DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

A. DEFINITIONS AND MEANING (OF PSYCHOLOGY):

The term ‘psychology’ was coined in 1590 by Rudolf Goeckle. This term is derived from two Greek
words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. The first word means soul and second word means reasoned discourse
or science. Considering the popular thoughts of Greek world Rodolf Goeckle might have linked
two words and named it psychology. The word psychology means ‘science or study of soul’.

Psychology is about the people. Its subject matter is human being. Unlike philosophical
speculations psychology provides scientific knowledge about the subject we think we know best.
As a science, psychology seeks a general understanding of how human beings function. They want
to know why people think, feel, and behave as they do. What makes each person different from all
other people? Yet why do they often behave so alike in some situations? In order to find answer
and understand human nature psychologists approached in different ways. They explore the inner
spaces of the brain and mind in one hand and the outer dimensions of human behavior on the
other hand. This is because human nature is shaped by heredity and environment, mind as well as
by behavior.

Humans are curious being and curiosity to know other beings probably started from the beginning
of human civilization or much earlier when people started to use symbol to communicate with
each other and live in group. Understanding and predicting others behaviors not only brings
knowledge about how to deal with others but also gives power to control one’s and other’s
behavior. Establishing relationship and continuing it depends on our understanding of others. This
understanding include knowing of how people think, feel, and behave. But this common sense (lay
knowledge) however is not scientific psychology. Nevertheless, it provides some keys to approach
to others and establish relationship. We all more or less know other people especially those who
are very close to us about how they think, feel, and behave as they do. In this sense, all people are
naïve psychologists. Scientific psychology is much more sophisticated than naïve psychology or
common sense. But scientific psychology did not come to age all of sudden. For centuries
philosophers and social thinkers have been trying to find the precise knowledge about psychology
of people. These philosophers were not only concerned about people they were dealing with but
also the human nature in general. The growth of knowledge about human beings, thus, jumped
from personal need to greater social and scientific achievement.

Psychology as the study of ‘soul’ and ‘mind’

Greek philosophers intellectualized the topic of human nature and contributed rich explanation
about human psychology. Greek philosophers believed that soul (psyche), the spiritual entity, was
responsible for the various mental activities such as learning, reasoning, thinking, feeling etc. thus,
they discussed and exchanged ideas on soul and stressed that it should control man's each and
every actions. Psychology was considered as the study of soul. For centuries, psychology remained
as a part of philosophical thought and much exercise were directed to understand mental life.

Later, during enlightened period psychology was considered as the science of ‘mind’. The concept
of mind is more clear and understandable than the concept of soul as conceived by the Greeks to
study human nature. The concept of ‘soul’ and ‘mind’ is vague and outside the interest of science.
The paradigm shift (from soul to mind) in the subject matter of psychology is an indication that
with an increase of knowledge of human nature, the philosophers and social thinkers tried to
understand, explain and solve the human problems with more accurate terms and methods.
Philosophical discourse, however, is confined in armchair speculation only. It lacks scientific
approach.

Psychology as the Study of Consciousness

Modern definition of psychology is also called scientific definition because when psychology was
defined the early psychologists were already working in the laboratory and experimentally
examining human behavior. It was in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established psychological
laboratory at Leipzig university, Germany. Wundt was a physiologist by profession but equally
interested in philosophy that dealt with human nature. Before establishing laboratory he was
already working with subjects like sensation (consciousness). Wundt separated psychology from
philosophy and physiology and introduced new way to examine human consciouness. Many
historians of psychology regard this action as the birth of modern psychology and Wundt is
regarded as the father of modern psychology. With new psychology Wundt also defined
psychology, its subject matter and the method.

Wundt defined psychology as the description and explanation of the states of consciousness. Later
he clarified it more and stated that “psychology has to investigate that which we call immediate
experience….in our own sensation and feeling, our thought and volition.” To Wundt, Immediate
experience was meant to refer sensation, imagination, images and feelings. The subject matter of
psychology became clearer with the new definition it became possible to conduct experiment on
human consciousness. This was very exciting period for the new discipline. Wundt's laboratory
became centre of all intellectual activities. Many other universities of Europe also established
laboratories to conduct experiment in psychology. Titchener, one of American students of
Wundt's, established laboratory in America and practiced Wundt's modern psychology.

