿA is parallel each other then maximum magnetic flux
If å =90O
ǻØ = 0 (4)
When B and ÿA is perpendicular each other then magnetic flux is zero.
If å = 180O
ÿØ = B . ÿA (-1) or minimum. (5)
When B and ÿA is anti-parallel then magnetic flux is minimum.
(8)c Unit of Magnetic flux.
ǻØ = B. ǻA As
B = N.
A.m
ǻØ = N.m2 / A.m
ǻØ = N.m / A.
ǻØ = N.m / A = Wb
ǻØ = Wb (5)
-
,
The magnetic flux passing through per unit cross-section area is called magnetic flux
density.
Physics = XII 31c
B = ǻØ = B.ÿA
ǻA ÿA
Unit of B = ±1
B = weber = N m ± A
m2 m2
B = N = Tesla.
A.m

Consider charge particle (q) and moving with velocity and uniform magnetic field around it.
When electron passing through conductor then magnetic force act on it. F: = q (V x B).
F: = q v B (1)
When electric charges move, then magnetic field is appeared and it attract to wards the
center also called centripetal force is provided by magnetic force acting on moving charged
particle.
Then equation of centripetal force
FC = mV2 (2)
r
Equation (1) & (2) is compare
Centripetal force 2 = magnetic force.
mV = B eV.
r
B = mV picture
e.r
r = m.V
e. ȕ.
So magnetic force is depending on the radius of particle. If deflection particle is greater
then radius of the particle is small.

st
J.J. Thomson was 1 scientist to find the ratio of ( e ) of electron in 1897.
m
The apparatus used which consist of bulb shaped glass tube. Which is highly eveamated.
The circular part is made fluorescent screen and on the other end is filament is fitted near the
filament of two electrodes A and A¶ which is form of circular disc having hole in the center and
in center portion of the two parallel metallic plates P and P¶ are fitted.
:
(

When high voltage is applied between filament and circular disc. Then filament is heated
and then electrons are emitted out from filament, which was accelerated by the voltage and they
passes through the holes of the disc in the form of beam with velocity. And acceleration electron
is given or produce energy. 2
KE = 1/2mv
KE = eV
eV = 1 mv2
2
2
v = 2eV
m
v = 2Ve (1)
m
The beam of strikes the screen coated with Zinc sulphide after passing through the middle
of two horizontal metal plates and light (beam) is produce at ³0´ on the screen where the beam
is strike and its position in noted.
!

When particle is move with speed then allowed to appeared perpendicular uniform
magnetic force which is perpendicular with conductor then equation
F:= q v B (1)
When uniform magnetic field appeared which is attract towards the center then provide
the centripetal force by magnetic field. 2
FC = mv /r (2)
Equation (1) and (2) is compared
Physics = XII 32c
Magnetic force = centripetal force.
B ev = mv2
r
e = V (3)
m Br
in this relation e can be determine the value of ȕ, V and r known.
m

"
The radius ( r) of the circular path of an electron can be measured by beam of electron
visible electron is emitted by two coils that provide magnetic field, such that it describes the
magnetic field in circle the tube filled with gas at low pressure then electron collides with the
gas molecule and electron emits ground state to exited state. After some time electron come
back exited state to ground state the beam become visible as circular ring of light and diameter
can be easily measured with the help of traveling microscope.
-

An electric field is produced due to two oppositely charged parallel plates. An electric
field of electric intensity (E) is applied between plates P1 and P2¶ opposite to the direction of
magnetic field.
The electric field by magnetic filed is balanced. So two fields neutralize each other and
spot come back to original.
Picture
Magnetic force = electric force.
Fm = Fe
BeV = eE
V = E (4)
Ǻ
Now eq (3) is again and putting the value of V.
e == VE 2
em in
m ȕB.r .r
e = V2
m B .r
e = 1.6 x 10±19±3 c = 1.75 x 1011 c
m 9. 1 x 10 1kg kg.
e = 1.75 x 1011 c
m kg
/ #.
When electric current flow through, then magnetic field is created around it and intensity
of this magnetic field is different at different position. So for finding the intensity at any point in
the magnetic field used Ampere law.
(Through Bio t ± savart experiment).
This state that the strength of magnetic field is directly proportional when electric current
flow in wire and inversely proportional to radius or distance of wire.
c
Mathematically
(1) Magnetic field is directly proportional twice current.
B Į 2I (1)
(2) Magnetic field is inversely proportional to the radius.
B 1 Į (2)
r
Now combine eq (1) and eq (2).
B Į 2I
r
B = k 2I (3)
r
Where (K) is constant of proportionality ad it is written as K = o
4ʌ
Physics = XII 33c
o = is called permeability of the free space.
And its value ( o = 10±7 wb )
m.A
B = o . 2I
4ʌ r
2
B = o . I (4)
2ʌ r
Now find the general form of Ampere law.
Suppose magnetic field in conductor and circular path radius along when current flow in
conductor.
If circular path is divided small (arc) with length (ǻl)
c
So when magnetic field covers length and can not change direction.
Then we can say dot product between magnetic field and length of circle.

B .ǻL = B. ǻL cosș (1).

Parallel (ș) angle between B and . ǻL.
Ampere state that the sum of quantity (B.ǻL) parallel element path is equal to ( o) times
and total current in close it.
There fore mathematically:
B .ǻL =
(B. ǻL)1 + (B. ǻL)2 + --------- + (B. ǻL)n
B .ǻL =
Ȉ B. ǻL = Ȉ B. ǻL cosș
If ș 0= then
Ȉ B. ǻL
B. ǻL = B = o . i
2ʌ r
Ȉ B. ǻL = o . i (length of circular path)
2ë r
ǻL = (length of circular path) = 2ʌr
Ȉ B. ǻL = o . i (2ʌr)
2ʌ r
Ȉ B. ǻL = oi
This relation is called Ampere law.
Ȉ B. ǻL = oi.

/ #.
c [
Solenoid is constructed by winding insulated copper wire around cylindrical
Frame with close turns is called solenoid.

When electric current is flowing through solenoid then uniform magnetic field is created
in the space enclosed by it inside the magnetic field (B) can be produce by when current is same
direction, which produce strong magnetic field and out side the solenoid is weaker because
widely separated but strong magnetic field inside the solenoid.
Now find the magnetic field used Ampere Law.
c
Physics = XII 34c
Suppose rectangular path (abcd) as closed path. (Amperican loop) it is divided
four elements.
According to ampere law.
ab = ǻL1
bc = ǻL2
cd = L3
ad = ǻL4
B. ǻL = (B. ǻL)1 + (B. ǻL)2 + (B. ǻL)3 + (B. ǻL)4
B. ǻL = Ȉ B. ǻL
B. ǻL = oİ (A)
(1)Length (ǻL1) When B.ÿL parallel each other
ș = 0
(B. ǻL)1 = B. ǻL cosș
(B. ǻL) = B. ǻL1 (1)
(2) Length (ǻL)2 and (ǻL)4 ș = 90 When B.ÿL perpendicular each other
(B. ǻL)2 = (B. ǻL)4 = B. ǻL cosș = B. ǻlcos(90)
(B. ǻL)2 = (B. ǻL)4 = O (2)
#
;#
(B. ǻL)3 = 0 (3)
Because out side the solenoid is zero magnetic field.
(B. ǻL) = (B. ǻL)1 + (B. ǻL)2 + (B. ǻL)3 + (B. ǻL)4
(B. ǻL) = (B. ǻL)1 + 0 + 0 + 0.
(B. ǻL) = oİ (4)
Where (I) is total current enclosed by it and (N) is number of turns.
B. ǻL = oi = N oİ. i = ǻLI
B. ǻL = N o ǻLI
B = N oI
Magnetic field with in solenoid can be increased by increased the current in the wire.
When in creased the No. of turn of wire per length.

ë

A toroid or circular solenoid is coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular core
with close turn.
When current is passed through toroid is appeared magnetic field around it. And field is
outside the core or turn is zero and magnetic field is inside the core or turn is uniform.
Now According to Ampere law.
B. ǻL = B. ǻL1 + B. ǻL2 + --------- + B. ǻLn
B. ǻL = Ȉ B. ǻL cosș
B. ǻL = Ȉ B. ǻL as:
B. ǻL = o i . 2ʌr B = oi
2ʌr 2ʌr
B. ǻL = oi ǻL = 2ʌr

If (N) turn of coil then.

B. ǻL = o Ni (A)
Let us consider some cases.
& If circular path (mark1) in inside the toroid, it enclosed no current.
I = 0
B = 0 (1).
& If circular path (mark2) is with in toroid and core is bounded by (N) turn each then
carrying current
B. ǻL = oN i ǻl = 2ʌr
B. 2ʌr = oN i
B = oN i (2).
2ʌr
Physics = XII 35c
& If the circular path (mark3) outside the toroid and path enclosed N turns
twice carrying current and same current in opposite direction so net current out side the toriod is
zero.
I = 0
B = 0
B = oNxo
2ʌr
B = 0
9 $
Relation between electric and magnetic field was discovered by Oersted and his ideas,
when electric current flows in wire produces magnetic field. But did not explain successfully.
After in 1830 Joseph Henry ofU.S.A. and after one year Michael Faraday in (1831) from
England explain successful that electric current could be produce by changing magnetic field
through coil change is called electro magnetic induction.
Electromagnetic force induced (e.m.f induced):
Current produce by moving in wire cross-magnetic field is known as induced e.m.f or
electromagnetic Induction.
%" When current induced only produce magnetic field passing through coil also called e-m-f
Induction.
,-
Induced (e.m.f) depend on the rate of change of flux (Ø) through No: of turn of coil then
³ product of magnetic flux and No: of turn of coil is called flux linkage.
Flux.linkage = N ÿØ.
Magnetic flux through circuit can be change.
(1)c Change position of coil wire to magnetic or current in solenoid.
(2)c By changing current in neigh bouring coil or change current it self.
/ #.
$
The Relation between induced e-m-f and magnetic flux was provided by Faraday in 1837.
(1)c An (e-m-f) is induced in wire, when magnetic flux through the wire is change with time.
(2)c This Law state that e.m.f induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through coil.
e.m.f Į ǻØ
ǻt.
(3)c Induced (e-m-f) is depend on No: of turn and rate of change of flux.
e.m.f = ±N ǻØ
ǻt
(N)c is No: of turn.
(-ve) Sign is explain in Lenz¶s Law. But it show the direction of (e-m.f).
# </ #.
The direction of (e.m.f) and current was given physicist by Russian Physics Lenz¶s in
1835. ³When current flows in wire parallel direction and magnetic field is in perpendicular. So
magnetic field of wire always opposite in direction. Because magnetic field consist on North and
south poles. North pole upward direction and south pole downward direction.
1- When the north pole of magnetic is approaching become north face by induce current in
anti-clockwise.
2. When the north pole of magnetic is reducing face of coil become south pole due to
induced current clockwise direction.

[
9$
The phenomenon in which changing current in coil induced e.m.f it self is called self-
induction. It is denoted by (L)
,
Suppose a single coil contain Rheostat and battery connected with it. When current is
passed through the coil by closing switch. It produces magnetic flux, which is passing through
coil it self. When current is constant in coil no change in flux and no induced e.m.f if the current
changes by the resistance in circuit, then flux passing through coil also change so according to
Faraday¶s Law, produce (e.m.f) in coil it self such that induce e.m.f is called self induction.

'-

When current is switched off. Then stored energy comeback this e-m-f is called back
e.m.f. When switch is on then current increase also back e.m.f increase and switch off then
current decrease and back e-m-f also decrease. So e.m.f induced in coil is proportional to the
rate of change of current in coil.
Physics = XII 36c
e.m.f Į ǻI
ǻt
e.m.f = L ǻI
ǻt
e.m.f = ±L ǻI (1)
ǻt
L = is constant called self induction (-ve) sign induced e.m.f opposite the change of flux.
According to Faraday Law.
e.m.f = ± N ǻØ (2)
ǻt
Now eq (1) and eq (2) is compare.
± L ǻI = ± N ǻØ
ǻt ǻt
L ǻI = N ǻØ (3)
N ǻØ = LǻI
L = NǻØ (4).c
ǻI
Unit = Webere = Henry
Ampere
L = Henry.
-$
Faraday applied another method for change of flux through coil that it induced (e.m.f) by
other coil.
%" A process in which change of current in one coil to another coil take place induced e.m.f
and it is denoted by (M)

,
Consider two coils shown in fig. One coil is primary contain battery rheostat called
Galvanometer is called secondary coil.
When (S) switch is open both coil have zero flux. But when switch is closed and current
flow from primary coil by closing switch, then magnetic field due to current produce in coil.
When in creased current also change in magnetic field. So some part of flux will pass through
coil then current changed primary coil by closing switch and flux through secondary coil also
changed and induced current produce in other coil. So change of current in coil to another
induced (e.m.f).
According to Faraday Law induced (e.m.f) ³the phenomenon of producing (e.m.f) in the
secondary coil by changing magnetic flux through primary coil is called mutual induction.
So magnetic flux through the secondary coil is proportional to the current in primary coil.
Therefore
NSØs Į IP
NSØs = MIp (1)
M = NSØs (2)
Ip.
M = constant called Mutual Induction according to Faraday Law.
e.m.f. = ± Ns ǻØs Ns Øs = MIp
ǻt
e.m.f. = ± MIp
ǻt
Unit of mutual induction.
M = Henry.
OR M = e.m.f. ǻt
Ip
M = V . sec I = q
Ampere T
Henry = V
A/ sec
&9 . .
When same current travel in opposite direction then magnetic flux around one wire will
be neutralized by other wire is called Non inductive.
%" Wire is double back it self before being coiled up is called Non inductive.
%" When wire is wounded double then current flow in one wire will be opposite to other
wire and magnetic flux around one wire will cancel other wire is called Non inductor.

Physics = XII 37c
-
$
[
When conductor moves across magnetic field a potential difference appears across its
ends. The (P.d) is known as motional (e.m.f).
,
Consider a wire of length of (l) moving across the magnetic field due to its motion and
magnetic field appears perpendicular with velocity (v) perpendicular then
F = e (v x B)
Thus direction of electron is from a to b, then end (b) will gain (-ve) charge end (a) will
gain (+ve) charge. So end (a) high (P.d) then (b) then electric field balance the force due to
motion of conductor.
c c c c c c c
F = ±e (v x B)
F = ±ev ȕ sinș
(ș) angle between V and B
When charge flows then work done.
W = F.L
W = ev BL Sinå
Potential different = Work done
Charge
V = W W = ± ev B LSinå
q
V = ± ev B Sinå q = e
e
V = -v B L sinå
If ș = 90
(P.d) or V = ± vȕ L

A generator is electro mechanical device that coverts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
An A.C. generator produces current that alternate direction several time.

(1) Magnetic field = It may be due to permanent strong magnetic field.
(2) Armature = Which consists on soft iron coil of many turns wounded of core of
high permeability.
(3)c Slip rings (R1,R2) These are connected with coil they can rotate along x-rays of the loop.
(4)c Carbon brushes = These are connected with external circuit and Slip rings against
carbon brushed.

