CELL 2017 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY LECTURE) For survival of the cell Not very important for

the cell
Revised By: OCLARIT, Aither Benedict C.; Lecture By: DR. F. ABELLANA
Structure:
• The smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent existence

Membrane-bound and Aggregates of specific

• Generalities:
types of molecules (E.g.
Non-membrane-bound
→ Shape: isolated cells are round (basic shape) however shape changes Melanin proteins,

and the cells group together to form tissues becoming spherical in Glycogen, Lipid)

shape; shape varies in different tissues

Function:

→ Size: very variable (E.g. ovum - largest cell in the female body, skeletal
Carry out specific Serve as temporary
muscle – in pochero)
metabolic activities of the storage for these

• Components/Study of Cell is divided into: cell molecules (mentioned

above)
→ Nucleus
ORGANELLES
→ Cytoplasm
• Membranous (membrane bound)

• Non-membranous

Membranous (membrane bound) Organelles

1. Plasma membrane
CYTOPLASM
→ Though surrounded by cell it is NOT suspended in the Cytosol but
The protoplasm surrounding the nucleus still an organelle

Composed of: → Or Cell membrane or Plasmalemma (generally being called)

Cytosol (fluid portion of cell where formed elements are
suspended); Sarcoplasm (in the muscle); Neuroplasm (in the
nervous tissue); Axoplasm (in the axon)
Formed elements suspended in Cytosol:
1. Organelles
→ Term depends on Type of cell being studied
(E.g. Sarcolemma – muscle, Neurolemma – neuron)
→ The membrane that separates the cell from the other cells in the body
→ L/M – not seen(don’t label cell membrane in Lab manual drawing!
Minus 20!)

▪ Organized structures in the cytoplasm with specific → E/M – trilaminar (3 layers)

functions necessary/important for cell metabolism,
Bilipid layers (2 layers)
survival of the cell

1. External bilipid layer – facing interstitial fluid

▪ The cell cannot do without the organelles.

2. Internal bilipid layer – facing cytoplasm of cell

▪ Most are membrane-bound, but some are not
enclosed by a membrane. Globular/Intercalated proteins (1 Protein layer) –
does not occur in a continuous shape/layer in the
2. Inclusions
lamina, but rather will appear as globular protein
▪ Non-living accumulations of metabolites, non-living intercalated in the bilipid layers
constituents or other products
1. Peripheral
▪ The cell can do away with the inclusions.
2. Integral – traverse through the entire bilipid
▪ Difference of Organelles vs. Inclusions layers

Organelles Inclusions Other components:

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 ➢ Cholesterol: responsible for the fluidity of the Confers some degree of specificity or selectivity of cell surface
membrane
Composed of glycoproteins and glycolipids
➢ Glycoproteins: responsible for the selectivity
(Organelles suspended in Cytosol)
or the immune responses of the cell
membrane, proteins attached to 2. Mitochondria
sugars/carbohydrates
→ L/M
➢ Glycolipids: sugars attached to the lipid layer
Special stain: Acid Fuchsin or supravital stain Janus Green
*The glycoprotein & glycolipid would form a coat over the
surface of the cell called Glycocalyx. Appear as slender rods or filaments

→ E/M

Enclosed by two membranes (inner and outer membranes)

Each is trilaminar, essentially same as Plasma membrane

Inner membrane projects inward forming shelves/folds (Cristae)

CRISTAE contains Oxidative Phosphorylation enzymes - for ATP

→ Functions of Plasma Membrane production

Barrier for cell contents, enclose entire cell to separate Powerhouse of the cell
cytoplasm from extracellular components

Possess device for attachment, especially in Epithelial cells

(adhere to each other because of the specialization of the cell
membrane)

Regulates passage of substances in and out of cell, Cell

membrane is sometimes described as Semi-permeable
membrane

Types of Transport in Cell membrane:

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
A. Bulk transport

A. Rough surfaced ER or Granular type

1. Phagocytosis

Old term: Ergastoplasm

➢ Taking in of substance in particle

L/M
➢ Engulfment of large particulate

➢ Cresyl violet stain – stain used to illustrate RER in L/M

2. Pinocytosis

➢ Appear as irregular violet basophilic masses or

➢ Taking in of substance in solution
clumps/flakes
3. Exocytosis
*Ribosomes – the only one that takes up basophilic stain
➢ Extrusion of substance from cell attached on its surface of RER

➢ Exact opposite of phagocytosis & pinocytosis E/M

B. Passive/Active transport ➢ Network of membranes/tubules with flattened saccular

spaces (Cisternae – locally means “container”)
→ Glycocalyx/Surface coat
➢ Dark staining granules on surface - Palade granules or
Glycoprotein or polysaccharide components from the outer
Ribosomes (made up of RNA)
surface of proteins

Acts as protective mechanical barrier

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 *Chemical component of RNA: responsible for basophilia of the Important role in cell membrane renewal (Pathway 2 in Figure
organelle 3.6)

**Cells that are actively producing proteins will have well *Cell is involved all the time with Phagocytosis or Exocytosis –
developed endoplasmic reticulum ?fractions? reduce cell membrane because of the packaging of endosome

Function: for protein synthesis/production of proteins **Loss of Cell Membrane will be replaced by Vesicle coming
from Golgi complex
*Neurons produce proteins. Secretory product: Neurotransmitter
(e.g. Acetylcholine) Synthesis of CHO (Carbohydrate) in limited amount

B. Agranular or Smooth surfaced ER

No ribosomes; tubular

L/M – not seen

E/M – network of tubules (like RER) WITHOUT Cisternae &

Ribosomes/Granules

Functions: 5. LYSOSOMES

1. Synthesis of lipids & steroids (glucocorticoids), cells that
actively produces steroids will have well developed
smooth surface ER (E.g. Cells in the Adrenal gland (an
Endocrine gland) – especially Cortex (composed of cells
with well developed smooth surface ER), Ad.G. produces
steroidal hormones (in cortex) and protein hormones (in
medulla) )
2. Detoxification of drugs/substances (E.g. Drugs, Alcohol,
Smooth surface ER in Liver cells (Hepatocytes))
*Detoxification - main function of hepatocytes
3. Storage/sequestration & release of Calcium during
muscular contraction
→ L/M – not seen
→ E/M – small membrane bound dense bodies with hydrolytic enzymes;
developed from the Golgi complex
→ Digestive organelle of the cell
→ Function: digestion of non-usable intracellular materials in the cell
(phagocytize substances), sometimes but most of the time digestion
is not complete
*Lipofuscin granules - residual indigestible residues/residues of
lysosomal digestion which will accumulate in cell cytoplasm, aka wear
and tear pigments
6. Peroxisomes