The popularity of psychology rose quickly and researches were conducted in different fields e.g.,
child development, animal behavior, human memory and so on. Later experimental psychologists
found some problems with the subject matter and methods as advocated by Wundt. Psychologists
working with animals and children found that Wundt's psychology is more subjective and
concerned largely with consciousness. It is not possible to examine the mind of the animal or
children with the introspective method. However, child and animal psychologists were successful
in their studies by observing the behaviors and not the mind. Other psychologists who applied
 introspective method were in problem of subjectivity and biasness. It led to criticism of Wundt's
definition, subject matter and method of psychology. Questions was raised about the
consciousness. Though consciousness was much more clear term than 'soul' or 'mind' yet it an
abstract concept. Natural science rarely deals with concept that cannot be seen, observe or
quantitatively measured. Besides, Sigmund Freud, who developed the theory of psychoanalysis,
had stated three levels of mind – conscious, subconscious and unconscious. Wundt, from Freudian
point of view, was only working with one level of mind - consciouness. The observed short coming
of Wundt's psychology, criticism of Wundt's psychology as being metaphysical in nature, and
limitations of introspective method paved the way for the development of Behaviorism
psychology. As a result, new definition, subject matter and method was established. Psychology
became more scientific in orientation and practice.

Psychology as the Science of Behavior

John B. Watson is credited as the man who made psychology a positive science. Watson defined
psychology “as science of human behavior” in 1911 and later published his famous article in 1913.
The article introduced behaviorism theory as an important perspective in psychology. Psychology
was explained having a scientific approach to the study of behavior. This definition was considered
scientific and behavioristic in approach because the definition emphasizes more on behavior. Such
definition has some specific indication on what and how psychology works. As a science,
psychology brings carefully controlled methods of observation, such as the survey and the
experiment, to bear on its subject matter whenever possible. Behaviorists emphasized that:

1.Psychology is the science of behavior. Psychology is not the science of mind.

2.Behavior can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to
internal psychological processes. The sources of behavior are external (in the
environment), not internal (in the mind).
3.In the course of theory development in psychology, if, somehow, mental terms or concepts
are deployed in describing or explaining behavior, then either (a) these terms or concepts
should be eliminated and replaced by behavioral terms or (b) they can and should be
translated or paraphrased into behavioral concepts.

Most of the psychologists are interested primarily in human behavior, yet many of them focus
much or all of their research on the behavior of animals ranging from rats and pigeons to
flatworms and gorillas. Some psychologists believe that research findings about such animals can
be generalized1 to humans. Psychologists who were interested in both human and animal
behavior defined psychology as a “science of human and animal behavior” or it was defined simply
as the study of organism. Many psychologists argued that people are so distinct from other
animals that we can only learn about people by studying people. As with many such controversies,
both views hold much truth. For instance, laboratory studies of the nerve cells of animals like the
squid have given us much insight into the workings of the nerve cells of people. But only by
studying people can we understand the purely human inventions of morality, values, and romantic
love. Yet many psychologists study the behavior of lower animals simply because they enjoy doing
so. They are under no obligation to justify their interests on the basis of generalizability to people.
1
To extend or to spread.
B. MEANING OF BEHAVIOR: OVERT AND COVERT BEHAIVOR
Behaviors is 1) any response(s) made by an organism, 2) specifically, parts of a total response
pattern, 3) an act or activity, and 4) a movement or complex of movements (Atkinson, Berne and
Woodworth, 1987). Behavior is the observable action an organism uses to adjust to the
environment.
American psychologists generally agree that the subject matter of psychology is largely the
observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. But there is considerable divergence
of opinion as to precisely what ought to be included under the category of behavior. In broader
sense, behavior includes anything the individual does or experiences. Ideas, dreams, glandular
responses, running, maneuvering a space ship – all are behavior. In Behaviorists’ sense or in
narrower sense, behavior can be defined to include only objectively or publicly observable
responses. This narrow definition would exclude such conscious phenomena as thinking,
perceiving, judgment, and the life, except as these may be studied through their consequences in
behavior. But these few psychologists define psychology in such a narrow sense.
So it can be said that behavior is a collective name for all kinds of manifestation. It includes
activities that provides movement (e.g., walking, playing etc.) as well as knowledge (perceiving,
remembering, reasoning etc.). Behavior is psycho-physical in origin thus both internal world as
well as external world play their role in occurrence of the behavior. The ultimate aim of the
behavior is to adjust in environment. Observable behaviors such as speaking, walking, running,
working, or taking a test can be directly observed, but an individual’s mental processes cannot.
Many human activities are really private, internal events such as reasoning, creating, thinking and
dreaming. Many psychologists believe that such mental processes, though not directly observable,
represent the most important subject of psychology inquiry. The challenge of studying mental
events has led to the development of innovative research techniques.