(-
It consists of rectangular coil moving in magnetic field between north and south poles. It
rotates by external source of energy in a magnetic field. The coil is made of large number of
turns and coil is connected with Slip rings. When coil rotates in the magnetic field then magnetic
lines passing through coil changes means magnetic flux change by turns of coil and induced
(e.m.f) is produced and with coil (Slip rings) R1 and R2 attached its end which change the
direction of current several times.
This apparatus is called Alternating current generator.

+

(1) Position if å = 0
When angle between V and (ȕ) is 0. (V = B = 0)
Then å = 0
And current also zero.
the plane of the loop is perpendicular to B and current will be zero.
(2)c When (å) angle between V and B is 900
When å = 90O. then current is maximum and loop is parallel.
Physics = XII 38c
(3) When angle between V and B is 180O
å = 180
further with increase å, current decreases. This loop again perpendicular to
B, therefore, current become zero.
å = 270O
then current increase but reverse direction.
å = 360O
then complete trip and loop is again perpendicular and current decrease zero.

,

Consider plane of coil of ABCD, rotating with linear velocity and angular velocity about
the axis. After time let plane of coil make an angle with the line of normal field. The sides B, C
and A, D moved both halves cutting the field of opposite direction. The e.m.f induce in both
halves, being equal and opposite cancel each other. Let AB and CD are perpendicular to V sinå.
e.m.f induce each length = BVL sinå
total e.m.f induce = 2VBL sinå
e.m.f = 2VBL sinå
e.m.f = 2B(1/2 b ) L sinå as V = r = ½ b
Lb = A
e.m.f = LbB bsinå b = 2r
e.m.f = B A sinå r = 1/2b (b is diameter)
if there are N turns, then w = 2ë/t or 2ëf
e.m.f = B A sinå ȟ B AN
e.m.f = B AN sint
e.m.f = B AN sin 2ëf . t
e.m.f = ȟ O sin 2ëf . t
ë
Transformer is a device that transfer electric energy from one circuit to
another circuit.
It is a device which convert high voltage into low voltage.
It consists of following parts:
ë. Two Coils are made of copper wires wounded on by iron core.
One is primary coil where maximum number of turns and second is secondary coil where
minimum number of turns.
It is specially alloy steel of high resistance

(- Let an alternating voltage Vp be applied across the ³primary coil´. The resulting
current Ip gives rise to a varying flux in the core. This varying flux induces an opposing e.m.f in
the primary coil (which is equal to the applied voltage if resistance of the coil is negligible).
Hence Vp is given by the flux linkage. Using Faraday¶s law, we have:
Vp = -NP ÿå/ÿt (1)
Where Np represents number of turns of primary coil. At the same time, the varying flux passes
through the secondary coil and induced e.m.f is
Vs = -Ns ÿå/ÿt (2)
Where Ns is the number of turns of the secondary coil dividing eq (1) & (2), we have.
Vs/Vp = Ns/Np (3)
The ratio Ns/Np is called ³turns ratio´ (T)
+.
For an ideal case, power input to the primary is equal to the power output from the secondary,
i.e.
Vs Is = Vp Ip or Vp/Vs = Is/Ip
Thus currents are inversely proportional to the respective voltages. Hence, voltage is raised at
the cost of reduction in current.

Efficiency of a transformer, Ș = Power output = Po [practically, Po is less than Pi]
Power input Pi
% Ș = Vs Is / Vp Ip x 100
The efficiency is less than 100% for small transformers it is upto 90%. For medium transformer
it is upto 95% and it is upto 99% for large transformer.
ë
ë

[ 9ë

This transformer changes an alternating voltage to a higher value, i.e. Vs > Vp. It is
achieved when secondary coil has more turns than primary coil. Thus Ns >Np.
[ 9.ë

This transformer changes an alternating voltage to a lower value, i.e., Vs < Vp. But coil.
Thus Ns < Np.
==================
Physics = XII 39c
¦

$ th
Before 19 century is called classical physics. It is depends on the Newton¶s Law of
mechanics and that time Scientists more explain about physics also they thought electromagnetic
waves propagate through empty space and empty space filled with fluid called ether and that
concepts light propagate through air. After Michelson and Morely detect the ether. His concept
motion of ether relative earth is called ether wind. They found that ether wind did not effect the
speed of light. The light move parallel to perpendicular ether wind and speed of light in free
space with the constant also that time introduced Law of Thermodynamics kinetic theory.
Maxwell theory of electromagnetic discovery of X-Ray by Rontgen and discovery of
radioactivity by Henry Bequerel.
The beginning of 20th great experiment in a physics such as Einstein theory of relativity
Schrondger Equation. Bohr¶s theory and quantum theory. But in modern physics specially
consists of Einstein¶s theory of relativity.
& . !
1-c There is nothing such as ether and speed of light in universal constant.
2-c The laws of physics good in each frame of references.
3-c Relation between mass and energy convert into mass.
4-c A beam of light consist bundle of energy.
5-c Wave and particle are not different the wave particle properties and particle waves properties.

A space frame of reference consist of three perpendicular lines on x-axis.
%" A space bounded by three lines perpendicular to each other.
There are two types of frame of reference:
(i) Inertial frame of reference (ii) Non Inertial frame of reference
9 $

A frame of reference moving with uniform speed also
called Newton is Law of motion.
!9 &$

Acceleration frame of reference: A frame of
reference moving with acceleration also called Newton and Laws of motion.
[
" %" / +
Two postulates (i) Laws of Physics are same in all inertial frame of reference (ii) Speed
of light in space is a universal constant.
'-' A body which completely absorbs all radiation falling upon it.
8 > Energy exchange bundles or packets also called quanta.
? ë +
When ultra violet light electron are emitted form useful surface.
@
The frequency of photon is scattered by an electron.

A + A process in which energy can be converted into matter.
9
The reverse process of pair production. When electron
and position combine.
B 0 The product of momentum and uncertainty position.
ÿp ÿ = h

"

A space of reference consist of three mutually perpendicular lines on axis.
%" A space bounded by three lines perpendicular to each other.
A ³p´ is reference point has three positions by co-ordinates the line joining with the
origin ³O´ to the point ³P´ is also called position vector.

There are two types:

(1) Inertial frame of reference. (2) Non Inertial frame of reference.
$

A frame of reference moving with uniform velocity also called Newton¶s Law of motion.
Inertial = means Law of inertia without acceleration. A body maintains their state of rest
or uniform motion to change with external force.
+
(1) Inertial frame of reference target zero linear acceleration and zero angular acceleration.
(2) If no external force acts on a body then its speed remain constant.
(3) Law of conservation of momentum remains constant in all frames that move with the
uniform speed.
, (1) Suppose Earth is inertial frame since earth revolving around the sun and
rotation about own axis.
(2) The clock move with inertial frame of reference.
&$

A frame of reference moving with acceleration means Newton¶s Second Law of Motion.
%" A frame of reference moving with acceleration with reference to other frame of reference.
Physics = XII 40c
[ A man sitting inside the Car, moving with acceleration can easily detect the
acceleration motion. It is either acceleration or declaration and force on the object inside the car,
the car will not remain stationary.

"
ÿ
The transformation of co-ordinate of a particle frame one inertial frame of reference to
another inertial frame of reference.
The converting co-ordinate of a particle from one initial frame of reference to another
inertial frame of reference.
9 ë

[
Suppose two frame S1 and S2 sot that S1 frame at rest and S2 frame is moving with
uniform velocity w.r.t time (t).

Let t = 0 means frame start from origin
S=V.T
X=V.T
X = X¶ + x
X¶ = Moving, X = Rest v . T Distance of S = Rest
X = X¶ + v . T X¶ = Distance of S¶ = Moving
X¶ = X ±v . T X = Total distance, X¶ = Distance of S2, x = Distance of S1
Parallel each other y¶ = y, z¶ = z, t¶ = t, because frame moving along x-axis.
9 ë

ë
When S¶ is covered distance with time, we can say also velocity
x¶ = x ± v.t
Now t is divided both sides
x¶/t = x/t ± v.t/t or v¶ = V-v or V = v¶ + v (ii)
9 ë

The measurement of acceleration ³a´ of particle ³p´ in an inertial frame ³s´ is expressed.
Now equation (ii) is again V = v¶ + v, when change the velocity of s¶ then
Now difference velocity of object v1 and v2 be velocity of an object in frame S1 at time t1
and S2 at time t2 respectively, then acceleration of object w.r.t frame ³s´ is given
V2 = v2¶ + v (iii)
V1 = v1¶ + v (iv)
As:
Subtract equation (iii) and (iv) V = Total Velocity
v¶ = Velocity of s¶
V2 ± V1 = (v2¶ + v) ± (v1¶ + v) v = Velocity of s.
V2 ± V1 = v2¶ + v ± v1¶ ± v v2 = Final velocity.
V2 ± V1= v2¶ ± v1¶ V1 = Initial velocity.
Now t is divided both sides.
v2 ± v1/t = v2¶ ± v1¶/t
a = a¶ (v)
89 ë

When ³m´ of an object does not change with velocity then
a = a¶
ma = ma¶
F = F¶ (vi)
Now we say two frames equal forces then prove first when a = 0 and F = 0
When F¶ = ma¶ move then prove second law of motion and when F¶ = ma¶ move with to
and fro condition, but electromagnetic radiation does not applicable.

+

1-c In classical mechanics Newton and Galileo believed in space and time.
2-c The Newton assumed that motion of an object may be different, indifference frame of
reference and also consider the space to be isotropic means (same property an all
direction)
3-c Space has no absolute position and direction; the time was completely separate and
independent of space.
4-c The frame of reference almost at rest or in uniform motion, only possibility is the
detect the motion of object frame relative to one an other.
This idea lead first inertial frame of reference (according to Einstein)
Einstein assumed it all possible reference frame moving at uniform velocity or at rest
relative one another. Suppose we fix our coordinate system in moving train the wall of moving
or stationery w.r.t passenger, however, same cabin wall are in motion w.r.t observer. The
stationery on the earth, suppose observer thrown an object vertically the stationery observer will
see the object coming down vertically when observer at rest. While the fast moving observer
will see the object moving along a curved path and velocity, distance covered trajectory.

"
1- Special theory of the relativity. 2- General theory of the relativity.
Physics = XII 41c
9 [

It was developed special theory for inertial frame of the reference by Einstein in 1905, it
was realistic mechanics that concern object in uniform motion or inertial frame, so special
theory of the relativity also called inertial frame of reference or with out acceleration.
9

It was also developed by Einstein in 1916 it concerned with non-inertial frame of
reference or with acceleration.
+

9 +

All physical laws (Newton Laws and Maxwell electromagnetic equation) may be
expressed in the same equation means all frame of reference moving at constant velocity w.r.t
one another.
9

The speed of light in free space are vacuum is the same value all the points means speed
of light every place remain constant.
4

1-c Special theory of relativity moving with constant speed.
2-c All motions are relative at rest or motion.
3-c Physical phenomenon no need ether.
4-c Space and time is relative.
5-c The world has four dimension.
2
6-c The factor introduce 1 U
2
7-c The velocity of light is much smaller than v2/c2.
We may be summaries the important consequences of special theory of relativity with below
9 - ë
Mass variation means mass change with velocity or mass change in energy. This theory
tell us mass will be change with velocity. The mass of moving velocity greater than mass at rest.
The mass of moving greater than mass at rest and the speed of moving mass is greater than at
rest mass.
After then equation:
2
m = m0 / 1U
2
m=
When mass is moving with velocity then moving mass go to infinite.
9 #
According to this theory measured length an object is not same at constant velocity.
When an object is moving with velocity the length of object is not remain same then
equation.
2
l = lo 1U 2 as lo = length of an object at rest l = length of an object with moving constant velocity.

Now v = c then l = 0

9 ë
The time of even perform in a frame of reference is not remain same, but it is related with
the speed of frame of reference (tO) is time of an object performed when frame of reference at
rest and t time when a object moving with very high speed then v = c, so, we can say moving (t)
time of an object is greater than time (tO) at rest.
t = tO
t = tO =
0 2
1U 2 as v = c then t =

89 -
The speed of light is constant, we cannot reach than the speed of object greater than
speed of light by the realistic addition velocity.
According to Newton¶s Laws when constant force or constant velocity apply on object
then matter no change with velocity, when time is very long.
Einstein concluded that energy has inertia the total energy of body required total mass of
body, then mass covert into energy and energy convert into mass has been established by
Einstein¶s equation
E = mc2
When energy produce the mass convert into energy and (c ) speed of light
E = EO + K.E.
mc = mOc22 + K.E.2
K.E = mc ± mOc or E ± EO
'-'"
'-!
An object which completely absorbs all radiations which are falling upon it is called
black body.
Physics = XII 42c
The object present in our surrounding can be absorbs or radiate energy. Some of
them dark colours or good absorbers and some of them shining colours or good radiators, but
some artificial object is performed which work as good absorbs as well as good radiators is
called black body radiator.
'-!
When an object is heated then emitted radiations of all possible wavelength is called
black body radiation and the radiation enter and emitted from the hole is called cavity.
c :
,
A metallic block with cavity in it or hole, we assumed that its wall black. When heat is
enter in cavity and heat particles collide with the walls and remain there, here is a work as good
absorb. And other hand when metallic is heated all wavelength of radiations emitted from cavity
here is work as good radiator.
#.
!-!
9 ( / #.
The maximum intensity shifted towards short wavelength inversely proportional to the
temperature.
Mathematically r 1/T
r = constant / T
rT = constant (i)
9 [
'<-#. The amount of energy of all wavelength radiate per second
per unit area of black body is the directly proportional to the fourth power of temperature.
Mathematically E T4
E = *T4 (ii)
Where * constant is called Stefan Boltz Mann constant.
* = 5.67 x 10-8 w/m2.k4
9 "# 5 / #. This formula is valid for long wavelength but it was failed for
short wavelength. According to Ray Leigh ± Jean¶s Law, the energy associated particular
wavelength is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength.
Mathematical E 1/r4
E = Constant/r4
Er4 = Constant (iii)
0
When short wavelength the energy can be infinite but physical point of view the energy
cannot be infinite. But hot body actually emitted mostly red light and not ultraviolet and x-rays.
>ë According to Quantum theory the beam of light is consist bundle of
energy is called Quanta or Photon.
In 1900 Plank¶s introduce the quantum theory following assumptions:
i- Energy emitted in packets is called quanta, when energy emitted it is directly proportional
to the frequency.
Mathematical E
E = h (i) as h is constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J.S
C = r/T or r (ii)
Now in equation number (i) putting the value of
E = hc/r (iii)
ii- Atoms of cavity radiate like tiny oscillators and these oscillators emits or absorbs
electromagnetic radiations then Plank¶s law will be:
Mathematical E = nh
E = 0h, 1h, 2h ««« nh
E = 0, h, 2h ««««.. nh
n is quantum number = 0,1,2««..
9 %
4
-
Plank¶s assumed about electromagnetic radiation is not waves, but emitted in packets.
+ Photon is charge-less and mass-less particle. (When radiation emitted in packets or
in groups of energy is called photon)
The photon consist following characteristics:

Energy of photon is directly proportional to the frequency.
Mathematical E
E = h
As h is Plank¶s constant.
&9
When photon at rest in speed of light no any electromagnetic effect, we can say photon is
a lightest particle and it travel with speed of light. When photon at rest it is vanished.
Physics = XII 43c
When photon travel with the speed of light. It is consist
electromagnetic effect.
-
According to Einstein when object move with speed of light then
mass convert in an energy.
Mathematical
E = mc2 (i)
mc = p (ii)
E = p.c (iii)
As p is momentum of photon.
And energy of photon is directly proportional to the frequency.
Mathematical
E = h (iv)
Now (i) and (iv) is compared
mc2 = h
m = h/c2 (v)
it means when mass of photon approach to zero then speed of light is very large.
Photon is a stable particle because it cannot covert decay or in other particle.
+

Hertz in 1887 discovered photoelectric effect. When Ultraviolet fall on a prism electrons
are emitted is called photoelectric effect.
Electron emitted from the surface is called photoelectron.
,!
. ,
Fig:
Two metal plates are seals in glass tube, upper plate gives negative charge from a
variable source, whereas lower plate is given positive charge with respect it. And also use milli
ammeter and switch also connected in series with battery.
When electromagnetic radiations fall on a lower plate, which will emit photo electron
after absorbing it, these electrons move towards the upper plate which is negative charge and
negative charge particles electron repulsion from the surface of upper plate and turn back to the
lower plate, due to positive charge on it. This plate will attract these electrons, then switch in
circuit is closed after then photoelectron will in circuit and photocurrent which can be recorded
by milli-ampere meter. Increase the voltage of lower plate making it more and more positive
maximum. Number of electron can be attracted by this plate.
[
When current in Galvano meter is zero or when beam of light is stop then stopping the
current is called stopping potential.
From the above experiment following important results are obtained.
1-c Increase the intensity of light also increase the number of photoelectrons. But no
frequency with which they leave the surface of metal.
2-c For each substance there is a certain frequency called threshold frequency.
3-c The high frequency of incident light is greater kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
,

Curve for voltage plotted photoelectric effect current (I) show that saturation for different
intensities accelerating the voltage. The curve show that stopping potential is independent of the
intensity of the source.
9 ë
The current saturation for different intensities when voltage (V) = 0
IO = some photo current
±VO = negative potential or stopping potential.
Fig:
When greater intensities means increase electron also increase current and (VO) voltage
is negative because like charge repulsion and unlike charge attract.
9 $
If photoelectric curve are plotted for different frequencies (1 and 2) but same intensity,
as you noted the saturation current is depend upon intensity but not on frequency and stopping
potential more negative from VO1 to VO2.
Fig:
Physics = XII 44c
9

A graph of maximum energy of photoelectron against frequency of incident light is in the
form of straight line from particular minimum frequency (O) called threshold frequency. No
electron emitted from surface but it depend upon the nature of metal.
Mathematical
Y = mx + c as m is slope
K.Emax = VOe x is frequency
c is intercept of y-axis
fig:
The kinetic energy will be found by reversing polarity of battery by making more and
more negative. At potential (V) electron having energy (Ve) will be stopped. The potential
between AB plates the current become zero and maximum kinetic energy.
,
!
.
The classical wave theory of light is not successful and explanation about photoelectric
effect by following reasons.
1-c Classical point of view there should be no threshold frequency. Because at time
electron may be absorb energy from incident light or from metal plate applied
frequency.
2-c The velocity of photoelectron should be depend upon the intensity of metal means it
should be depend upon the intensity and not be frequency.
,
+
! 4

In 1905 Einstein introduced successful explanation about photo electric effect, which is
basis on the quantum theory.
³According to quantum radiation are emitted or absorbs in packets or bundle of energy is
called photon.´
He showed that energy is directly proportional with frequency E f or E = hf (1)
,
According to Einstein every metal consist on a free electron. They move atom to atom
and free electron diff in diff metals.
When beam of light or (photon) fall on a metal surface, each photon transfer energy to
single electron. Sometime electron may be absorbs more then one photon is negligible. Because
the number of photon is much lower than electron.
After absorbing photon an electron either leaves the surface of metal in short time, it has
no charge to absorb another photon.
When increase intensity of light source also increase the number of photon and increase
the number of electron, but energy of electron remain unchanged.
When beam of light fall on a prism bombardment of photon on the plate.
After colliding to the plate, photon are vanished and their energy transferred to the plate.
Where it is gained free electron and its energy is equal to work function of metal then
electron will come of plate and this energy is more than the work function then rest of energy by
remain solved with photo electrons. When energy of incident of photon, photon then formula:

Energy transferred = Work function + K.E of electron
Mathematical
E = + K.E
As K.E = ev h = hO + K.E
K.E = h ± hO
K.E = h(-O) as E = h
ev = h(UO) Eo = hO
O = threshold frequency
= work function
fig:

(-

The amount of energy required by free electrons come out of metal is called work
function.
+ *0 Photo cell is type of photo electric effect.
+
It is consists on a glass tube and tube connected two electrode plate, lower surface in
concave cathode and upper side is a anode plate. The concave cathode lower side also connected
key and negative wire of battery and upper side anode plate also connected millimeter and
positive wire of the battery. When photon fall on a plate and these are bombarded and after some
Physics = XII 45c
time photon transfer their energy and vanished and emitted the some electron, they are
reach on upper anode plate, when electron and anode combined they are attracted each other.
Because unlike charge attracted each other and current flow and recorded in a millimeter.
Fig:
0

1-c To count vehicles passing road or it is running on a convey belt.
2-c To open door automatically.
3-c To operate burglar alarm and fire alarm.
4-c Industrial control.
5-c Production of picture in camera and television.
+
In photo conductive cell used two plates of semi conductor material or silicon material.
The semi conductor means that material which is consists conductor as well as insulator. When
intensity of light fall on a prism then decrease semi conductor resistance, simply we can say
when increase the intensity of light then decrease the resistance and increase conductivity is due
to energy increase, current flow from conductor material in a circuit.
Fig:
0

1-c It is used for light control.
2-c Deduction of infrared radiation.
3-c Use computer and communication system.
+
It is also other type of photocell, it is consist on sandwich copper, copper oxide and thin
film layer of translucent gold. It is proved current without battery, the photovoltaic cell consist
(p.n) semi conductor junction. When incident light to reach junction electron, hole pairs are
produced in the reflection the junction voltage gain positive charge from holes and negative
charge from electron and current flow in circuit.
Fig:
0

1-c It is used in photography camera lens compatible in the day light intensity.

When x-rays photon collide with stationery electron, they are deflected from the origin
part with decrease frequency of x-rays photo this fact is called Compton effect.
%"
The scattered of electron by x-rays photon is called Compton effect.
,
In 1926 Arthur Compton change wavelength of incident radiation or beam of x-rays
towards the collide with electron. The electron is initial at rest, because high frequency of
photon are not visible light. The initial motion may be neglected. The photon approach towards
the electron with frequency (1) and scattered at angle å with lower frequency (2) and longer
wavelength. When x-ray photon deflected from its original path during collision some of the
energy of photon is transferred to electron, as kinetic energy of electron must be start moving
and energy of photon decreases. Also result frequency of photon decrease.
It is found practically that in this collision of photon and electron, the total energy and
total momentum remain conserved.

Physics = XII 46c
,
Suppose the photon is deflected through an angle å from its original path and electron
start moving with velocity, making an angle to the original path of photon.
Fig:
Total momentum and energy of photon before and after collision.

'

E1 = h1 E2 = h2
P1 = mv1 P2 = mv2
Total energy and momentum of electron before and after collision.
'

EO = mOc2 E = mc2
PO = 0 P = m.v
When photon and electron incident before and after collision then momentum and energy
remain same also called elastic collision or law of conservation of energy.

!

ë ë

E 1 + EO = E2 + E
h1 + mOc2 = h2 + mc2
h1 ± h2 = mc2 ± mOc2 (i)

,9,
P1 + PO = P2 + P
h1/c + 0 = h2/c coså + m.v cos (ii)

9,
0 + 0 = h2/c sinå ± m.v sin (iii)
Mutual simplification of these equations given an equation which relative original
frequency f1 and frequency f2 of photon and angleå, we will have above three equations of
relation between P & E and performing some mathematically step and simplify, we will get
finally expression.

&.
4
!

1/2 = 1/1 + h/mOc2 (1 ± coså) (iv)
1/2 ± 1/1 = h/mOc2 (1 ± coså)
r2/c ± r1/c = h/mOc2 (1 ± coså)
r2 ± r1 = c x h/mOc2 (1 ± coså)
ÿr = h/mOc (1- coså)
Now here h/mOc is equation of Compton effect and denoted by rc.
rc = h/mOc and rc is constant and its value is 2.426 x 10-12m.
+

9 +
Low energy of photon striking with electron moves its entire energy is called
photoelectric effect.
High energy photon loses a part of its energy is called Compton effect. A very high
nucleus is required in order to conserve energy and momentum, photon under the influence of
short range stronger nucleus forces breakup into two pairs electron and positron called pair
production.
%"
A process in which energy can be converted in to matter (E = mc2) it is called
materialization of energy of pair production.
Physics = XII 47c
Fig:
Pair production required two charges created by interaction of photon of matter must
have equal mass but opposite charge and photon perform which an energy at least 2mOc2, where
mO mass at rest and c is speed of light. Due to this2
region the pair production is not important
below 1.02Mev. The energy corresponding 2m Oc .
The rest mass of electron (mOc2) = 0.51Mev.
It means that amount of energy will be required to create an electron, this condition for
production of electron ± positron is the energy released by photon may be at least equal to rest
mass energy of two electron.
Mathematical
m- Oc +mOc = 2mOc2 2
e + e = 2 pairs (2mOc )
0.51Mev + 0.51 Mev = 1.02Mev (i)
now photon > 1.02Mev
The energy is conserved in pair production
Mathematical
E = mOc2 + mOc2 + K.E(e-) + K.E(e+)
h = 2mOc2 + K.E(e-) + K.E(e+) (ii)
In this process charge, energy, mass and momentum remain conserved.

When particle and antiparticle (electron and positron collide) they disappear and their
mass is converted into photon radiation or energy is called annihilation of matter.
When electron and positron collide the system of energy and momentum remain same
after creation. But two particles move opposite direction and same velocity. When electron and
positron combine they appear is D-rays photon.
Fig:
Mathematical
2
2mOc2 + K.E(e-) + K.E(e+) = 2h
here 2mOc is energy of particle pair. Where mO is rest mass, energy of electron. Each
DUrays photon has energy > 0.51Mev.
In this process two photon moving opposite direction conserving the total momentum of
the creation and each photon will have an energy equal to rest mass of energy mOc2 of an
electron.
The position of electron and positron brought close to each other and two photons they
are vanished and produce each photon equal energy of rest mass mO = 0.51Mev.
ë ,
In 1927 Davission and Germer (USA) were experimentally confirmed the De. Broglie
Waves. By obtain reflecting of electron by crystals.
(-
Davission and Germer performed experiment on scattering of low energy of electron by
metal crystal. When electron emitted from filament accelerated through potential difference
applied between the filament and anode an electron source. Where strike the nickel crystal and
electron reflection from the crystal very strongly. After then scattered electron deducted by
deducter and arrangement are make of count the number of scattered electron and it is observed
electron coming at certain angle.
Fig:
De. Broglie Waves finding of Davission and Germer in a particular determination. A

beam of 54ev electrons was directed Owas perpendicularly at the nickel target and maximum
electron distribution accord at angle 50 with the original beam.
When beam of electron reflected on a crystal then
Mathematical
r = h/p or h/m.v (i)
When accelerated electron from the volt also kinetic energy
2
then equation
K.E = 1/2mv 2
eV = 1/2mv 2
By cross multiplication and then 2eV/m = v
Physics = XII 48c
2

v= (ii)

2
2
2
Now in (i) putting the value of v r = h/m. %" r=h

r = h / 2
(iii)

' ( .

in 1924 Louis De. Broglie proposed moving particles can behave in a wave like particle
as electron.
Wave like a particle or particle like a wave property. It means that objects such as
electron can behave like photon which are emitted or absorbed bundle of energy is called matter
wave or particle wave.
According to Einstein mass change in energy then equation
E = mc2 (i)
According to Plank¶s equation energy moves as
E = h (ii)
Now compare (i) and (ii)
mc2 = h
mc = h / c
mc = h / r
r = h / mc
r=h/p (iii)
As r = c/ and p = m.c means momentum of photon
(

This relation link both particle and wave then formula of material object or particle object
then equation (iii) r = h/p
r = h/m.v as m.v = momentum of particle
,
(i) Wave particle a mass of 20kg with velocity 50 m/s what will be wavelength.
r=?
h = 6.63 x 10-34
m = 20kg
v = 50 m/s
r = h/p or h/m.v = 6.63 x 10-34/20 x 50 = 6.63 x 10-34/1000
r = 6.63 x 10-31m, it is not measurable
(ii) A like particle such as electron moving with velocity 107m/s what is wavelength?