4. Golgi Complex → L/M – not seen

→ L/M → E/M - Membrane bound bodies

Identified by an unstained area near the nucleus → Electron dense central core - Nucleioid

With Silver stain, the area is blackened → Contains oxidases & catalases

→ E/M → Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals) / Detoxification /

Segregation of H2O2
Parallel array of flattened saccules or cisternae associated

E.g. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) → Hydrogen + O2

Looks like saucers (small plate like) stacked upside down

→ Replicate by pinching itself

Associated with many vesicles (which are also membrane
bound) for transport or secretion 7. Annulate lamella

→ Functions: → L/M – not seen

Modifies, concentrates and packages secretions, from E.R. are → E/M - Composed of parallel lamellae or cisternae containing pores
transported to Golgi complex to be concentrated & packaged
(producing secretory vesicles/transport vesicles) → Seen in rapidly dividing cells (E.g. germ cells)

→ Function: still obscure

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 ➢ 25 nm

Non-membranous Organelles ➢ Tubulin (basic building block/basic protein unit that will
make up the Micro-tubule)
1. Centrosome / Cell Center
➢ Responsible for Cell motility (Flagellate or Ciliary
→ L/M
movements)

Pale area of cytoplasm, like Golgi complex, the Cell Center will
Ciliated cells in body Flagellated cells
be located: unstained area near the Nucleus

Non-motile Motile
Pair of short rods – Centrioles (2), 2 organelles will be complex;
Cell Center will be ?compacting? each other Function:

→ E/M Move substances (E.g. Propels sperm

Mucus, dissolved
Composed of (2) hollow cylinder (made up of Micro-tubules),
materials) over the cell
oriented one perpendicular to the other – (2) Centrioles
surface/cell’s

*Cell center is ALWAYS composed of 2 Centrioles environment

9 sets of triplets of Micro-tubules (pinwheel manner – ➢ Function: For distribution of organelles (Cytoskeleton will

characteristic arrangement of Micro-tubules of the wall of the serve as the highway for the distribution of the different

centriole) – will form the wall of Centriole organelles to the different parts of the cell)

**9 X 3 = 27 Micro-tubules ➢ Intermediate filaments

➢ 2nd largest cytoskeleton

➢ 8-10 nm

➢ Types:

1. Keratin/tonofibrils – in epithelial cells

2. Vimentin – mesenchymal cells

→ Functions

3. Desmin – muscle cells

1. Organizing center for mitotic spindle (astral fibers during Cell
Division) formation 4. Neurofilaments – nerve cells

2. As [give rise to] basal bodies or kinetosome (serve as organizing 5. Glial filaments – neuroglial cells
structure for the formation of cilia & flagella) where cilia &
flagella (motile processes of cells) originate 6. Lamins – beneath nuclear envelope

2. Cytoskeleton ➢ Functions

→ Protein structures 1. Internal support

→ L/M – not seen 2. Maintain cell shape

→ E/M – network of structural proteins (forms Lattice - for support) that 3. Attachment

extend throughout the cytoplasm

➢ Microfilaments

→ Cytos – “cell”, Skeleton – “support”

➢ Smallest cytoskeleton

→ Supporting structural proteins of the cell

➢ 6 nm

→ Types of Cytoskeleton (depending on the Size):

➢ Made up of Actin (basic protein unit to make up

➢ Microtubules microfilament, found in cells capable of shortening (E.g.

Muscle cell – associated with myosin)
➢ Largest cytoskeleton
Functions:

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 ➢ Contractility of cytoplasm ➢ Increase in number as a person grows older

➢ Protoplasmic streaming (type of movement of the ➢ Cells, especially neurons, will have endogenous pigments.
protoplasm)
➢ Wear & tear pigments
➢ Visco-elasticity of cytoplasm
4. Vacuoles

→ Storage cavity (E.g. Food vacuoles, Glycogen vacuoles, Fat vacuoles)

5. Foreign bodies from environment (E.g. bacteria (engulfed by

macrophages) & other debris)

6. Bodies of unknown significance

3. Proteasomes → Inclusions in some cells of the body without any functional

significance
→ L/M – not seen

E.g.:
→ E/M – Protein complexes for the breakdown of...

→ Crystalloid of Reinke (inclusions present only in human Leydig cells)

→ Degrade individual denatured or non-functional proteins (E.g.
Misfolded protein) into short polypeptides (>16 amino acids) → Crystalloid of Charchol-Butcher (characteristic in human Serotoli cells
in Male testes)
*Like Lysosome that degrades protein as well

CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS

NUCLEUS
1. Nutritive substances

• Largest organelle
→ E.g. CHO (Carbohydrates), CHON (Proteins) & FATS

• Large, spherical body near the center of the cell

2. Secretory granules

• Single (usually), multiple (skeletal muscles) or sometimes absent (e.g. RBCs)

→ Precursors of secretion (e.g. Mucous)

• Functions:
→ Inside vesicles containing secretions made from Golgi complex

→ Controls constructive metabolism of the cell

3. Pigments

→ Essential for reproduction & transmission of heredity

a. Exogenous

Generated outside the body & subsequently taken in

• Parts of the Nucleus

E.g. carotene (E.g. Taken from eating Squash (yellow food),
Kangkong), dusts, minerals

b. Endogenous

Generated inside the body from the non-pigmented ingredient

Cellular activity/synthesis (e.g. melanin found in Skin, Hair, )