The observable behavior is defined as overt behavior and unobservable behavior such as thinking,
dreaming, glandular responses, reasoning and so on are defined as covert behavior because they
are not observable but has tremendous influence on observable behavior. Thus, behavior is the
collective name for all kinds of manifestation.

C. S-R AND S-O-R PARADIGM

The Stimulus-Response (S-R) concept of psychology which is regarded as positivist approach
emphasizes the study of observable behaviour and its objective measurement. S-R psychology
was advocated by Behaviorists and dominated the field of psychology for many years. John B.
Watson and other behaviorists like B.F. Skinner were the main proponents of this view. The basic
emphasis is that behaviour is the function of stimulus or it can be stated as B=f (S). Behavior is the
individual’s reaction to stimulus. The nature of reaction or response depends on nature of
stimulus. A child living in physically violent environment learns to be violent. The violent
environment is stimulus and the reaction is violence. To survive a child has to react violently. This
 violent behaviour is the function of violent environment (stimulus). This is how S-R paradigm
explains human behavior.

However, studies based on observable behavior failed to explain many complex behaviors that
cannot be understood by merely looking at action of the people. Furthermore, other perspectives
like psychoanalytic and Gestalt psychology had been looking the human nature from another
angle that was quite different from behavioristic point of view and their contribution was equally
important like that of behaviorists. Psychoanalyst and Gestalt psychologists look at the ‘subjective’
world of the individual and tried to find out the meaning of the behavior. For Freud and other
psychologists, ‘subjective’ world constituted different levels of mind (conscious, subconscious and
unconscious) and divisions of personality (i.e., id, ego and superego). For Gestalt psychologists,
‘subjective’ world constituted the psychological process like perception and thinking. Cognitive
psychology that appeared in the later half of twentieth century has its root in Gestalt psychology.
These perspectives differ with the radical positivistic view of behaviorism. These psychologists did
not attribute the behaviour as the result of environmental stimulus only but also the person who
does not always act like a machine but also thinks and make reasons.

S-R paradigm is also regarded as a simplistic approach to behaviour. It cannot explain behavior
that is complex. Most of the people are familiar with the saying that "beauty lies in the eyes of
beholder." Or say, a cow is a cow and always a cow. But it can generate different reactions from a
Hindus, Muslim and Buddhist depending upon the meaning they attach to a cow. It can be symbol
of goddess Laxmi, delicious meat, or a beautiful animal.

Further, S-R approach in psychology did not always provided an adequate or appropriate answer
to many psychologists who were following this paradigm. Many experimental psychologists faced
myriad of problems and S-R psychology could not answer them. Such situations usually lead to
anomaly, dissatisfaction among the researchers and generate distrust in the theory. They may
revolt and search for new paradigm that can answer their questions. What some behaviorists did
to solve this problem was the introduction of S-O-R concept. They realized that between Stimulus
(S) and Response (R) there is some process that goes within the person and this process is not
observable but has its impact on person's response. Thus, they introduce the concept of Organism
(O). Because of 'O' the cow is interpreted differently and reacted differently. This new approach is
explains as B = f (S, O, R). This view emphasized both behavior and cognitive processes are
important to get a complete picture of human functioning. The concept of behavior is broadened
with the S-O-R view.

D. PSYCHOLOGY AS EMPIRICAL SCIENCE: METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY

Since the establishment of psychological laboratory to conduct the experimental study of human
nature in 1879 psychology became an empirical science. The scientific exercise in psychology is
both academic and applied. It uses varieties of method both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ to collect the data.
Experimental method is regarded as ‘hard’ method in which rigorous control is maintained which
is not found in many ‘soft’ methods such as case study method or participant observation method.
Empirical or scientific method is a set of directions that is designed to lead to the answers to
questions. Psychology as an empirical science use scientific method to generate scientific
knowledge of human behavior. Such knowledge can create a new theory or examine the existing
theory. Scientific method is the major tool in empirical science. As an empirical science methods
of psychological inquiry are objective, systematic, accurate, critical, controlled, reliable and valid.

A method is a process of collecting data through systematic approach. Scientific method is an

approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about
behavior and other phenomena of interest (Hazen & Trefil, 1991; Leong & Austin, 1996). In
empirical method the researcher is not prejudiced towards objects, persons, events, ideas and so
on. The study is controlled and the researcher is critical.