r = ? , h = 6.63 x 10-34, m = 9.1 x 10-31, v = 107 m/s
r = h/m.v = 6.63 x 10-34/9.1 x 10-31 x 107 or 0.72 x 10-10m, it is measurable.
+
.
1-c Wave associated with moving particle.
2-c Large mass of particle and short wavelength.
3-c Frequency or velocity of particle is inversely proportional with wavelength.
4-c Velocity of particle wave not constant.
5-c Particle velocity is not equal to speed of light.
Accordingly equation r = h/m.v (iii)
E = h
= E/h
= mc2/h (iv) as E = mc2
' ( ë
W = rn (v)
Now in (v) putting the value of r and
W = h/m.v x mc2/h
W = c2/v (vi)
Velocity of particle and speed of light is not equal.
Physics = XII 49c
0 +
Heisenberg introduced in 1927 it is impossible to determine the position and momentum
of particle at same time.
%" The product of momentum and position of particle equal to the Plank¶s constant
Mathematical
ÿp.ÿx = h
h = h/2ë
h constant and value is 1.05 x 10-34 J.S
here ÿx.ÿp > h
,
The position of particle (electron) located through photon. Which are scattered is called
probably or accuracy. If short wavelength accuracy position measurement increase and decrease
momentum.
If longer wavelength accuracy increase in momentum but decrease in position.
Fig:
If position will be less than (r) also small then change in electron small.
(Electron) ÿy = r (Photon) (i)
When width d small then diffraction is observed.
But when width of slit is increased in momentum.
Mathematical
d = ÿy (ii)
Now relation between slit width and minimum distance where first angle is small then (r<d)
Sinå = Perpendicular / Hypotenuse = r/d
When angle so small then sinå = å
Sinå = r/d or å = r/d (iii)
When width d increase then d = ÿy
å = r/ÿy (iv)
Also triangle ÿABC
Tanå = perpendicular/base = BC/AB
Tanå = py/px (v)
When slit increase ÿpy
Tanå = ÿpy/px (vi)
Now compare (iv) and (vi)
r/ÿy = rÿpy/px (vii)
According to De. Broglie Wave r = h/px (viii)
Now in equation (vii) putting the value of r
ÿpy/px = h/px.ÿy
Now cross multiplication.
ÿpy.ÿy = px . h/px
ÿpy.ÿy = h (ix) also we can write it
ÿpx.ÿx = h (x)
"
The product of uncertainty energy (ÿE) and time (ÿT) that equals by Plank¶s constant.
Mathematical
ÿE.ÿT = h (xi)
Suppose a machine which recorded the peaks of electromagnetic waves as these pass
through it. Let () count number and ÿT time now (frequency) of electromagnetic waves.
Frequency = number of cycle/second or = No.cycle/Sec
= n/s here n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ««««
= 1/ÿT (xii)
As you know that ÿE = h (xiii)
Now in equation (xiii) putting the value of .
ÿE = h./ÿT or ÿE.ÿT = h (xiv)
=============================
Physics = XII 50c
5C
&
$
After Roentgen discovered x-rays and energy and Henry Becquerel discovered uranium
atom gives of or emit radiation spontaneously is called radioactivity in 1896. After then in 1898
Marie and Pierre Curie success chemically isolating two elements polonium and radium. In 1891
J.J Thomson performed and produce through discharge tube (-ve) charge particale is called
electron and through discharge tube Gold Stain also produce (+ve) charge particle is called
proton. In 1911 Rutherford purposed central core of an atom that compare atom like a solar
system and electron revolve as plantes and small central core nucleus as sun. in 1932 James
Chadwick confirmed the existence of neutral particle of mass slightly greater than proton but no
charge called neutron and nucleus consist as proton and neutron.
& [
Rutherford in 1911 produce central core of an atom it contains the entire (+ve)
charge in which most mass concern is called nucleus.
The nucleus contains following:
The number of proton is called atomic number.
The number of neutron is called neutron number.
The number of proton and neutron is called mass number or atomic mass.
8 Electron revolve around the nucleus in own orbit.
+9
First concept neuleus conssits two types of particle electron and proton and also assume
that neucleus having contain atomic number (Z) and atomic mass (A) means contain proton and
electron and also ideas some electrons bounded the nucleus and some electron revolve aroud the
nucleus. But in 1911 Rutherford proposed atom consist central core and (-ve) charge revolve
aroud the nucleus, it is called proton-electron hypothesis.

Length or size of neclues is so small.
Many electrons inside the nucleus.
Wavelength of electron much larger than nucleus radius.
8 Quantum mechanics minimum energy when electron present inside the nucleus is 103Mev.
? Electron decay or b particle emited from nucleus energy only two Mev to 3 Mev.
@ Some electron bounded the nucleus and some electron revolve around the nucleus.
A Main objection when electron inside the electron inside the nucleus spin momentum of nuclei.

&
In 1932 James Chadwick discovered neutron. He bombarded beryllium target with a
particle of mass very slightly greater than proton. But charge and electrically neutral is called
neutron.
+9&
Nucleus contains atomic number (Z) and atomic mass (A) is called proton and neutron.
Heigenberg presented hypothesis and proposed that an atomic nucleus contain proton and
neutron is called nucleon.
XA
Z where X = any element A = atomic mass Z = Atom number
$
It is Greek word Iso = Same, and topes = space.
The atom of an element having same atomic number but different mass number is called
isotopes. OR
Atoms of any element having same proton number but different neutron number are
called isotopes.

$
1/ Isotopes of an element contains same number of proton in neuclei.
2/ It contains different number of neutron and nuclei.
3/ When they posses eletron configuration then similar chemical properties but different
physical properties.
4/ Isotopes has particular mass called isotope mass.
5/ An element when one isotope different relative abudance then average isotopic mass.
6/ About 14 isotopes only 1/5 are stable and other radioactive isotopes.
7/ Artificial radio isotope are produce number of waves envolve nuclear reaction.
Example:
Isotope of hydrogen
1/ Proton. (1H21) A = 1, Z =1, N = 0
2/ Deutron (1 H 3 ) A = 2, Z = 1, N = 1
3/ Tritum (1H ) A = 3, Z = 1, N = 2
"
The nuclei of heavy elements having atomic number (Z) greater 83 are unstable and emits
radiation spontaneously. These elements are called radioactive elements. This phenomenon was
discovered by Henry Becquerrel. After then in 1898 Pierre Curie and Madam Curie investigated
radioactivity of thorium and polonium and radium.
Examples of radioactive elements:
Uranium, thorium, polonium, radium.
Physics = XII 51c
,
The nature of these radiation can be studied by simple experiment as shown in figure.
Radioactive elements is placed in lead block. The radiation passes through hole in the lead block
and enter chamber in which magnetic field are eletric field due to two charged plates applies and
photographic plate also keep in chamber. When some raditions are deflected towards the
positive plate and some radiation are deflected toward the (-ve) plate but some rays undeflected
by influence of electric filed between plates. Those radiations which are deflcted (-ve) plate are
called a rays. Those radiation which are deflectd (+ve) plates are called b rays and those rays
which are unaffected or undeflected by electric field having no charge are called g rays.

Rutherford in 1903 show the nature of radioactive radiations, apply lead block and
electric field observed three type:
1/ Alpha particle: Alpha particle or (+ve) charge partcle, they are founded to be helium
(2He4). They are double (+ve) charge, their emission from nucleus decrease atomic number by
two atomic mass by four.
A A-4 4
Example: ZX 235 Z-2Y231 + 2 4
92U 90U + 2He
+
,
1/ Their deflected towards the (-ve) plates. They are double (+ve) charge. And atomic
number two and mass number four equals to Hellium (2He4).
2/ Their velocity 1/10th of speed of light.
3/ They have high power of ionization because double (+ve) charge.
4/ They produce flash on zinc plate.
5/ When they are absorb in matter, they produce heating.
6/ Penetrating power and range is low.
7/ Their mass and charge equal to Hellium.
' '
They are found to be fast moving as electron from nuclear origin. When emission of beta
particle from nucleus (Z) will be increase by 1 but mass number (A) remain same.

:
A A
ZX 231 Z+1Y + 0
231 -1 0
90Th 91Po + -1e
+
!
1/ They are deflected towards (+ve) plates.
2/ Their mass and charge equal to electron.
3/ Their velocity is 1/5th speed of light.
4/ Their ionization power is 100 times less than a particles.
5/ They are represented by -1b0 called elctron.
6/ Their penetrating power or range is greater than a particle about 100 times.

These radiations are undeflected, these radiations also called electromagnetic waves with
high frequency, these emsion radiations atomic mass (A) and atomic (Z) of the parents nuclei
remains unchanges. So Agama raysA
chargelss and massless.
ZX ZY + g
+

1/ These are not deflected.
2/ They travel equal to the speed of light.
3/ Their ionization power is less then beta.
4/ Their penetrating power are range is very high.
5/ They are diffracted by crystal.
6/ They damaged human cell.
7/ They are also use in hospital to destroy cancer.
8/ They are absorb by matter.

In nature, the unstable nuclei, decay by the emission of a, b with g rays. A process in
which a, b and g rays originate from the nucleus of an atom is called radioactive transformation.
Õ
In case unstable decay by emission of a particle, its charge number (Z) decrease two and
its mass number A(A) decrease four. The transformation is represented by the equation:
Z-2YA-4 +
ZX 230 2 He 4
Example 1: 90Th286 88Ra286 222

+ 2 He44
2: 88Ra 86Rn + 2He
3: 84Po210 82Pb206 + 2He4
Õ '

In case unstable nucleus decay by the emission of beta particle, its charge nunmber
(Z) increase 1, but its mass number remain same. Show the equation:
A
ZX Z+1YA + -1e0
14
Example: 6C 7N14 + -1e0
Physics = XII 52c
Nucleus 8 neutron ± 1 neutron (7 neutron + 7 protons)
6 proton + 1 proton
1 neutron e- + P+
note: There
+
is no
-
electron in nucleus, +so emission of (e-) means 1 neutron is broken (e-) and
(Z ) but (e ) emit and increase (Z ) so this process neutron convert in proton.
! +
Positive electron or positron is produced such that charge number (Z) decrease 1
but mass numberA(A) remain
A
same.
0
ZX Z-1Y + 1+e
30 30 0
Example: 15P 14Si + 1+e
Nucleus 15 proton - 1 proton (14 proton + 16 neutron)
15 neutron +1 neutron
1 proton e+ +n
Note: Inside
+
a nucleus only one proton can be transformed and (e+) positron and neutron, then
(e ) emit and increase one neutron.

Nuclear with excess protons absorb one of its inner orbit electron consequently a proton,
inside the nucleus is converted into neutron. This process is called electron capture or K capture.
1 proton + 1 electron 1 neutron.
z++e- n
7 0 7
Example: 4B + -1e 3Li
Nucleus 4 proton ± 1 proton (3 protons + 4 neutron)
3 neutron + 1 neutron
z++e- n

Gamma rays are high frequency of photon or electromegnatic waves, the emission of g
rays no change in atomic number (Z), mass number (A) and neutron number (N). But nucleus
with excess energy is called excited nucleus.
60 60
Example: 27CO 27CO + D
" .
This law is consist on following conculsion:
1/ No radioactive elements can be completely disintegrate reason is that only in high period
nuclei this integrate half.
2/ The number of nuclei disintegrates per second are directly proportional to the number of
nuclei.
Mathematically:
ÿN ÿT (i)
ÿN N (ii)
Now compare (i) and (ii)
ÿN NÿT
ÿN = -rNÿT (iii)
r = - ÿN/ÿTN (iv)
V : Decay constant (r) = number of nuclei disintegrate/second x number of nuclei.
Now (iv) show that if (l) decay constant is large the element will be disintegrate is large.
If (l) constant is small the element will be disintegrate small.

The number of nuclei disintegrate per second is called activity. It is denoted by (A).
Mathematically:
A = DN/DT (v)
The unit of activity:
Bacquaral(Bq) or or disintegrate per second (dist/sec) or cusie It is denoted by (A).

ersecond
or cusie

usie 37 107 Bq

3.7 107
sec
Relativity: The ratio b/w No. of nuclei is present and original No. of nucleus.

Re
U ë (7)

Physics = XII 53c
(e) exponent is natural logarithm base or and (-) sign indicate decrease power of nuclei.
'

U = o.
'
= o
s you know that = '
Ô
'

Ô
'

' Ñ in equation (5) putting the value of ( ) and ( o)
Ô Ô Ô

U or = eU
Ô
Ô

U (8)

Half Life Period: Radioactive element may be exist for No. of half life period.
%" A period in which No. of another element as I, B, r. it means parent element convert in
daughter element.
From the figure and eq.(8) again

U r

if t =0 N= No and A= Ao

U r

1
U r (9)
1
If t= , N= 0 and A= 0
2 2 2
1
0 - r

U r OR e 2
0 0 2
- r
1 1
1 1
=e 2
= 1
(B.C.M)
2 2 - r
e 2
1
r
e 2 2 Now apply log.
log2= r 1
2
r 1 0.693
2
0.693
1
2
r
In radioactive element diff. Value of half life in diff. Element As half life of radium is 1590 year
and half life in radon is 3.8 days.
It means radium is long lived and radon is sort lived.
& "

A process in which change the structure of nucleus by bomb barding the target of
nucleus with fast moving particle like 1H1, 0n1 and (Ñ) , and radiation
%"
A process involving changing in an atomic Nucleus such as fission and fusion from chemical
Reaction.
, In the beginning radioactivity was natural and un controllable then emission of x,
B and r-rays was un controllable means emission of x, B particles change in decay element.
When (Ñ) particle emitted uranium then it is convert in theroum.

92 4 235 90 231 2
4
Physics = XII 54c
Rutherford believed that when (Ñ) particles are emitted then one element convert another
element. After 1919 Rutherford performed experiment in laboratory. The Nitrogen nucleus is
bomb barded by high energy (Ñ) particles. He observed that result is produce Isotope of oxygen
and emitted one proton.
7 '14 2
4 8´17 1 1

& "
For nuclear reaction take place, it must satisfactory following condition.

Before and after chemical reaction the No. of proton and
neutron remain same.
7 ' 14 2
4 8´17 1 1 ´17 16.9994
Before fter
(N0.of roton) 7 2 9 8 1 9
(No.of Neutron) 7 2 9 9 0 9

The total energy of nuclear reaction before and after remain same.

# !

& ë

+
Isotopes of Lithium absorbed one proton and produce two (X) particle in the reaction.
3 o 7 1 1 2
4 2
4
This experiment verifying the Einstein Mass-energy Relationship.

& "
When high energy of (1H2) may be absorbed by Lithium (3Li6) and also produce two (X)
particle.
o 6
2

4
2
4
3 1 2
$ "

In 1932 Chadwick bomb barded (X) particles on a Beryllium nuclei and convert in Carbon and
emitted once neutron
Î
9 2
4 6 12 0 1 .
8& $ "
When neutron bombarded on target of Nitrogen nucleus and produced Isotopes of Carbon an
one proton.
7 14 1 1 6
14
1 1
?$ "

When deuteron and high energy Gamma rays bombarded on Aluminum and produce Isotopes of
Sodium
27
and
2
emitted double proton.
13 Al +1 H +r(50 Mer) 11Na25+ 21H1
- 9

Diff: The diff: b/w the total mass of the separate nucleus and mass of the bound nucleus is called mass
depth. It is denoted by (ÿm)
ÿm=(ZMP + NMn) - M
where Z= Atomic No.
Mp = Mass of proton
N= neutron No.=Mn=mass of neutron
M= mass of the nucleus
The total mass of nucleus is always greater than the mass of the nucleus.
Example: Deutron = (1H2) 1 -27
(Mass of )1Proton= 1H 1= 1.6724x10 -27 kg
1neutron = 0n =1.6748x 10 kg
(Mass of) Deutron = 1H2= 3.3431x 10-27
ÿm= (ZMP + NMn)-27- M
Dm = (1.6724 x 10-27
+ 1.6748 x 10-27 kg) ±3.3431x10-27kg
Dm= 0.0014x 10 kg
It means mass of neutron is grater than mass of the nucleus
' The total energy is required to break nucleus into separated neutrons is called
binding energy. The energy which is released in the form of r-rays when proton and neutron
combine form of nucleus.
According to Einstein (The some mal lost and convert in a energy.)
Dm= 0.0041 x 10-27 kg E = m.c2
m
C= 3x 108 B.E= ÿm.c2
sec2
B.E= 0.0041 x (3x 10)2
Physics = XII 55c
2
m
B.E= 0.0041 x 9 x 1016 kg
sec 2
B.E= 3.69 x 1013 J
3.69 10 U13
B.E=
´ 2.3

1.6 10 U19
B.E= ( 2.3 Mev) energy is required to break up the nucleus of Neutron into its constituent part).
' 4
½
B.E = 2 He
2 proton and 2neutron
mass of (2) proton = 2x 1.6724 x 10-27 kg
mass of (2) neutron = 2x4 1.6748x 10-27kg
mass of Helium = (2He ) = 4.002603
B.E= ÿm.c2
ÿm=(ZMP+ NMn ) ±M
ÿm= (2x 1.67 x 24 x 10-27 + 2x 1.6748 x 10-27) ± 4.002603
Dm( )
B.E= ÿm.c2
m
C= 3x 108
sec
It means when two proton and two neutron together to make helium nucleus also we can say that
if 2.82Mev energy is given to helium nucleus to break into two proton and two neutron.
' The binding energy per nucleus is called binding friction.
.
inding friction

(1)c Binding energy is that energy must be supplied breaking nucleus.