1. Nuclear envelope
*Synthesis blocked by Glutathione
Membranes enclosing/separating the nuclear content from the
Pigments accumulated because of Cellular breakdown (e.g. cytoplasm
hemosiderin (broken down from hemoglobin), bilirubin,
lipofuscin) “Envelope” – because it is composed of 2 membranes (Inner
and Outer membrane)
Lipofuscin granules
L/M – thin dark line surrounding the nucleus
➢ Indigestible residues formed because of lysosomal
processes/metabolism E/M – double-layered membrane with perinuclear space in
between

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 nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest E/M – made up of filaments or strands of DNA
of the cell
- histones as binding proteins
➢ occurs in areas where the 2 membranes unite, there is a
- nucleosome
“hole”

Types of chromatin/2 Terms that will refer to Chromatin:

➢ nuclear pore is guarded by the protein complex -
Nucleoporin 1. Heterochromatin

▪ Refers to the chromatin which remain coiled or

condensed & readily stainable/will take up stain

2. Euchromatin

▪ Chromatin that is uncoiled or extended,

unstainable/will NOT take up stain & believed to be
the portion that is translated or expressed

➢ Pyknotic nucleus
2. Nucleolus

▪ In nucleus, if all the chromatin are condensed/ALL

L/M – round refractile small body usually located off
Heterochromatin, then the nucleus is compact and
center/eccentric
dark staining
Composed of RNA (usually rRNA) – that is why it is basophilic
➢ Vesicular nucleus
in nature BUT in the Slide in the lab, it is opposite in appearance
(Basophilic is PINK! – acidophilic like) ▪ If chromatin in the nucleus are ALL Euchromatin,
nucleus will appear pale, will not take up
E/M – tightly coiled filaments of RNA
stain/unstainable
Site for ribosome production/formation
BARR Body (sex chromatin)
➢ [From the Nucleolus?>Nucleus?] Ribosome then migrate
➢ A small oval mass of chromatin attached to the inner
to the cytoplasm passing through the pores
surface of nuclear membrane of certain cells (E.g.
➢ Cytoplasmic ribosomes will originate from the nucleolus. neurons, epithelial cells)

3. Chromatin ➢ Chromatin that will represent 1 of the “sex” chromatin

L/M – deeply stained clumps scattered throughout the ➢ When there are two X chromosomes in the individual, one
nucleoplasm (Chromatin Knots–represents the chromatin which of the X chromosome will be condensed to form an
will be condensed) appendage (a process) attached to the nucleus of some
of the cells in the body. (e.g. neurons, epithelial cells,
➢ Chromatin is condensed – H&E slides will appear as darkly
neutrophils – BARR bodies will look like a “drumstick”)
staining clumps
➢ Will only be seen in individuals with two X chromosomes
➢ Uncoiled or extended or NOT condensed - it cannot be
(Females)
seen/unstainable
➢ Also found in males with XXY genotype (Klinefelter’s
*Under L/M: There will be dark (condensed chromatin) and light
syndrome)
(uncoiled chromatin) areas in the nucleus
➢ Significance: aid in determining the sex of a person
The segment of the chromosome that will remain condensed &
stainable (chromatin)

Chromosomes: during cell division, the chromatin will condense Cell Divisions
to form discrete rod-like structures seen ONLY during cell
→ Amitosis
division

→ Mitosis
Karyosome/Chromatin Knot: individual clumps or masses of
chromatin identified in L/M, seen in H&E slides

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Histology Laboratory: Exercise 1 – Cell Structure (Lecture Correlation) Slide 56 – ovary (organ)

Slide 11 – cross section of spinal cord

➢ Gray matter – one in the center which will look like letter “A” surrounded
by white matter

➢ Neurons – cell to be identified, large cells present/located only in the gray

matter

➢ Appearance In Spinal cord: multipolar neurons (many processes)

➢ Shape: irregular, sometimes described as “star” shaped

➢ Cytoplasm: angular (because of cell processes), basophilic,

➢ Nucleus: basophilic, vascular, very prominent (fish eye)

➢ Only parts identifiable/identified in L/M: Nucleolus, Cytoplasm, Nucleus

Slide 57 – ovary (organ)

➢ Every ovary is divided into Corpus Luteum, composed of 2 types of cell

(Granulosa Lutein & Theca Lutein cells)

-Granulosa lutein cells: in the center, large cells with vesicular nucleus which looks

Slide 41/42 – liver cells

- hepatic cords: cells are arranged in cords

- radially arranged with regards to ?Calcium Carbonate?

like liver cells

➢ Draw at least 3 cords to emphasize arrangement of cells

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 FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES 2017 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY
LECTURE)
Revised By: OCLARIT, Aither Benedict C.; Lecture By: DR.
F. ABELLANA
• Tissue:
∼ an aggregate of similarly specialized cells united in
the performance of a particular function
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• A tissue composed of one or more layers of contiguous
cells lining external or internal surfaces of the body
including small cavities & vessels (arteries, veins,
lymphatics)
• All the surfaces of the body will be covered by epithelium
• Functions:

∼ Is composed of similar cells performing 1 function 1. Protection

∼ Group of cells that perform the same function
• Histogenesis:
∼ process of development/formation of tissues from the
undifferentiated cells of the embryonic germ layers
∼ All the external surface of the body is covered
with the epithelium for protection especially areas
that are always subjected to mechanical
irritations
∼ E.g. lining epithelium of the skin

∼ development of the tissues from the germ layers of 2. Absorption

the embryo were called ?______? major layers
(Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm) ∼ After digestion, all substances or the food eaten
will pass through epithelium
• 3 Germ Layer Origin
3. Secretion
1. Ectoderm
∼ Exemplified by the glands (sweat & salivary
2. Mesoderm glands)

3. Endoderm ∼ All the secretions will pass through an epithelium

→ All the fundamental tissues will develop from the 3 4. Excretion

primary germ layers.
∼ All the waste products of cellular processes will
• [The body is composed of] 4 Basic Tissues & Germ pass through an epithelium (CO2 will pass
Layer Origin through lung alveoli)

1. EPITHELIUM – may develop from the 3 germ layers 5. Sensory reception

2. CONNECTIVE tissue – will develop only from the ∼ Sensory organs are made up of epithelium
mesoderm
6. Reproduction
3. MUSCULAR tissue – will develop only from the
mesoderm ∼ The sex cells will develop from epithelium