V
(2)c If strongest bounded nucleus have greatest binding energy at least 8

(3)c B.E very small for light and heavy nuclei.
.
riction
Ô
(11 a23) 11
23
-
12
(c 931 er)
B.E ÿm.c 2
ÿm 11(mass of proton 12 (mass of neutron) - 11(mass of a23))
ÿm 0.200285
. ÿm.c 2 0.20085 931
. 186.6
V
. 186.6
( .· ) 8.11
V
Ô 23
23
( 11 ' .· ) 8.11
V
&
A process of breaking up of a heavy nucleus into two inter mediate size of nuclei with
release energy is called Nuclear fission.
As you know when (B) particle emitted from the nucleus and increase atomic No.
SoFermi and his workers in (1934) bombarded the target of uranium by neutron and found (B)
particles which are emitted diff. Half lives. From year after two scientist belong German Hahn
and Stress man also bombarded target of uranium with neutron and proton Isotope of (56 Be141).
Soon after in 1939 Frinch and Metner perform experimentally when uranium target of nucleus
bombarded with neutron and produce two inter nuclei sizing nucleus (56Be141) and (36Kr92) and
also obtained three neutron.
92 4 235 0 1 (92 4 236 ) 56 Be141 + 36Kr 92 + 3 0n 1 +
Exinted Baraliu Krypton Neutr Energy
Compo m on relases
und
Physics = XII 56c
Then ½ value energy released is (2200Mer) in this reaction total mass, charge, total
energy and total momentum remain same. When nuclear reaction obtained three points
1.c The nucleus is divided two inter moolicle size of nucleus.
2.c During reaction some mass decrease.
3.c Also obtain three neutron called fission neutron.

Mass of (4235 ) = 235.04574
Mass of (0n1) = 1.008664
Total mass of reactant = 236.05434
Mass of (Ba141 ) = 140.9174
Mass of (30n1) = 3.025994
Total mass of protant = 235.8294
ÿm = reactant ± protant = (236.0543- 235.829)
ÿm = 0.2154 = B.E= ÿm.c2= 0.2154 x 931 Mer
B.E= 200 Mer
[
!

1.c Fission is U235 element can take place spontaneously
2.c About 200 Mer energy is release per fission.
3.c Three neutrons are obtain per fission.
4.c Breaking nuclei also radioactive
5.c Three fissionable nuclei (U235 ± U233 ± PU239) called fission nuclei.
6.c The fission has been produce gold, lead and earth.
7.c Un controllable fission reaction is fission bomb.
8.c Controllable fission is reaction Nuclear reactor plant.
"
Further induce fission in addition form is called chain reaction. When Uranium is split
into two intermediate nuclei and obtain three neutron and three neutron number fission is
three more uranium (U235) nuclei will release uranium neutron. Thus they will go in erase
and large amount of energy is released.
ë
"
1.c 0 " When one uranium release three neutron. If more
than one neutron able of fission (U235) nuclei.
And No. of neutron increase and large amount of energy is release which is
uncontrollable.
2.c ! " By Controllable fission chain reaction use of
release energy with the help of nuclear reactor.
In this process only one of three neutron allowed to produce fission in atom and
remaining neutron allowed by non fissionable material.
& %" "
We may note that nuclei with mass no. (A) less than 30 or 40 or have smaller binding energy per
nuclei.
Example: Binding energy of hydrogen is 1.12 Mer.

A process in which light nuclei are combines to form of heavy nuclei with release
energy is called nuclear fusion.
, It is very difficult to produce fusion reaction. When two (+ve) charged nuclei are
brought less to fuse to gather work has done against electro static force of repulsion. A very
large amount of energy is required to start fusion reaction.
, When2 two deuteron 2 4
combine to form a helium nucleus.
1 H + 1 H 2 He +Q (24 Mer)
The energy is released when fusion of lighter nuclei into heavier nuclei is called thermo nuclear
fusion.
When fusion taken place under the controlled condition the most promising reaction are below.
1.When Deuteron
2 2
- Deuteron
3 1
Reaction
H
1 2 + H
1 2 = He
2 3 + n
01 + Q(3.3Mer)
1 H + 1 H = 1 H + 1 H + Q(4Mer)
2. Deuteron- Triton Reaction
Another source could be drive combination of deuteron and triton to form of heavier Alpha
particle. 3 2 4 1
1H + 1H 2He + 0n = (17.6Mer)
Deuteron most found in ocean but triton is rare or costly in atmosphere.
& " [
The scientist have been asking the question what is the origin of energy that Sun has been
releasing into space. The Sun is composed of hydrogen and little amount of helium and slightly
amount of other element.
The Sun is released amount of energy 4x1026 W square meter but earth surface is
receiving at rate of 1.4KW very high temperature amount (20 million Kelvin).
When discovery of nuclear reaction specially fusion reaction called P-P reaction. Nuclear
Physicists are able to given answer.
In 1938 German scientist Weize Zalker and U.S.A Bethe both work independently,
explain the production of energy in the Sun as due to fusion of hydrogen atom to form of helium
atom. Given Cycle Process or Chain Reaction Cycle
Physics = XII 57c
1.c Proton
1
±1Proton Cycle 2 0
1H + 1H 1H + 1e +v(neutron ).(1.44Mer)
2
1H + 1 H1 _ 2He
3
+ r = (5.42 Mer)
3
2He + 1 H1 2He
4
+ +1e0+v
(Over all process 41H1 4 0
2He + 2+1e +2v+r
and energy is release 25Mer
and (v) neutron particle is very small mass as compare to electron or zero)
(Fusion of Hydrogen into Helium can proceed in another way. This is assume occurs in the
Sun). in 1938 Bethe proposed
2.c Carbon ± Nitrogen Cycle.
12
6 1 1 7 13 V
7 13 6
13
1
0
13
6 1 1 7 14 V
7 14 1 1 8´15 V
15 15 0
8 ´ 7 1
V
15 1 12
7 1 6 2
4
The above all process 41H1 2 He 4 + 2+ +1e 0 +2v +3r
Also eneergy (Q) is released (26.7 Mer)
& "
It is device which used to obtain the nuclear energy or atomic energy by controlling
fission chain reaction.
As you know that only Uranium neutron is fission able process which is controllable chain
reaction is called nuclear reactor.
The fissionable reaction produce on the average 109 time more energy in air form of carbon-di-
oxide
(1) Nuclear fuel= ( ) A material consisting of the fissionable or fissile isotope is
called reactor fuel.
Thes
fuel that may be used in reactor are uranium (1235 in its natural uranium is 1% and 99% is
Li . The uranium must be enriched by increasing the proportion of Li235 before it is used in
nuclear reactor .
. - The reduce some energy of neutron, some suitable material are required are
known as moderator.
OR The material is used which slow down the neutron. It is generally low mass No. as light
or heavy water is supposed bet suited material for neutron moderator OR used fuel rod.
The substance that take away any heat from the core to heat exchange ±Air
gasses, carbon-di-oxide, water sodium or mercury are used as coolants.
When circulated absorb heat and transparent side to core and some properties.
(1). It should not absorb OR not moderate neutron.
== and it should not chemical effect with other water.
== It should break up the radiation
== It should be cap ablative radioactive
== It should remain large amount of energy and low pressure of power temperature of ractor.
== The material should be used collant as light OR heavy water OR sodium and mercury
8 - The control reactor used suitable material which is absorb extra
neutron as Boron OR Cadmium rod used to absorb neutron OR good control material low
temperature. Boron is good control material it is high melting point Or capability of absorb
large No. on neutron.
? [ It is protective wall to absorb intensity of radiation. Hence proper shielding
material is always required to protected the person working in the reactor area. A shielding
material used for such protection is called biological shielding, because its purpose to protect the
health. It is about six to eight feet thickness has been found to absorb both neutron and gamma
rays at as good biological shield.
+. When reactor become critical (at least one neutron per fission able is
released to maintain the controlled chain reaction).
The loss mass due to fission process converted into energy, most them appear thermal energy
and collant much absorb energy and coolant circulated heat exchanger. Where it is gives energy
to water in a boiler. This produce steam which is directed to turbine form them spin. The
spinning turbine drive the electric generator which is produce electricity.
Critical = the mass of fission able material which is particular shape. Jus as chain reaction.
Core = It is main part of nuclear. The fuel in kept in the shape of cylindrical tubes.
====================END Of CHAPTER =====================
Physics = XII 58c
¦ c

c c

$
( [ 6,.

The set of particular frequency or wavelength is called Spectrum.
%": an array of components of radiations separated in the order of increasing or decreasing
wavelength.

, Ordinary light consists on radiations of all wavelengths because when light
pass through a prism the light is splitting into radiations of different wavelengths and different
directions. The individual radiations having different wavelength will make independent image
on a photographic film, place on other side of the prism.
TYPES OF SPECTRUM
Emission Spectrum Absorption Spectrum
Continuous Spectrum Line Spectrum

Explanation of the type of Spectrum:
[
It is defined as the spectrum obtained while passing from higher energy level to lower
energy level.
,: When elements in their gaseous state are heated to high temperature or in other
case they are subjected to an electric discharge (in terms of Bohar model heating atom give
some extra energy). So some of their electrons may jump to higher energy level but one of those
electrons may drop back down to a lower energy level. These electrons will emit photons and
these photons will create the bright lines in this spectrum. It means emission spectrum is
obtained.
! [ It is defined as the spectrum obtained when electron passes
from lower energy level to higher energy level.
, When source of light containing all visible wavelengths is passed through
the cool gases, the photon from light will interact with the electron of cool gas; and electron of
cool gas absorbs energy and passes from lower energy level to higher energy level.
ë
[ 9

[ 9 It is spectrum having no break or we can say discontinuity in
wavelength of all colors from red to violet. Simply, it consists of all wavelengths without any
discontinuity of intensity.
, 9 Sunlight or ordinary light is the one of the best example of continuous spectrum.
,9 When gases, light or solids at high pressure are heated they emit radiations
of all wavelengths ranging from 400 to 700 nm.
These radiations are of seven colors but they are mixed with each other. There is no any
distinct line among colors and colors are continuous.
# [ 9 This spectrum consists on a very sharp line and is defined as
spectrum consisted on relative No. of series or lines and theses lines are well separated on one
another.
,9 When an element in its atomic state is heated on a flame, it emits radiations
of different wavelength. Now here we can see distinct lines separated by dark space and bright
colors are resulted from absorption of light. Each element owns its spectrum having different
lines with definite wavelength.
ë½[+ë"0-%½ "%& ë%-9
The simplest hydrogen atom has one electron revolving around the nucleus and the mono
positively charged nucleus. The emitted radiations which consists particular set of frequency is
called spectrum; generally spectrum is based on following facts:-
c Each element has its own characteristic spectrum this is because the spectrum of each
element is different from each other.
c The spectrum of an element consists of series of lines.
c Hydrogen is the simplest element having the spectrum of five series.
A physicist John Balmer succeeded to find an empirical formula given as:
1 1 1
OR =c 2 U 2
r 1 2
Physics = XII 59c

Suppose to consider two orbits n1 and n2.
Now energy in n1 orbit ( i-e n = 1) is:-
1
1 U Eo
1 2
While energy in n2 orbital (i-e n =2 ) is :-
1
2 Eo
2 2
Now difference of energy
ÿE = E2 ± E1 = hf
1 1
ÿE = U 2
U U 2
2 1
U1 1
ÿE = 2 2
2 1
1 1
ÿE = U 2 U 2 Taking Eo Common.
1 2
1 1
ÿE = 2
U 2
1 2
ÿE = hf
1 1
hf = 2
U 2
1 2
f = c/r
1 1
2 U 2
1 2
1 1 1
U
...... L (1 )
1 2 2

2
1
while = wave No.
r
Wave no: is defined as No: of waves per unit length is called Wave
Number.
And we also known that

2>
So
h = 2ëh ----- (b)
Now putting eqs: (a) & (b) in eq: (1) we get:
1
1 1
2 U
r 3 2ë 2 2 2 1 22
2ë
1
4 1 1
2ë r 2 U 2
r 3 2 ë 2 o 2 2
1 2
1
4 1 1 1
U
r 3 2 ë 2 2 2 2ë 1 2 22
1
4 1 1
U
r 6 4 ë 3 2 3 1 2 22
Its
4
3 2 3
= Rydberg Constant(RH) = 1.0967 x 107 m-1
64 ë
me4 /64 ë3 o2 cȶ3 = Rydberg constant (RH) = 1.096 x 107 m-1
1
(
1
U
1
) 1

12 22 r

1
2
U
1

PROVED
1 22
Physics = XII 60c
'/ - ë ½
In order to develop a quantitative theory for the spectrum of hydrogen atom. Bohar put
forward following postulates shaping it a Model. It tells:-
(1). An electron moves in those circular orbits for which its orbital angular momentum is an
integral multiple of h/2ë
The total energy of the electron remains constant as long as it remains in the same orbit.
(3). If the electron jumps from initial orbit of engery 1i to final orbit of energy
, a photon of
frequency is emitted.
U ------ ==> (1)
Ù

,9 According to Bohr¶s postulates the hydrogen atom consists of a nucleus
containing a photon and the electron revolving around the nucleus in definite circular orbit.
1p
+ r
Electron is attracted from one orbit to another orbit or according to Coloumb¶s law the
attractive force exerted by the nucleus on the electron has magnitude:-
F = 1/ 4ë ȯ . e2 / r2 ------ (2)
The force directed towards center is called centripetal force.

2
------ (3)
V2
By value of F in eq: (2) from eq: (3)
mv 2 1
2 ---- (4)
r 4ë V 2
The total energy of the electron is the sum of Kinetic energy ( T= ½ mv2) and prential energy
(v= -1/4ë ȯ e2/r)
Hence total energy µE¶ of electron will be
E=T+V ------ (5)

By putting the values
E = 1/2 mv2 + ( -1/4 ë ȯ . e2 / r)
E = 1/2 mv + ( -1/4 ë ȯ . e2/r) ---- (6)
From eq: (iv)
mv/ r = 1/4ë ȯ . e2/r2
mv = 1/4ë ȯ . re2/r2
mv = 1/4ë ȯ . e2/r ---- (7)

By value of mv in eq: (vi) from eq: (vii).
E = 1/2 . 1/4ë ȯ . e/r ± 1/4ë ȯ e/r
= (1/2 ±1) 1/4ë ȯ . e/ r
= ( -1/2) 1/4ë ȯ . e/r
E = -1/8ë ȯ . e/r ---- (8)
When electron revolves in nth orbit according to Ist postulate the linear momentum is
equal to nh/ 2ë.
Physics = XII 61c
L = nh/ 2ë. ---- (9)
Where as µn¶ is denoting the number and h is same as plan K constant concerned with
energy and frequency of photon.
Where µn¶ has values 1,2,3,------- since the electron of mass µm¶ is moving in circular
orbit of radius µr¶ with velocity µv¶ then:
L = mvr ---- (10)
By value of L in eq: (9) from eq: (10)
mvr = nh/ 2ë.
v = nh/ 2ëmr ---- (11)
Where as h = h/2ë
h = 2ë h
By the value of h in eq: (xi)
v = n h 2ë/ 2ëmr
v = nh/mr ---- (12)
By value of µv¶ from eq: (xii) in eq: (vii)
m . nh/mr = 1 /4ëȯ . e/r
nh/ mr2 = 1/ 4ëȯ . e/r
nhr /mr = 1 /4ëȯ . e
nh/mr = 1/ 4ëȯ x e
nh = mre/4ëȯ
mre / 4 ëȯ = n h
r = 4ë - ȯ nh / me -- (13)
Above equation gives the radii of the different values of n.
Now substituting the values
ȯ = 8.85 x 109 C / N . m, h = 1.05 x 1098 J.S, m = 9.1 x 109 Kg.
e = 1.6 x 109C C ; after solving it we get:
r = n x 0.53 x 1091 m
OR r = n x 0.53 x 1091x 10C nm
Then r = n x 0.053 nm
While n stands for no: of orbit, so
When n = 1 then r = (1) x 0.053 nm = 0.053 nm
Also n = 2 then r = (2) x 0.053 nm = 4 x 0.053 nm
Where r is called Bohar¶s radius.
Commonly, it is seen that the radii are proportional to the square of the integer
number µn¶; is called as principal quantum number.
By recalling
E = -1/ 8ëȯ ± e/r
E= -e/8ëȯ . 1/r
By the value of r from eq(xiii)
E = -e/ 8ëȯ . 1/4ëȯnh/ me
= -e / 8ëȯ . me/ 4ëȯnh
E = -me/8ëȯ . me/4ëȯnh
E = -me8/32ëȯ h . (1/n) -------- (14)
By substituting the values we get
E = - 13.6/n eV (conversion of Joules into eV also takesplace)
then n = 1,2,3,4««««
So in Ist orbit energy of
is E = - 13.6 / (1) = -13.6 eV
Also in 2nd orbit energy of
is E = -13.6/(2) = -3.4 eV
Also in 3rd orbit energy of
is E = -13.6 /(3) = -1.5 eV
Upto EÑ = 0
NOTE: It should be kept in mind that the energy of ground state is (-13.6 eV)
Physics = XII 62c
#
The Energy Levels can be represented as shown in figure:-

According to initial steps:

E = me8/ 32ëȯ h . (1/ni)
And E
= -me8/32ëȯh (1/n
)
When electron jumps from E to E
the energy of electron can be found out.
E ± E
= {-me8/32ëȯh . (1/n ) ± (-me8/32ëȯh . (1/n
))
8
E ± E
= {-me /32ë ȯ h . (1/n ) + (me8/32ëȯh . (1/n
))
(me /32ë ȯ h ) It is common is called Rhydber constant
8
E ± E
= {me8/32ëȯh . (1/n
± 1/n)
R½ = (me8/32ë ȯh)
ÿE = R½ ( 1/n
± 1/ n)
, & $< +

, Energy required by an electron to jump from low orbit to some
higher orbit of the atom is known as energy of excitation.

,+ 9 The potential difference used to supply the energy of excitation to an
electron of the atom is called excitation potential.
$<+ 9 The potential difference applied on an atom to remove loosely
bonded electron from it is called Ionization Potential. Ionization potential value for H -atom is
13.6 volts.
D9" [+ë" In 1895 a German physicist William Roentgen observed that when
fast moving electrons or Cathode rays collide with anode plate in discharge tube, highly
penetrating radiations were produced, called x-rays.
The range of wavelength of radiations was 0.1 to 1 nm and corresponding frequency was
(10@ to 10C Hz.)
In x-ray tube a hot filament or cathode emits electrons. T is µtarget¶ made of copper
which emits x-rays when it is bombarded by the electrons. The target is embedded in copper
block A at the end of a metal rod. A is the anode and it is kept at a high voltage such as 100 KV.
Electrons then reach A with high energy and decelerated suddenly. As in the result some
part of energy of electron is converted into x-rays which are spread out from the target. The
remaining energy of the electron is converted into heat, so A becomes very hot which is cooled
by using cooling process. In large x-ray tubes used in hospitals, the anode A is cooled by
circulating water behind it continuously. The x-ray tube evacuated of air so that the electron can
be accelerated from cathode to anode A and a metal cylinder C is used to focus the electrons on
the target area.
As x-rays are produced with bombardment of electron on metal, so x-rays production is
the reverse process of photoelectric effect.

>
,9
i. Soft x-rays:- Lower energy x-rays are called soft x-rays.
ii. Hard x-rays. X-rays of higher energy are Hard x-rays.
0
,9
i. Medial diagnostics ii. Radiotherapy
iii. Industry iv. Astronomy
v. Photo state machine.
D9" [ %"D9"'"-[[ë" ½#0&
The x-ray emitted from a target, when it is bombarded by electrons, having continuous
range of wavelength are known as Bremsstrahlung from the German word means µBreaking
radiations¶.
According to electromagnetic wave theory, when an electron is accelerated, it radiates
energy. When electron passes close to the nucleus, they are deflected and hence they emit out
electromagnetic radiations, called Bremsstrahlung spectrum i-e x-rays are produced.
As for each breaking incident, a quantum of light hf = (E ± E) is emitted, electron are
free and so they have no quantised states, therefore continuous spectrum is resulted.
%
D9" [
Going through the spectrum we come to know that in continuous spectrum the
distribution of energy depends on the potential difference across the x-rays tube while the line
spectrum is the characteristics of the target.
Physics = XII 63c
The characteristics spectra can be explained from the principal of inner shell
transitions. The electrons in an atom are distributed in different shells.
When highly magnetic electron from the cathode knocks out an electron of the K-shell,
then the vacancy in K-shell is filled by the transition of electron from L-shell to K-shell giving
rise to characteristic x-rays called KÑ line. If the electron of M-shell fills the vacancy of K-
shells, then the characteristics x-rays is called Kß -line. If the electron of M-shell fills the
vacancy of K-shell then the x-rays is called KD line.
All these lines KÑ, KE, KD and so on are called the K-series. The accelerated electrons
from the cathode knocks out the electron from shell and of the vacancy is filled the transition of
electrons from N, O shells, we get L-series and the first line of which LÑ, next is L E and so on.
c

# ["
The word laser is the abbreviation of ³Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiations´.
It is a device, which provides very narrow and intense beam of monochromatic coherent light.
Laser beam consists following characteristics:
i.c It is highly monochromatic or consists on single wavelength.
ii.c It consists of coherent light or trough and crest.

iii.c All parts travel in same direction.
# ["+"$&$+ #
The laser light amplification by stimulated emission process was introduced by Einstein
in 1917.
The interaction between matter and radiations involves three steps.
! + [ [
1.Absorption Before Life Time 10-8sec
E2
No Emission
hv E1
2.Spontanous E2 E2
Emission (Decay) No-Incident Photon
hv
E1
3. Stimulated
Emission
Life time E2
10-3 sec Laser
hv
E1
[ When electron in excited state incident photon then two photons can be
emitted.
[ When electron lose energy and emitted a single photon.
%
#
When laser is obtained it involves following terms:
1. - 9 ! [ In excited state the life time 9of Atom is 109B sec. But when other
photon incident then the life-time of electron becomes 10 sec. The de excitation by stimulated
emission is called meta-stable state.
+ $ 9 In population inversion needed no: of atom in excited state is
greater than ground state. Population inversion produces following method.
Let electrons from ground state are jump up to excited state, when absorbs light, then electron
does not fall back drown to E, because such transition is not allowed and comes back to E
emitted decay photon, when reacts E state which is meta stable state thus
reaches E much
faster than leaves E; in result increase no: of atom in E state; than E, this population inversion
is achieved.
3. [ [ When electron is already an excited state and photon of energy
incident and incident photon is increased that electron returns to the ground state by emitted
second photon having same energy this process is called stimulated state.
Physics = XII 64c
2.
The process of stimulated emission by using mirrors at end in
lasing material; the emitted photon moves back and forth this process multiplying
reflection and increase the no: of photons and chain reaction of similar process is called
amplification.

# 9 Following are the kinds of laser.
1. [ # 9 Ruby Laser - Semiconductor
2. #4# :- Use of dissolved in methanol as active material and operate room
temperature.
3. # 9 Helium ± Neon and Carbon dioxide.
"0' # ["

$ The first successful operation of laser was achieved by T.H Maiman in
1960 by using ruby crystal.

i.c It is made up of AlO Aluminum oxide in which small no: of (Al) atom shared is
replaced by chromium atom (Cr+++).
ii.c The chromium atom absorbs ground yellow light but transmit only red and blue light.
iii.c Ruby Rod is generally 5cm long and 1 cm in diameter.
iv.c The ruby rod surrounded by flash tube of quartz containing (xenon). This provides
pumping energy (yellow ± green).
v.c The flash tube is connected with high voltage.
vi.c End of rod provides two Mirrors (M) totally reflected and (M) silvered.

(- 9 The flash tube necessarily pumping energy and the chromium atoms
absorbs energy and excites. The laser action begins. This results emission of photon from meta-
stable state under stimulated emission and amplification produces powerful coherent beam of
red light of wavelength 6943 A1.

$0"
Fame is something, which must be won, but honour is something which lost at any cost.

^
Physics = XII 65c
98
- -
$

- Power of attracting small pieces Iron.
-
a space around the magnetic force.
- In 1819 Christain oersted discovered Relation between electric and
magnetic field.
When electric charge flow in wire compass needle is deflected mean¶s electric field in
wire produce magnetic field around it, and magnetic field consist on North South Pole same
repel and unlike pole attract each other.
When metal is subbed with non-metal one is lose free electron and other is gain free
electron.
Some way when bar Iron is subbed with magnetism then bar Iron become magnet is
called artificial magnet.
In 19th century Ampere and Farady successful, research in electro magnetism.
They give idea about magnetic field and direction of magnetic field and Magnetic flux,
and discuss about transformer.
-

Suppose a wire caring current (I) when charge flow in conductor, then charge covered
length (L) of conductor also cross section area of conductor. And there is No. of electron (n) and
charge of electron.

Length of conductor = L.
Cross section area of conductor = A
No. of electron = e±
Total moving charge.
q = ne lA (1)
l x A = V.
When charge move in conductor also produce magnetic field.
F = q (V X B) (2) 0
F = nel q (V X B)
If c is unit vector in the direction of V.

V = c V
F = nel A (cV x ȕ)
F = neAȞ ( lc x ȕ) N = cc
F = neAȞ ( l x ȕ) t = cc
nAel = q. and
nAe Ȟ or nAe l = q = I l = Ȟ
t t t
F = nel A (l x ȕ) (3) Picture.
Angl (Q) = b/w l x ȕ = then.
F = I L ȕ Sinș (4)
If ș = 90
F = I L ȕ (max. force) (5)
Magnetic field due to current:
When electric charge at rest then electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion on each
other.
When current flow in wire produce both electric and magnetic field. In 189 Christain
oersted discovered electric and magnetic field.
When moving charge in conductor then compass needle is deflected. It mean¶s that
electric current in wire produce magnetic field around it.
So moving charge produce both electric and magnetic field. But electric current through
conductor produce only magnetic field, because electric field of moving electron is neutralized
by fixed proton in conductor. The field around moving charge is vector quantity.
Physics = XII 66c
Because it is change direction and it is denoted by (ȕ) is called magnetic field.
In 1820 (Ampere) observed that when current flow in two parallel wires in the same direction
attract each other.
But when current flow in two parallel wires in oppose direction, they repel each other.
:
Consider charge (q) moving with velocity and uniform magnetic field around it and
making angle (ș) with field.
Experimentally show that the force on moving charge (q) is proportional to the following
factor.
1. Magnitude of charge (q) F Į q.
2. Velocity of charge (V) = F Į V.
3. Strength of the magnetic field (ȕ) = F = ȕ.
4. Direction or ș between electric and magnetic field.
F Į Sinș
F = q V ȕ Sinș (1)
If ș = 0
F = 0
If ș = 90
F = qVȕ (2)
F = q (V x ȕ).
Unit of magnetic field.
ȕ = F = N
qv C±m
Sec
ȕ = N = N
C .m A.m
Sec
ȕ = N ± A±1 ± m±1 = Tesla
ȕ = Tesla.
' ë4 "

When current is passed through wire suspended in uniform magnetic field ± plane of coil
is parallel to the field. Thus magnetic field is rotate it experience torque. Consider a rectangular
coil (abed) let the coil be placed in uniform magnetic field (ȕ). Let the plane of coil is parallel to
the field.
Here ab = cd = (L) length coil.
(b)
Bc = ad = width of coil.
I = current flow in coil.
Picture
When current passed through the coil, the force is experience on perpendicular placed
conductor (ab = cd) the magnetic of force.
F1 = ȕIL (1).
And we assumed NO force act on bc = ad = which is parallel.
So according to right hand rule.
Force on ab = is upward = Anti clockwise.
And cd is downward = clockwise.
Whne force is upward and downward mean¶s couple force.
Torque couple = magnitude of x perpendicular distance.
Ĳ = F1 . b (2) FL = ȕ I L.
Ĳ = ȕ I L ȕ . gb. FL = ȕ I L Sinș.
Ĳ = ȕ I (L. b) ș = 90.
Ĳ = ȕI A (3). L. w = A.
If (N) is turn of coil
Ĳ = ȕILN (4)
So coil turn under then in flounce of torque then torque is parallel to the field.
So coil make angle with field (cos Į)
So torque and filed is parallel (Wcos Į)
Then
Ĳ = ȕ I L ( W cos Į )
Ĳ = ȕ I L N W cos Į
Ĳ = ȕ I A cos Į (5) LW = A
If Į = 90
Ĳ = 0 (6).
Physics = XII 67c
-
,
,
Magnetic line of Induction OR Force.
(5)c When current in wire the line of force around in perpendicular plane.
(6)c When current is same direction then line of force attracted each other.
(7)c When current in opposite direction then line of force repels each other.
(8)c When current in wire then magnetic field is consist on two pole south pole and
North pole.
i.c South pole upward.
ii.c North pole downward.
-
,
The scalar product of magnetic field and cross section Area, it is denoted by (Øǻ)
Magnetic flux = ȕ magnetic field. Cross Area.
ǻØ = ȕ. ǻ A (1)
Magnetic field and cross section Area parallel each other angle between then (cosș).
ǻØ = ȕ. ǻ A cosș (2)
So magnetic flux is scalar product
Because can not change direction.
If Ø = 0
ǻØ = ȕ. ǻ A (3)