4. NERVOUS tissue – will develop only from the

ectoderm
• Epithelium characteristics
• Basic components
→ Scanty intercellular substance
→ CELLS
∼ Scanty: few/minimal/small
→ INTERCELLULAR/GROUND SUBSTANCE
∼ Cells are close to each other in Epithelium
→ TISSUE FLUID
→ Rest on Lamina Propria with basement membrane in
between

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 ∼ Lamina Propria: connective tissue bed of the ➢ opposite end, usually facing a space
epithelium
∼ The arrangement of the organelles in the distal
➢ The cells are not directly in contact with the end and basal end of the cell will indicate Cell
Lamina Propria; there is a structure between Polarity
it called Basement membrane
DISTAL end BASAL
→ Avascular but well supplied with nerves end

∼ Avascular: no intrinsic blood supply a. Secretory granules nucleus

∼ Blood supply is found in the Lamina Propria b. Golgi complex

(where the blood vessels are located) mitochondria

∼ The cells are supplied with nutrients through the c. Centrosome ER

process of Diffusion
∼ Usually seen in Columnar Cuboidal cells

→ May undergo metaplasia

• Classification of Epithelium
∼ Metaplasia: the change of one type of epithelium
or tissue into another type → Number of cell layers

→ Tissue layer ALWAYS has one free surface exposed ∼ Simple (one layer)
to the environment
➢ E.g. Simple epithelium – all the cells are
attached to the basement membrane, all the
cells reach the surface since its only 1 layer
• Epithelial Cells
∼ Stratified (more than one layer/many layers)
1. Nucleus conforms cell shape
➢ E.g. Some cells attach to the basement
∼ If the cell is round, the nucleus is round membrane, some cells reach the surface
BUT NOT ALL CELLS will have a free
∼ EXCEPTION: surface?

➢ If the cell is square, the nucleus is round

➢ If the cell is rectangular, the nucleus is

oval

2. Manifest polarity

∼ Polarity: characteristic of epithelium in which two

distinguishable sides (apical and basal poles) of a
→ Shape of cells
cell or tissue are present
∼ Squamous (flattened)
∼ Apical/distal end/Apical pole
∼ Cuboidal (cube/square-shaped)
- near the surface
∼ Columnar (column/rectangular-like)
- region of cell containing ECM and
connective tissue ➢ Height is greater than the width
∼ Proximal/basal end/Basal pole

➢ near the basement membrane

8
 Focus CORTEX. In the peripheral part of specimen,
you will find rounded bodies – Renal Corpuscle:
composed of network of capillaries (Glomerulus)
enclosed by a capsule (Bowman’s Capsule; lined by
Simple Squamous Epithelium)

• Types of Epithelium

I. Simple

II. Stratified

III. Pseudostratified ➢ Examples: Organs/Structures lined by Simple

Squamous
IV. Specialized
1. Parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule
1. Glandular (specialized for secretion)
(kidney)
2. Ciliated (those with motile processes on the
2. Thin segment of Henle’s loop (kidney)
surfaces)
3. Rete testis (Testes)
3. Neuroepithelium (concerned for sensory
reception) 4. Lung alveoli

I. Simple Epithelia *Memorize the examples (organs); Lab Practicals

will ask for 2, but memorize at least 3 examples
→ Made up of one layer of cells
incase
A. Simple squamous
➢ This is the type that is best suited for filtration &
∼ Single layer of thin plate-like cells diffusion

∼ Top view: ➢ Since the epithelial cells are very

attenuated (very thin) then the cells are
➢ Irregular hexagons (6 sides) designed for diffusion and filtration

➢ Serrated (corrugated - shaped into alternate ➢ Specific types: Simple Squamous

ridges and grooves) interlocking borders
➢ Simple squamous epithelium with specific
➢ Perpendicular view: name depending on the location

➢ Thin/flattened, spindle-shaped ➢ Mesothelium

Top view of Simple Squamous - Slide 1: Mesentery ▪ Simple squamous epithelium lining
Serous membranes: membranes that
lines serous cavities

(E.g. pleural cavity → lined by Pleura →

from the ____? in the inside of the
lungs?)

(pericardial cavity → lined by

Pericardium → on the heart)

Perpendicular view - Slide 44: Kidney

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 (peritoneal cavity → lined by ∼ Height & width of the cells are almost equal
Peritoneum → surrounds the stomach/
∼ Top view:
GIT)

➢ Small regular hexagons

*!WARNING!: if the slide used in the
practical exam is Slide 1 and question is
∼ Vertical/Perpendicular view:
“Give the specific name of the tissue”
answer is Mesothelium. “Give 2 ➢ Single row of square cells with a round
examples” answer is Pleura, central nucleus
Pericardium,… NOT *examples above*
because they are not serous ∼ Examples:
membranes
1. Thyroid follicles (from Thyroid gland)
➢ Endothelium
2. Collecting tubules of the kidney
▪ Lining the vessels and the internal
surface of heart

▪ E.g. Organ is Artery and the one

pointed is simple squamous then the
question is “Give the specific name of
the tissue pointed” answer should be
Endothelium. Then 2 examles (Artery,
veins)
Slide 70: Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland, DO NOT USE
SLIDE 69 cause staining is not good!
*Heart: covered OUTSIDE by Serous
membrane, INSIDE is covered by
Endothelium

➢ Mesenchymal !epithelium! (to not confuse

with Mesenchymal Connective Tissue)

▪ Lines spaces in the body/cavities

derived from the cleft of the embryo
C. Simple columnar
▪ E.g. Lining perilymphatic spaces of
internal ear, sub-dural & ∼ Height exceeds/greater than the width of cells
subarachnoid spaces
∼ Top view:
Exceptions
➢ Small regular hexagons
➢ Some areas of the body in the vascular
areas, some vessels will be lined by high ∼ Vertical view:
secretory? Cells not simple squamous
➢ Single row of rectangular cells with basally
✴ High endothelial venules – lined by located oval nucleus
cuboidal cells INSTEAD OF fl attened
∼ Examples: Organs where you can identify simple
cells
columnar
✴ Stave cells in “splenic
sinusoids” (meaning vessels NOT 1. Stomach (Slide 32)
lined by Endothelium) – rod shaped,
2. Small intestine (Slide 35: Ileum)
oval cells
3. Large intestine (Slide 37)
B. Simple cuboidal
4. Gall bladder (Slide 43)