ǻØ = 0 (4)
(9)c Unit of Magnetic flux.
ǻØ = ȕ. ǻA
M2 ȕ = N.m2
ǻØ ȕ . = A.m
A.m
ǻØ = N.m (5) A = m2.
±1
A
NmA = weber = wb.
ǻØ = Wb (5)
The magnetic flux passing per unit area is called magnetic flux density.
ȕ = ǻØ
ǻA
Unit of ȕ =
ȕ = webw
2
= N m ±2 A±1
m m
ȕ = N = Tesla.
A.m

Consider charge particle (q) and moving with velocity and uniform magnetic field around
it.
When electron passing through conductor then magnetic force act on it. F1 = q ( V x b).
F1 = q v ȕ sin ș.
When electron move then magnetic field is appeared and it attract to wards the center
also called centripetal force is provided by magnetic force acting on moving charged particle.
Centripetal force 2 = magnetic force.
mV = ȕ ev.
r
ȕ = mv picture
e.r
r = m.v
e. ȕ.
Son magnetic force is depending on the radius of particle. If deflection particle is greater
then radius of the particle is small.
Determine the ratio of ( e ) of electron:
m
J.J. Thomson was is t scientist to find the ratio of ( e ) of electron in 1897.
m
The apparatus used which consist of bulb shaped glass tube. Which is highly eve mated.
The circular part is made flouve scent screen and on the other end is filament is fitted near the
filament two electrondes A and A¶ which is form of circular disc having hole in the center are
and in center portion of the two parallel metallic plates P and P¶ are fitted.
:
Physics = XII 68c
When high voltage is applied between filament and circular disc. When filament is
heated then electrons are emitted out from filament, which was accelerated by the voltage and
they passes through the holes of the disc in the form of beam with velocity. And acceleration
electron is given or produce energy. 2
Ve = 1 mv
2
V2 = 2V2
m
V = 2ve (1)
M
The beam of strikes the screen coated with Zinc sulphide after passing through the middle
of two horizontal metal plates and light (beam) is produce at ³0´ on the screen where the beam
is strike and its position in denoted.
!

When particle is move with speed then allowed to appeared perpendicular uniform
magnetic. It acts in the term of centripetal force or magnetic force is provide the centripetal
force.
The velocity is before magnetic field.
Magnetic force = centripetal
2
force.
ȕ ev = mv
R
e = V (2)
m ȕr
in this relation e can be determine the value of ȕ, V and r known.
m

"
The radius ( r) of the circular path of an electron can be measured by beam of electron
visible the electron is emitted by two coils that provide magnetic field, such that it describe the
magnetic field in circle the tube filled with gas at low pressure then electron collide with the gas
molecule and electron go ground state to exited. After some time electron come back exited state
to ground state the beam become visible as circular ring of light and diameter can be easily
measured with the help of traveling microscope.
-
after magnetic field.
This method, an electric field is produced due to two oppositely charged parallel plates.
An electric field of electric density ( E) is applied between plates P1 and P2¶ opposite to the
direction of magnetic field.
The electric field by magnetic filed is balanced. So two fields neutralize each other and
spot come back to origion.
:
Magnetic force = electric force.
FM = Fe
ȕeV = eE
V = E (3)
Ǻ. E
Now eq (1)e is again.
em == VV 2 in eq (1) putting the value of (V).
m ȕȕ.r .r
e = 1.6 x 10±9±3c = 1.75 x 1011 c
m 9. 1 x 10 1kg kg.
e = 1.75 x 1011 c
m kg
/ #.
When electric current flow through, then magnetic field is created around it and intensity
of this magnetic field is different at different position. Os find the intensity at any point in the
magnetic field used Ampere law.
(Through Bio t ± savart experiment).
This state that the strength of magnetic field is directly proportional when electric current
flow in wire and inversely proportional to radius or distance of wire.
(1) Magnetic field is directly proportional twice current.
ȕ Į 2I (1)
(2) Magnetic field is inversely proportional to the radius. :
ȕ Į 1 (2)
r
Now combine eq (1) and eq (2).
ȕ Į 2I
Physics = XII 69c
r
ȕ = k2 I (3)
r
Where (K) is constant of proportionality ad it is written as K = Go
4ʌ
Go = is called permeability±7of the free space.
( Go = 10 wb )
m.A
ȕ = Go . 2I
4ʌ r
2
ȕ = Go . 2I (4)
2ʌ r
&.

.
Suppose magnetic field in conductor and circular path radius along when current flow in
conductor.
If circular path is divided small (arc) with length (ǻl)
c
So when magnetic field covered length and can not change direction.
Then we can say dot product between magnetic field and length of circle.
:
ȕ .ǻL = ȕ. ǻL coxș (1).
Parallel (ș) angle between ȕ and . ǻL.
Ampere state that the sum of quantity (ȕ.ǻL) parallel element path is equal to (Uo) times
and total current in close it.
There fore mathematically:
ȕ .ǻL =
(ȕ. ǻL)1 + (ȕ. ǻL)2 + --------- + (ȕ. ǻL)n
ȕ .ǻL =
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL = Ȉ ȕ. ǻL coxș
ș 0 =
ȕ. ǻL =
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL ȕ = Go . I
2ʌ r
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL = Go . I ( length circle) ǻL = (length circle)
2ʌ r
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL = Go . I 2ʌ r ǻL = (2ʌr).
2ʌ r
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL = GoI
This relation is called Ampere law.
Ȉ ȕ. ǻL = Goi.

/ #.
(3)c Solenoid:
Solenoid is constructed by winding insulated copper wire around cylindrical
Frame with close turns is called solenoid.
:
When electric current is flow through solenoid then uniform magnetic field is created in
the space enclosed by it inside the magnetic field (ȕ) can be produce by when current element is
same. Direction, which produce strong magnetic field and out side the solenoid is weaker
because widely separated but strong magnetic field inside the solenoid.
Now find the magnetic field used Ampere Law. Picture
Suppose rectangular path (abed) as closed path. (American loop) it is divided four
elements.
According to ampere law. Fig:
ȕ. ǻL = (ȕ. ǻL)1 + (ȕ. ǻL)2 + (ȕ. ǻL)3 + (ȕ. ǻL)4

ȕ. ǻL = Ȉ ȕ. ǻL
ȕ. ǻL = Goİ ab = ǻL1
(A) bc = ǻL2
cd = L3
(1) Length (ǻL1) ad = ǻL4
ș = 0
(ȕ. ǻL)1 = ȕ. ǻL cosș
(ȕ. ǻL) = ȕ. ǻL1 (1)
Physics = XII 70c
(2)Length (ǻL)2 and (ǻL)4 ș = 90
(ȕ. ǻL)2 = (ȕ. ǻL)4 = ȕ. ǻL cosș = ȕ. ǻlcos(90)
= O (2)
(3) Length of (ǻL)3:
(ȕ. ǻL)3 = 0 (3)
Because out side the solenoid is zero magnetic field.
(ȕ. ǻL) = (ȕ. ǻL)1 + (ȕ. ǻL)2 + (ȕ. ǻL)3 + (ȕ. ǻL)4
(ȕ. ǻL) = (ȕ. ǻL)1 + 0 + 0 + 0.
(ȕ. ǻL) = Goİ (4)
Where (I) is total current enclosed by it Now when (N) turns of coil.
ȕ. ǻL = Goİ = Ș Goİ. i = ǻLI
ȕ. ǻL = Ș Goİ ǻLI I = lI.
ȕ = Ș GoI
Magnetic field with in solenoid can be increased by increased the current in the wire.
When in creased the No. of turn of wire per length.
ë

A toroid or circular solenoid is coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular core
with close turn.
When current is passed through toroid is appeared magnetic field around it. And field is
outside the core or turn is zero and magnetic field is inside the core or turn is uniform.
Now According to Ampere law.
ȕ. ǻL = ȕ. ǻl1 + ȕ. ǻl2 + --------- + ȕ. ǻln
ȕ. ǻl = Ȉ ȕ. ǻl cosș
ȕ. ǻl = Ȉ ȕ. ǻl
ȕ. ǻl = Goİ . 2ʌr ȕ = Goİ
2ʌr 2ʌr
ȕ. ǻl = Goİ ǻl = 2ʌr
(Picture)
If (N) turn of coil then.
ȕ. ǻl = Go Nİ (A)
Let us consider some cases.
& If circular path (mark1) in inside the toroid, it enclosed no current.
I = 0
ȕ = 0
ȕ = 0 (1).
& If circular path (mark2) is with in toroid and core is bounded by (N) turn each then
carrying current
ȕ. ǻl = GoN İ ǻl = 2ʌr
ȕ. 2ʌr = GoN İ
ȕ = GoN I (2).
2ʌr
& If the circular path (mark3) outside the toroid and path enclosed N turns twice
carrying current and same current in opposite direction so net current out side the toriod is zero.
I = 0
ȕ = 0
ȕ = GoN x o
2ʌr
9 $
Relation between electric and magnetic field was discovered by oersted and his idea
when electric current flow in wire produce magnetic field. But can not explain successfully.
After in 1830 Joseph Henry in (U.S.A) and after one year Michal Farady in (1831) from
England explain successful that electric current could be produce by hanging magnetic field
through coil change is called electro magnetic in direction.
e ± m ± f induced:
Current produce by moving in wire cross-magnetic field is known as induced e-m-f or
electromagnetic Induction.
OR
When current induced only produce magnetic field passing through coil also called e-m-
Induction.
Flux linkage:
Induced (e ± m ± f) depend on the rate of change of flux (Ø) through No: of turn of coil
then ³ product of magnetic flux and No: of turn of coil is called flux linkage.
Flux ± linkage = N Ø.
Magnetic flux through circuit can be change.
(5)c Change position of coil wire to magnetic or current in solenoid.
(6)c By changing current in neigh bouring coil or change current it self.
Physics = XII 71c
Faraday¶s Law of Electromagnetic Indduction:
The Relation between induced e-m-f and magnetic flux was provided by Faraday in 1837.
(4)c An (e-m-f) is induced in wire, when magnetic flux through the wire is change with
time.
(5)c This Law state that E.M.F induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through coil.
(6)c Induced (e-m-f) is depend on No: of turn and rate of change of flux.
E.M.f Į ǻØ
ǻt.
E.M.f = ±N ǻØ
ǻt
(O)c is No: of turn.
(-ve) Sign is explain in lenz¶s Law. But it show the direction of (e-
m.f).
# </ #.
The direction of (e-m-f) and current was given Russain Physics lenz¶s in 1835. when
current flow in wire parallel and magnetic field is perpendicular. So magnetic field of wire
always opposite in direction. Because magnetic field consist on North and south pole. North
south pole. North upward direction south downward direction.
Fig:

[
9$
The phenomenon in which changing current in coil induced e-m-f it self is called self-
induction.
,
Suppose a single coil contain Rheostat and battery connected it. When current is passed
through the coil by closing switch. It produced magnetic flux, which is passing through coil it
self. When constant current in coil no change in flux and no induced e-m-f if the change current
by the resistance in circuit, the flux passing through coil also change so according Faraday Law
Produce (e-m-f) in coil it self such e-m-f is called self induction.
(Back e-m-f)

When current switch off. Then stored energy comeback this e-m-f is called back e-m-f.
When switch on then current increase also back e-m-f increase and switch off then current
decrease and back e-m-f also decrease. So e-m-f induced in coil is proportional to the rate of
change of current in coil.
e - m -f Į ǻI
ǻt
e±m±f = L ǻI
ǻt
e±m±f = ±L ǻI (1)
ǻt
L = is constant called self induction (-ve) if induced e-m-f increase or positive then self
induction e-m-f is negative.
According to Faraday Law.
e-m-f = ± N ǻØ (2)
ǻt
Now eq (1) and eq (2) is compare.
± L ǻI = ± N ǻØ
ǻt ǻt
L ǻI = N ǻØ (3)
N ǻØ = LǻI
L = NǻØ (4).c
ǻI
Unit = Webere = Hairy
Ampere
L = Henry.
-$
Faraday apply another method change of flux through coil that induced (e-m-f) by other
coil.
Aprocess in which change of current in one coil to another coil induced e-m-f.
,
Consider two coils shown in fig. One coil is primary contain battery rheostat called
Galvanometer is called secondary coil.
When (S) switch is open both coil have zero flux. But when switch is closed and current
flow from primary coil by closing switch then magnetic field due to current produce in coil.
Physics = XII 72c
When in creased current also change in magnetic field. So some part of flux will pass
through coil then current changed primary by closing switch and flux through secondary coil
also changed and change current produce in other coil. So change current in coil to another
induced (e-m-f).
According to Faraday Law induced (e-m-f) ³the phenomenon of producing (e-m-f) in the
secondary coil by changing magnetic flux through primary coil is called mutual induction.
So magnetic flux through the secondary coil is proportional to the current in primary coil.
There fore
NSØs Į I P.
NSØs = M I p. (1)
M = NSØs (2)
Ip.
E = L I
T
L = E
I/e
M = constant called Mutual Induction according to Faraday Law.
Ę = ± N ǻØ NsØsv = MIp
ǻt
Ę = ± MIp
ǻt
M = Henry.
M = Ę . ǻt
I
M = V . sec
Ampere
Henry = V =
A/ sec
I = q
T
&9 . .
When same current travel in opposite direction the magnetic flux around one wire to
neutralized by other wire is called Non inductive.
%" Wire is double back it self before being coiled up is called Non inductive.
%" When wire is wounded double then current flow one wire to opposite other wire and
magnetic flux around one wire cancel other wire is called Non inductor.

- 99
$
[
When conductor is moved across magnetic field a potential difference appears cross its
ends. The (P.d) is known as motional (e-m-f).
,
Consider a wire of length of (l) moving cross the magnetic field move and magnetic field
appeared with velocity (v) perpendicular then
F = e (v x B)
Thus direction of electron is from a to b, then end (b) will gain (-ve) charge end (a) will
gain (+ve) charge. So end (a) high (P.d) then (b) then electric field balance the force due to
motion of conductor.
:
F = ±e (v x B)
F = ±ev ȕ sinș
(ș) angle between V and ȕ
When charge is flow then work done.
W = F.L
W = ev ȕ Sinå
Potential different = Work done
Charge
V = W W = ± ev ȕ LSinå
q
V = ± ev ȕ Sinå q = e
e
V = V ȕ L sinå
ș = 90
(P.d) V = ± vȕ L
Physics = XII 73c

A generator is electro mechanical device that coverts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
An Ac generator produce current that alternate direction several time.

(1) Magnetic field = It is may be due to permanent strong field.
(2) Armature = Which consist coil of many turns wound core of high permeability.
(7)c Slip rings (R1,R2) These connected with coil can rotate along x-rays of the loop.
(8)c Carbon brushed = These connected with external circuit and Slip rings against
carbon brushed.
:
(-
It consists of rectangular coil moving in magnetic field between north and south magnetic
pole. It is rotate by external source of energy in a magnetic field. The coil is made of large No:
of turns and coil is connected with Slip rings. When coil rotate n the magnetic field then
magnetic tine passing through coil change means magnetic flux change by turns of coil and
induced (e-m-f) is produced and with coil (Slip rings) R1 and R2 attached its end which change
the direction of current in several time.
This apparatus it called Alternating current generator.
Different Position of (A.C current:

(1) Position (a) å = 270
When angle between V and (ȕ) is 0.
å = 0
Then the plane of the loop is perpendicular to ȕ and current will be zero.
Picture
(4)c When (å) angle between V and ȕ is 900 V and ȕ q = 90.
When (q) between
ë%">0%& 0""&ë "" $&"ë &0# "%$#+# $& - &ë$$#
Consider a rectangular coil suspended
ur in a uniform
magnetic field of magnetic induction , such that its plane is
parallel to the magnetic field. A current I is flowing round the coil
in the direction shown in fig (a). The coil is free to rotate about the
axis o¶o.
The vertical side WZ of the coil experience a force F which
is directed perpendicularly into the paper. There is an equal and
opposite force on XY. Since the plane of the coil is parallel to the
field, there is no force on either WX or Z. The forces on WZ and
XY constitute a couple whose torque is given by
Ĳ = Fb -------------------- (1)
Where b is the width of the coil. The directions of the

current in WZ and XY are each at 90o to the magnetic field and
there fore
F = BIL Sin 90o :. Sin 90o

F = BIL ------------------(2)
Where L is the length of each vertical side of the coil. Putting the value of F from eq: (2)
in eq : (1) we get
Ĳ = BIL x b :. L x b = A
Ĳ = BIA
For a coil of N turns

Ĳ = BIAN ------------------(3)
Physics = XII 74c
This torque acts on the coil when its plane is parallel to the magnetic field.
When the plane makes an angle µ¶ with the magnetic field as shown in fig (b) the
perpendicular distance between force will not be µb¶, but it will be ³bcos´ in this case eq: (1)
becomes
Picture
Ĳ = F x bcos
Ĳ = BIl x bcos
Ĳ = BIA cos :. L x b = A
If coil has N turns, then

Ĳ = BIAN cos ------------------(4)
If = 0, cos = 1
Ĳ = BIAN cos00 :. coso = 1
Ĳ = BIAN
In the position of the coil shown in fig (b), the forces do act on the sides WX and YZ but
they being parallel to the axis, do not contribute to the torque, eq: (4) is valid for circular coils
too.
%"%& 0""&ë "" $&%&0ë%"$& 0&$%"-- &ë$$#

Consider a Linear conductor, of Length µL¶ and carrying a current I, be subjected
to a uniform magnetic filed of induction B which makes an angle å with direction of
current as shown in fig (a). If there are n number of free electrons per unit volume.
The total moving charge = q = n Ale
Force on the conductor is given as
ur urur
·
ur
= q ( x ur ) ur
· = q nAle ( x )
Consider
ur
the length
ur
of conductor as a vector in the direction
0ur· the velocity ur ur
· = nAle (âv x ) :. · = âv
ur ur ur
· = nAVe (âl x ) :. = âl
ur ur ur
· = nAVe ( x )
ur ur ur
· = nAle ( x · ) :. V= l
ur t ur ur t
· = q ( x · ) V= l
ur
t ur
t
· = I ( l x · ) ------------ (1)
The magnitude of force is given as
F = IlBSinș
When ș = 900
F = BIl -------------- (2)
B = F ------------- (3)
IL
Unit of B.
In eq: (3) If L = im, I = 1A and F = 1N, then B is called 1 tesla.
1 tesla = IN
IA x Im
Physics = XII 75c
If a wire of Length 1meter, carrying a current of 1 ampere is held perpendicular to
a magnetic field and if it. Experiences a force of one Newton, then the magnetic induction of
magnetic field is said to be 1 tesla.´

[$$&0ë$&:
Consider a single coil connected to a battery and rheostat as shown in fig (a). When
current through the coil is changed by means of rheostat,
the flux through the coil changes due to which an emf. This
emf is called self induced emf or back emf. This emf is
called back emf because if the current is increasing, the
back emf opposes the increase (Lenz¶s Law) and if the
current is decreasing; the back emf opposes the decrease.
It is found theself induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current, therefore
Į ǻI
ǻt
= ± L ǻI ----------- (i)
ǻt
Where L is constant, called self-inductance f the coil, its value depends on the dimensions
of the coil, the number of turns and the permeability of the core material.
Since the self-induced emf opposes the cause (Lenz¶s Law), therefore we assigned here in
eq: 1) negative sign.

0

From eq: (1) we have
L = ------------- (11)
ǻI /ǻt
³If the current change at the rate of IA/sec produces a back emf of I volt, then the self
inductance of the coil is said to be I henry.

[%#&%$ #$#
A solenoid is a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a long
cylinder with close turns. When a current I pass through it, magnetic
field is produced, except at the ends the lines of magnetic induction
are fairly parallel and closely packed inside solenoid indicating that
the field is strong and uniform in the middle portion of the Solenoid.
Out side the solenoid the lines are widely separated and the field is
week.
In order to determine the magnetic induction at a point P on the axis
of solenoid well inside it, imagine a rectangular loop abcd with side
ab on the axis and the side cd far away where the field is zero as
shown in fig: (a). It is divided into four elements l1, l2,l3 and l4.
' / #..
4 ur ur
@ = ( V x B) l =
ȝo x current enclosed.
ur r ur r
0
(i) . 1 = Bl1 cos0 = Bl1 (as and 1, are parallel)
ur r ur
0
(ii)
ur . 2 = Bl2 cos9 = 0 (as and l2, are perpendicular)
(iii) . l3 = Bl3 cosș = 0 (as the field out sides is very small, it
can be neglected and put equal to zero)
r ur
(iv) B. 4 = Bl4 cos90 = 0 (as and l4, are perpendicular)
Therefore
Physics = XII 76c
ur r ur r ur r ur r
( . ) + ( . ) + ( . ) + ( . 8) = ȝo x current enclosed.
Bl1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + = ȝo x current enclosed.
Bl1 = ȝo x current enclosed.
If there are n turns per unit length of the solenoid, and each turn carries a current I,
the current enclosed by the loop abcda will be
.: 1B = ȝo n 1, I
B = ȝo nI ------------ (a) ur
The direction of the field is along the axis of the solenoid Eq (a) shows that is
independent of the position within the solenoid which shows that filed is uniform within a long
solenoid.

ë"-$& ë$%&%½ "ë%- [[" ë$%% &##ë"%&
The above knowledge was utilized by Sir J.J Thomson to determine e/m of an electron.
The apparatus consists of a
highly evacuated pear shape d
glass bulb into which several
metal electrodes are sealed as
shown in fig (a)
Electrons are produced by
heating a tungsten filament by
passing a current through it
Electrons are accelerated by
applying a p.d of above 1000
volts between the filament and the
metal disc µA¶ with a hole at its
center. A further p.d of 500 volts
is applied between dics A and B.
This arrangement focuses the
electron beam to the hole of the disc B from where it is further proceeds in a straight line. If the
total potential difference between the filament and the disc B is V, the velocity acquired by the
electrons is given by the energy equation.

ë 3ë

ë 3 ë
ë
ë3

ë
ë3 9999

The beam strikes the screen coated with zinc sulphide after passing through the middle of
two horizontal metal plates and a spot of light is produced at ³O´ on the screen where the beam
strikes and its position is noted.
The plated p and p' are replaced by two circular identical current carrying coils which
produce magnetic field of magnetic induction field causes them to deflect and the light spot
moves from ³O´ to ³O´ . The new position of the spot is noted and the radius of the circular
path is calculated by observing the shift of the light spot.
As we know that
3 ë 999
ë
3

ë
ë3

ë
3
ë
ë
3 9999

Physics = XII 77c
Putting the value of µV´ from equation (1) in eq (2) we get.

ë

3 F
'

ë

'
ë

' '
ë
999
'
Knowing B, r and p.d µV¶, the ratio e/m can be determined from equation (3)
%"%& ½ "+ "ë$#-%ë$&$& - &ë$$#.

ur
When a particle bearing a charge q and moving with a velocity ë enters the region of a
ur
uniform magnetic field of induction .
It is acted upon by a force
ur ur ur

ur = q (ë x )
= q VBsinå
ur ur
Where µå¶ is the angle between and .
ur ur
Since the force is in the direction perpendicular to at all points, the magnitude of
remain unchanged but its direction changes from point to point and the particle moves in a
circular path. The centripetal force is given by

· 9999

· G
ur ur
$
GC1
· C1 C1
· 9999
equating eq (1) and (2) we get.

ë
4ë'

ë
3 9999
4'
ur ur ur
For a beam of protons, · = e ( ë x ' )
ur ur ur ur
For a beam of electrons F = ± e ( ë x ' ) or F=e ( ' x ë )
The direction of force incase of proton is found by applying R.H. Rule to the cross
ur ur ur
product ( ë x ' ) and for electrons it is found by applying R.H Rule to cross product ( ' x
ur
ë ), fig (a) shows the force acting on electron following.
The fig illustrates the direction of deflection in a few cases when the plane of field is
perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Physics = XII 78c
(i) Trajectory of a beam of protons
(ii) Trajectory of a beam of electrons
(iii) Trajectory of a beam of electron
(iv) Trajectory of a beam of electron when the field exists in an extended region.
/ #.
Consider first a long straight wire carrying a current. I in the direction shown in fig
(a). The lines of force are concentric circle with their common centre on the wire. Hence
the magnetic fields at all points on a curve taken in form a circle round the wire is
tangential and of the same magnitude. Boit and savart experimentally found that the
magnitude of the field is directly proportional on twice the current I and inversely
proportional on the distance µr¶ from the conductor.
Mathematically:
Physics = XII 79c
B £ 2I ---------------- (i)
B £ I ---------------- (ii)
r
Combining (i) and (ii) we have
B £ 2I
r
B = constant x 2I
r
B =ȝo x 2I
4ʌ r
B= ȝo x I ------------- (a)
2ʌ r
Where ȝo is constant of proportionality and its value is 10±7. ȝo is called permeability of
2ë
free space.
0
H
From eq: (a) we have
ȝo = 2ʌ r x B
I
ȝo = m x weber /m2
A
ȝo = weber
Axm
ȝo = 4ʌ x 10±7 W/A x m
-+"[/$"0$ë ## (
Let the circle be divided into small elements each of length ǻL. Multiplying the length of
each element by the tangential component of field which is in the direction of ǻL for all
elements and for this special case, we get
ur ur
B coso ǻL = 0
.ǻ #
The sum of these products for all the elements is
ur ur
Ȉ .ǻ # = Ȉ B coso0 x ǻL :. cos00 = 1
ur ur
Ȉ ur .ǻ #
ur = B x Ȉ ǻL
Ȉ .ǻ # = B x circumference of circle
ur ur
Ȉ .ǻ # = B x 2ʌ r --------- (i)
As we know that
B = M x I --------------- (ii)
2ʌ r
Nowur using
ur the value f B from eq; (ii) in eq: (i) we get
Ȉ .ǻ # = x I x 2ʌr
ur ur 2ʌ r
Ȉ .ǻ = I ------------ (iii)
ur ur

Ȉ .ǻ = , !
This relation is called Ampere¶s law and it is true for a closed curve of any shape taken in
the magnetic field because the distance of the element from the conductor is not involved in this
relation.
[ë ë-ë&% -+"[/# (
The Law states that the sum of the products of the tangential component of magnetic field
of induction and the length of a element of a closed curve taken in the magnetic field is ȝo times
the current which passes through the area bounded by this curve.
Physics = XII 80c


Notes Physics-XII

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Physics = XII 1c

'   Bimetallic thermometer is used to read temperature of hot regions.

ë    -. 2ë 3 )  3 . 

Clausius Statement (Refrigerator) Kelvin Statement (Heat Engine)

cc Q2 = heat release

         

 ,+      

          

      ! . .    

where C is constant it represents capacitance of the capacitor.

where µC¶ is ³equivalent capacitance´ of the capacitors. This relation is used to

The unit of tempt of coefficient of resistivity.

Problem = (2) Area of circle

If c is unit vector in the direction of V.

Angle (ș) = b/w L x B then.

Force on ab = is upward = Anti clockwise.

(     

B .ǻL = B. ǻL cosș (1).

If (N) turn of coil then.

 The frequency of photon is scattered by an electron.

There are two types:

!    4  

Total momentum and energy of photon before and after collision.

De. Broglie Waves finding of Davission and Germer in a particular determination. A

Velocity of particle and speed of light is not equal.

Example 1: 90Th286  88Ra286 222

& "  

This experiment verifying the Einstein Mass-energy Relationship.

 $  "  

?$  "  

Emission Spectrum Absorption Spectrum

Continuous Spectrum Line Spectrum

The force directed towards center is called centripetal force.

By value of F in eq: (2) from eq: (3)

E=T+V ------  (5)

 #   

The Energy Levels can be represented as shown in figure:-

According to initial steps:

If c is unit vector in the direction of V.

ȕ. ǻL = (ȕ. ǻL)1 + (ȕ. ǻL)2 + (ȕ. ǻL)3 + (ȕ. ǻL)4

Where b is the width of the coil. The directions of the

F = BIL Sin 90o :. Sin 90o

For a coil of N turns

If coil has N turns, then

%"%& 0""&ë "" $&%&0ë%"$& 0&$%"-- &ë$$#

'   / #..

%"%& ½ "+ "ë$#-%ë$&$& - &ë$$#.

equating eq (1) and (2) we get.

(ii) Trajectory of a beam of electrons

(iii) Trajectory of a beam of electron

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' Bimetallic thermometer is used to read temperature of hot regions.

ë -.2ë 3 ) 3.

cc Q2 = heat release

,+

! . .

(

The frequency of photon is scattered by an electron.

! 4

Example 1: 90Th286 88Ra286 222

& "

$ "

?$ "

By value of F in eq: (2) from eq: (3)

E=T+V ------ (5)

#

%"%& 0""&ë "" $&%&0ë%"$& 0&$%"-- &ë$$#

' / #..

%"%& ½ "+ "ë$#-%ë$&$& - &ë$$#.