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 ∼ Type best suited for absorption

Slide 35: Ileum

III. Stratified Epithelium

II. Pseudostratified Columnar
→ Made up of many layers of cells
→ Single layer of cells; all cells are attached to
basement membrane, BUT NOT ALL reach free ∼ Basal layers
surface
➢ Near the basement membrane
→ Nuclei lie at different levels, thus appearing stratified
➢ 1-2 layers of columnar/cuboidal cells
→ Three component cells: columnar, fusiform & basal
pyramidal ∼ Middle layer

→ Example: ➢ 3-4 layers of polyhedral cells

1. Ductus epididymis ∼ Superficial layer

2. Vas deferens ➢ Basis of classifying stratified epithelia into

different types
3. Trachea
➢ 1-2 layers of cells, the shape determines the
4. Bronchi
type

A. Stratified squamous epithelium

∼ Thick epithelial sheet; best suited for protection

∼ Flattened cells on surface

∼ Prominent connective tissue papillae (finger-

like projections of the lamina propria into the
epithelium carrying with it blood vessels)

∼ Examples:

1. Skin

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 2. Tongue

3. Esophagus

4. Vagina

IV. Specialized epithelia

A. Glandular epithelia

∼ Basically simple cuboidal

∼ Cells become pyramidal when cells form acini/

acinus (secretory part of the gland; ball-like)

∼ Best suited for secretion

B. Stratified columnar epithelium
∼ Types: of Glandular Epithelia
∼ Rectangular cells on the superfi cial layer
➢ Serous glandular epithelium
∼ Rare in human body
▪ Granular, acidophilic cytoplasm
∼ Examples:
▪ Round nucleus (near base of cell)
1. Fornix of conjunctiva
▪ Presence of intercellular canaliculi
*conjunctivitis – red eye (extra channels that help in the
expulsion of glandular secretions)
2. Cavernous part of male urethra
▪ Cells surround a small lumen
C. Transitional Epithelium/Urothelium (other name of
Transitional Epi.) ▪ Secretion is clear and watery

∼ Large dome-shaped/umbrella-shaped cells on ▪ Examples:

surface
1. Parotid gland
∼ Lines excretory passages of the kidney
2. Pancreas
➢ Ureter
➢ Mucous glandular epithelium
➢ Renal pelvis & calyces
▪ Reticulated, basophilic cytoplasm
➢ Urinary bladder
▪ Flattened nucleus pushed to cell base

▪ Absence of intercellular canaliculi

▪ Cells surround a large lumen

▪ Secretion is slimy

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 ▪ Examples: → Functional surfaces

1. Sublingual gland ∼ Free surface – exposed to the environment

2. Submaxillary glands ∼ Lateral surface – exposed to the adjacent cells

∼ Basal surface – exposed to the basement

membrane

∼ Simple epithelia – 3 functional surfaces

∼ Stratified epithelia – 1 - 2, but never 3

B. Ciliated epithelia
∼ Free Surface specialization:
∼ Possess motile processes on surface (cilia)
A. Non-Motile processes
∼ Involve simple columnar (1&2) & pseudostratified
(3&4) ▪ Microvilli: general term

∼ Examples: ▪ Function: absorption

1. Uterus ▪ Types of microvilli:

2. Oviduct a. Striate border

3. Trachea b. Brush border

4. Bronchi ✴ Uniform length & diameter

✴ Standing stiffly in close parallel

array

✴ Central core is supported by

fil a m e n t s a n c h o r e d t o
terminal web

✴ Examples:

1. Small intestines (striate)

2. Proximal tubules of the

C. Neuroepithelium kidney (brush)

∼ Concerned for sensory reception

∼ Basically pseudostratified

∼ Possess sensory hairs on surface

∼ Examples:
c. Stereocilia
1. Vestibular apparatus
✴ Long, flexible, branching
2. Organ of Corti (internal ear – cochlea)
✴ Central core lacks filaments
3. Crista ampularis (found in semi-circular
canals) ✴ Examples:

4. Maculae 1. Ductus epididymis

13
 *(lined by C. Secreted plate
p s e u d o s t r a t i fi e d
columnar with ▪ Membranous plaque deposited on free
stereocilia) surface of cells?

2. Vas deferens ▪ Substances produced of

membranous plaques on the free
surface of the epithelial cells

▪ Example: tectorial membrane (above

the organ of Corti) an organ of the inner ear located within the
cochlea which contributes to audition. The
Organ of Corti includes three rows of outer
hair cells and one row of inner hair cells.
Vibrations caused by sound waves bend the
D. Condensed border stereocilia on these hair cells via an
electromechanical force.

▪ Membranous plaque deposited on free

surface of cells

▪ Deposition of membranous plaques

B. Motile processes on the free surface of the epithelial cells

1. Cilia ▪ Serve as barrier between fluid content

and cell
✴ Longer than microvilli
▪ Found in the lining epithelium of the
✴ Attached to basal bodies excretory passages of the kidney
(e.g. urinary bladder)
✴ Central core is the Axoneme with 2
longitudinal tubules surrounded by
9 doublet microtubules (9 + 2
microtubules) ∼ Lateral surface specialization

✴ Function: moves the substances in 1. Junctional complex

the environment instead of the cell
▪ Located immediately beneath the free
✴ Ciliated cells in the body are not surface
motile
a. Zonula occludens (tight junction –
fusion of 2 cell membranes)

b. Zonula adherens (adhering junction;

belt-like around; no fusion of the
adjacent membranes, but they are
adhering to each other)

c. Macula adherens or Desmosomes

(Cadherins; weld spot-like)
2. Flagellum

✴ Very long
2. Gap junction (Nexus)
✴ One per cell
▪ Permit the rapid spread of excitation
✴ Structure, same as cilium from one cell to the next

✴ Differs only in movement (whip-

like)

✴ Anchored to basal bodies

14
 ▪ Connexon (tubular structures that ▪ Concerned for water metabolism
traverse the junction) (concerned with water absorption; will
have infoldings in the basal surface)

3. Hemidesmosome (Integrins)

*FULL Desmosomes: found in Lateral

Surface

▪ Half of desmosome

▪ Adherent to the lamina propia because

of protein Integrins

∼ Basal surface specialization

1. Basement membrane

▪ Between lamina propria & epithelial

cells

▪ Made up of 3 structures:

a. Basal lamina (Laminin – protein

molecule of basal lamina)

b. Reticular fiber network

c. Ground substance – composed of

Perlecan (Proteoglaycan) &
Heparin Sulfate
(Glycosaminoglycans)

2. Plasma membrane infoldings

▪ Plication of the cell membrane

15
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2017 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY ➢ Nucleus: large, oval & pale with 2 [pyknotic]
LECTURE) nucleoli

Revised By: OCLARIT, Aither Benedict C.; Lecture By: DR. ➢ Cytoplasm
F. ABELLANA
▪ Fine branching processes
• A tissue composed of cells & extracellular fibers
embedded in a gel-like ground substance, the Matrix ▪ Acidophilic (the cell is resting) or
Basophilic (actively producing
• General characteristics: something)

→ Cells are far apart (because the matrix is abundant) ➢ Function: production of CT fi bers & ground
substance
→ Presence of non-living fibers in the intercellular
substance

→ Abundant intercellular substance forming its bulk

→ Vascular & has nerve supply EXCEPT Cartilage &

Mucous CT

→ May undergo metaplasia

2. Macrophage
• Types of CT
➢ Identifiable only with special stain
1. Connective tissue proper – soft tissue (semi-fl uid
➢ Shape: irregular (because of pseudopods)
intercellular substance)
with short blunt processes
2. Cartilage – solid but pliable (for support and
➢ Nucleus: oval, eccentric, vesicular & dark
fl exibility)
staining
3. Bone – solid & rigid
➢ Cytoplasm
4. Blood – IntraCellular Substance is fl uid (atypical)
▪ Contain vacuoles
• Connective Tissue Proper
▪ Segregation apparatus: engulfed
→ Composed of: material in the cell enclosed by a
membrane
∼ Cells
➢ Functions
∼ Fibers
1. Phagocytosis (all the macrophages will
∼ Adhesions glycoproteins form a system of phagocytic cells known
as the Mononuclear Phagocyte
∼ Ground substance System)
→ CT Cells 2. Antigen processing & presentation

1. Fibroblast 3. Production of Cytokines (attract other

cell of the immune system)
➢ A mature cell
➢ Mononuclear Phagocyte System
➢ Most common in areolar
▪ A system of phagocytic cells scattered in
➢ Only cell type in tendon
different organs or tissues of the body
➢ Shape: fusiform/spindle-shaped
A. CT – histiocyte

11
 B. Bone marrow – Littoral cells ➢ Russell bodies: defective antibodies in the
cytoplasm of plasma cells
C. Lungs – heart failure cells (engulf
hemosiderin pigments) & dust cells
(engulf dust)

D. Liver – von Kuppfer cells

E. CNS – microglia

F. Skin – Langerhans cells (process

5. Mast cells
antigens & will present it to the
competent immunoglobulin cells of ➢ Shape: oval to spherical
the immune system)
➢ Nucleus: small & pale
G. Bone – osteoclasts
➢ Cytoplasm: contains metachromatic
H. Blood – monocytes (stem cell of the
granules (large granules; from
macrophage)
“Metachromasia” – ability to take up the
color different from the stain used)
I. Lymph nodes – Dendretic cells
(process antigens
➢ In the granules of the mast cells are
Basoactive (stimulate/dilate the blood
J. Placenta – Hofbauer cell
vessels) substances. (e.g. Histamine)
3. Mesenchymal cells
➢ Functions:
➢ Embryonic type
▪ Production of heparin, histamine,
➢ Responsible for metaplasia of CT chemotactic factors

➢ In adults – distributed along blood vessels ▪ Important in the inflammatory response

of tissues
➢ Shape: resemble fi broblast

➢ Function: gives rise to other cell types in CT

4. Plasma cells

➢ Abundant in lamina propria of GIT

➢ Few in areolar tissue 6. Adipose or Fat cells

➢ Shape: oval to spherical ➢ Shape: spherical (isolated) or polygonal

➢ Nucleus: eccentric, chromatin arranged ➢ Nucleus: fl attened, pushed to one side

radially (spokes of a wheel appearance; resulting to a signet ring appearance
clock face – sometimes, the heterochromatin
will be attached to the inner surface of the ➢ Cytoplasm: thin due to fat vacuole
nuclear envelope)
➢ Function: synthesis & storage of (neutral) fat
➢ Cytoplasm: intensely basophilic, except
near the nucleus – “peri-nuclear
halo” (corresponding to cell center & Golgi
apparatus)

➢ Function: antibody production

12
 7. Leukocytes ➢ Boiling converts it to gelatin

➢ Not permanent cells in CTs (transient) ➢ Dissolves in strong acid & alkali

➢ Neutrophils – migrate through Diapedesis ➢ Digested by gastric juice

(migration of leukocytes through an intact
cell wall) ➢ Takes ordinary stain/H & E – acidophilic

Chemotaxis – migration to areas with injury; ➢ Treated with tannic acid – yields tough &
in response to cytokines produced by insoluble material
macrophage
➢ Collagen - most abundant protein in the
8. Reticular cells body

➢ Stellate cells or fusiform cells associated with ∼ Types of collagen fibers

reticular fibers (type III collagen fibers)
➢ Type 1 – skin, bone, tendon, fascia
➢ Modified fibroblast
➢ Type 2 – cartilage, vitreous body, nucleus
9. Pigment cells pulposus (central part of intervertebral
discs)
➢ In the CT – Melanocyte (production of/
produces melanin) ➢ Type 3 – blood vessels, stroma of solid
organs (argyrophilic (silver loving) fibers
➢ Irregular cytoplasmic processes – FORMERLY KNOWN AS RETICULAR
FIBERS; takes up silver stain – special
➢ Contains small granules of pigment stain to demonstrate reticular fiber)
(melanosomes) which contains melanin
*Reticular cell: is a specialized fibroblast
• Connetive Tissue Fibers which will produce reticular fiber

A. Collagen Fiber ➢ Type 4 – basement membrane/basal

lamina (component of the basement
∼ Physical properties:
membrane of epithelial cells)
➢ Colorless (but when the fibers are grouped
➢ Type 5 – smooth & skeletal muscles
together, it becomes white)
➢ Type 7 – anchors basal lamina
➢ Pearly because of low refractive index

➢ Inelastic but flexible

B. Reticular Fiber (formerly classified as a CT Fiber)/
➢ Irregular broken ends (because one fiber is
Type 3 Collagen
made up of several Fibrils looking like a
rope) ∼ Special type of collagen fiber

➢ Occurs as individual strands or bundles ∼ Very thin

➢ Each fibers is composed of Fibrils ∼ Type III collagen

➢ Fibrils are cross striated ∼ Argyrophilic (silver loving)

∼ Chemical properties: ∼ PAS (Per-iodic Acid Schiff test – specifi c for

carbohydrates) positive – since Type 3 Collagen/
➢ Tropocollagen - fundamental unit,
Reticular fi ber will be coated/surrounded by
carbohydrates that’s why it will give a (+) PAS
protein component/protein complex of
collagen

13
 ∼ Produced by specialized fibroblast called Fibrillin:
Reticular cell
→ forms lattice for elastin assembly

→ another protein required for the

assembly of the elastin

→ without fibrillin – !NO ASSEMBLY OF!

Elastin, therefore, NO Elastic fiber

➢ Resistant to boiling, acid or alkali

➢ Not affected/digested by gastric juice

(elastic fiber is resistant to acid & alkali)

➢ Digested by elastase (pancreatic juice)

➢ Stains poorly with H&E (will not take up

ordinary stain)

➢ Resorcin-fuchsin stain:

→ Special stain to demonstrate elastic fiber

→ Type of elastic stain

→ Color of fiber in staining method:

C. Elastic Fiber Violet/Dark Blue
∼ Physical properties:

➢ Yellowish Slide 21: Artery & Vein – medium size (H&E)

➢ Highly refractile (property of elasticity - Elastic fiber: waving refractile line between acidophilic
ability of an object or material to resume its structures (muscle fi bers of the wall of blood vessel), in
normal shape after being stretched or between acidophilic structure is elastic fi ber
compressed)
Internal Elastic lamina:
➢ Highly stretchable (if object or material is composed of many
not able to go back to its normal shape after elastic fibers
being stretched; material is stretchable)

➢ When it breaks, end is clean cut & has a

tendency to retract

➢ Fine fibers may branch & anastomose (the

branches connects to each other) forming a
network

➢ Sheets or lamellae in blood vessels

Resorcin-fuscin stain: elastic fi bers appears as waving
*Internal elastic lamina/Membrane of refractile lines
Henle: innermost lamella of the aorta

∼ Chemical properties:

➢ Composed of elastin (protein component of

elastic fiber, basic unit for elastic fiber)

14
 2. Responsible for metachromasia (ability to take
another color different from the color of the stain
used; E.g. Mast Cell)/metachromatic staining of
G.S. & PAS reaction (presence of carbohydrates
in G.S.)

→ Types of glycosaminoglycans

1. Hyaluronic acid – synovial fluid (joint),

• Adhesion glycoproteins: substances that will glue vitreous humor (eye), Wharton’s jelly
together the cells and fi bers in the ground substance (umbilical cord)

→ Fibronectin – normal cell adhesion & migration ➢ Most abundant glycosaminoglycans

→ Laminin – adhesion of epithelial cells to basement ➢ Responsible for the high viscosity of the
membrane G.S.; thus serve as mechanical barrier to the
spread of [bacterial] infection in tissues
→ Thrombospondin – blood clot formation; found in
blood platelets ➢ Hyaluronidase – an enzyme that
depolymerizes hyaluronic acid

2. Chondroitin sulfate – cartilage & bone

• Ground substance or Matrix
(makes bone metachromatic because of
→ Amorphous (without any form)
Chon. Sulf.)
→ Homogeneous, transparent, gel-like
3. Heparan sulfate – liver, lungs & aorta (large
→ Usually extracted during fixation/preparation of the B.Vs.)
slides (can’t identify G.S. in slides cause its already
4. Keratan sulfate – cornea & cartilage
extracted)
5. Dermatan sulfate – skin (Derma – “skin”),
→ Composed of combination of Sugar + Protein
tendon
(Glycoprotein/Proteoglycans). Glycoprotein will be
composed of smaller units of combination [again] of • Types of CT Proper
sugar + protein (Glycosaminoglycans)
→ Based on Preponderant Cell (PC) – abundant type of
→ Mainly composed of proteoglycans cell in a particular tissue

∼ Proteoglycans – complexes of proteins & CHO → Based on Preponderant Fibers present (PF) – which
(carbohydrates) to which glycosaminoglycans are of the 2 fibers predominate? Elastic or Collagen?
attached
A. Embryonal types
∼ Resemble the handle of a test tube brush
(glycoproteins/proteoglycans). The bristles will B. Post-natal or adult types
be the Glycosaminoglycans.
A. Embryonal types/Embryonal C.T. proper
∼ Proteoglycans (or GlycoProtein) and
Glycosaminoglycans have the same components: 1. Mesenchymal !Connective Tissue! (mesenchyme)
Protein and Sugar
*put “Conn. Tissue” after Mesenchymal always!
Cause there’s also Mesenchymal “Epithelium”

Glycosaminoglycans & Proteoglycans will be ∼ PC – undifferentiated mesenchymal cell

responsible for…
∼ PF – collagen
1. Basophilic staining of the G.S.

15
 ∼ Occurrence – between germ layers & developing
organs of embryo

∼ Function – packing substance of embryo/packing

material of the embryo

Slide 2: X-Section of Pig Embryo

Notochord: supportive structure of the embryo

Mesenchymal C.T.: between the neural tube and the B. Adult types
notochord
1. Areolar CT/Loose Connective Tissue
Shape of Mesenchymal Cells: spindle, fusiform ∼ Most common, most popular
LPO HPO
∼ Taken from “Areola” – dark pigmented area
surrounding the nipple

∼ Areolar because you will find many areolae (X-

Section of blood vessels [BV]) in the tissues

∼ PC – fi broblast

∼ PF – collagen

∼ Occ – all over the body (specifi cally in Lab

practicals: mammary gland, vagina, skin, tongue)
2. Mucous CT
∼ Functions:
∼ Also known as Wharton’s jelly
➢ Packing material in adults (vs. Mesenchymal
∼ No blood & nerve supply CT as packing substance of embryo)
∼ PC – fi broblast ➢ Mechanical support
∼ PF – collagen ➢ Transport of metabolites
∼ Occ – dental pulp (in the developing tooth) & ➢ Repair after injury
umbilical cord, in lower animals: sex skin (red
ass/butt cheeks) of monkeys, comb of the cock ➢ Body defense
(crown of a male chicken/rooster NOT the phallic
cock!!!) Slide 22: Skin - thin

∼ 1st half of pregnancy (Slide 64) – very cellular,

scanty fi ne collagen fi bers

∼ 2nd half of pregnancy (Slide 65)– less cellular,

numerous coarse collagen fi bers

∼ Function: provides fi bro-gelatinous supporting in

the umbilical cord 2. Reticular CT

Slide 64 Slide 65 ∼ Does not exist alone; cannot stand alone

Amnion: membrane surrounding the entire umbilical cord ∼ PC – reticular cell

∼ PF – type III collagen/Reticular fi bers

16
 ∼ Occ – bone marrow, lymphoid organs (in L.O., ➢ Cosmetic purposes
the tissue is INFILTRATED with Lymphocytes, the
!conn. tissue name changes! – Lymphoid
Connective Tissue; PC will then be
Lymphocytes!), liver

∼ Function: [In Lymph node] the tissue becomes

the framework [Reticular CT] of these organs… ∼ Types of Fat/Adipose Tissue
which will then be infi ltrated with lymphocytes,
becoming a Lymphoid Conn. Tissue meaning Bases White fat Brown fat
Reticular CT does not exist alone; it cannot
1. Color Colorless – Brownish/
stand alone!
yellowish reddish
(when (Cytochrome
*Function of Reticular CT: framework of
grouped Pigment:
lymphoid organs, bone marrow and liver together) pigment
responsible for
Slide 16: Lymph node (Lymphoid Conn. Tissue) brown color,
present in the
PC: Lymphocytes mitochondria)

PF: type III Collagen 2. Distribution Widespread Localized (few

areas only)
Function: production of lymphocytes (SINCE THIS IS
3. Vascularity Less Highly vascular
NOW LYMPHOID CONN. TISS. NOT RETICULAR CT!!!
vascular
Don’t answer framework!!! in practicals!)
4. Fat droplet Coalesce Don’t coalesce
(unilocular) (multilocilar)

5. Effect of Easily lost Not easily lost

starvation leading to
serous
atrophy

Serous Atrophy: condition wherein fat cells contain

watery vacuoles instead of fat droplets as in
starvation
3. Adipose CT

∼ PC – adipose/fat cell
4. Dense(Compact) fibrous CT
∼ PF – type III & IV collagen
∼ There is great preponderance of fibers/fibrous
∼ Occ – subcutaneous layer (panniculus adiposus elements over the cells & ground substances
[of your skin]), mesentery, axilla, hypodermis of
∼ Classification:
skin, tongue, armpit, groin, inguinal area
1. Based on arrangement of fibers
!BUT ABSENT IN! XCNS, Xlungs, Xeyelids,
Xpenis 2. Based on preponderant fiber
∼ Functions: ∼ ARRANGEMENT of fibers

➢ Reservoir of energy 1. Dense REGULAR CT

➢ Shock absorber
▪ Definite pattern/arrangement of fiber
arrangement
➢ Insulator

17
 ▪ E.g. tendon (connect muscle to
bone), ligament (connects bone to
bone), aponeurosis
2. Dense IRREGULAR
▪ No definite fiber orientation/arrangement
▪ E.g. capsules, septa, trabeculae
∼ PREPONDERANT fiber
1. Dense COLLAGENOUS CT
▪ PC – fi broblast
▪ PF – collagen fi bers !
▪ Occ – tendon, ligament, aponeurosis,
fascia capsule, septa, trabecula
▪ Function – provide tough inelastic
sheath for protection
2. Dense ELASTIC CT
▪ PC – fi broblast
▪ PF – elastic fi ber !!
▪ Occ – ligamentum nuchae &
ligamentum flava, true vocal chord,
large arteries (!warning! specifically
[DON’T ANSWER LARGE ARTERIES
IN PRACTICALS!!!]: Aorta)
▪ Function – mechanical support where
fl exibility is necessary
Slide 3: X-Sec. of D.E.C.T.
Slide 4: L-Sec. of D.E.C.T. (overstained to demonstrate
Elastic Fibers! in H&E)
• Tendon as an Organ (organ is/if composed of 2 or
more different types of tissues)
→ Dense regular collagenous CT
→ Only cell present is Fibroblast
→ Primary tendon bundle:
∼ Unit of structure & function of tendon
∼ Composed of one collagen fiber
∼ A fiber is made up of several fibrils
∼ [Composed of] collagen fiber bundle in
tendon
∼ “Bundle”: …because a fi ber is composed of
many fi brils
∼ Structural unit of the tendon
→ Secondary tendon bundle
∼ In a group of [primary] tendon bundle will form
secondary tendon bundle (aka Tendon fascicle
which is surrounded by a connective tissue)
∼ Composed of many primary tendon bundles
*The entire tendon will be composed of many tendon
fascicles and the entire tendon is surrounded by
another CT…
→ Sheath covering the tendons
∼ Endotendineum – CT that surround individual
tendon bundle
∼ Peritendineum – CT that surround tendon
fascicle
∼ Epitendineum – CT that surrounds the tendon as
an organ/entire tendon
18