The process of empirical study begins with scientific inquiry. Scientific inquiry starts with a
question. Researcher than propose a conceptual or theoretical frame to describe and explain
behavior. Based on theoretical framework hypotheses are formed of relationships between
variables. But it is not necessary to form a hypothesis in all types of research. Psychologists also
conduct the research outside the laboratory setting. But in both situations psychologists try to
maintain that the data (information) collected meet the standard set in empirical research –
objectivity, dependability, accuracy and verifiability. What determines the scientific approach is
its method. Both inside and outside the laboratory psychologists always follow the successive
steps of empirical method. Such steps are the foundation of scientific inquiry. Following is a
general steps (the step can vary slightly according to the nature of method used in scientific
investigation).

1. Problems are identified, reviewed and stated accurately so that it would be simple,
comprehensible and testable.
2. Hypothesis is generated. A tentative answer to the problem at hand is developed. Such
tentative answer is based on researcher's hours of study of relevant book and research
articles that have dealt with the problems. In some researches hypothesis are not
developed.
3. Method is selected. In order to find out the answer (if hypothesis is mentioned then to
test the hypothesis) an appropriate, accurate and reliable method and tools are selected.
4. Data are collected, organized and analyzed. With the selection of tools (and the sample
size, type etc.) data are collected, organized, statistically analyzed and interpreted.
5. Result is derived. Result interpretation finally proves whether the hypothesis is correct or
not. The relationship between x and y is established.
6. Conclusion is drawn. Before concluding the result is repeatedly examined. The factors are
identified and conditions leading to sources or solutions is stated clearly.
7. The result becomes law. The phenomenon (problem) is explained, interpreted and solved
through the finding of the result.
In psychology, as in other sciences, different methods and tools of collecting and evaluating data
are available. Observational techniques are among the easiest and most common methods in
psychology. Some of the methods of used in psychology are:

Introspective method, Case study, Experimental method, Quasi-experimental

method, Observational method, Archival method, Natural experimental study,
 Survey method, Naturalistic observation, Psychometric method, Self report
method (interview and questionnaire method)

1. Experimental method
Experimental method is a highly systematic, objective observational method. In this method
phenomenon is artificially created in the laboratory setting for the detail study and precise
measurement of the behavior or event. An experiment is a method of scientific investigation that
seeks to discover cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and
observing their effects on dependent variables (Rathus, 1984). Four main parts of the
psychological experiment are (1) Experimenter (2) Subject (3) Controlled laboratory, and (4)
instruments. Experiments are usually undertaken to test a hypothesis (an assumption about
behavior that is often derived from theory.

Psychologists prefer to use experiments whenever possible because this approach allows them to
determine whether a stimulus or an event actually causes something to happen. In an
experimental approach, researchers randomly assign participants to different conditions. These
conditions should be identical except for one variable that the researcher is interested in. For
example, psychologists have asked whether people learn more if they study for one long period or
several short periods. To study this experimentally, the psychologist would assign people into one
of two groups - one group that studies for an extended period of time or to another group that
studies for the same total amount of time, but in short segments. The researcher would make sure
that all the participants studied the same material, for the same total time, and were in the same
study environment; the only thing that would differentiate the two groups is whether the learners
studied for short or long segments. Thus, any difference in the amount of learning should be due
only to the length of the study periods. (This kind of research has revealed that people learn
better with several shorter study periods.) The experimental approach is useful when the research
can establish control over the environment; this work is often done in a simple laboratory setting.
Now let us see the major steps of experimental method and their importance.

Steps in experimental study

1. Statement of the problem: (simple, solvable, not ambiguous and relevant)
2. Statement of hypothesis: (tentative answer of the research question)
3. Identification and definition of variables (independent and dependent)
4. Design of the experiment: (to control relevant variables, introduce independent variable
and measure dependent variable)
5. Data collection (instruction and application of proper procedure)
6. Statistical procedure, result interpretation, Discussion, replication, verification
7. Conclusion.

Problem: All research study starts with a problem. Experimental method is used to find the
solution or answer of the problem. Problem should be simple, solvable and relevant. For example,
problem of alcohol and aggressive behavior is a solvable and relevant problem. Problem is the first
step in the chain of experimental study.
Hypothesis: Hypothesis is also called a tentative answer/solution to the question/problem. It is an
assumption about behavior that is derived from theory and tested through research. For example,
a psychologist assumes that alcohol leads to aggression by reducing fear of consequences or
generally energizing the activity levels of drinkers. He or she then hypothesizes that the treatment
of drinking alcohol will lead to measurable increases in aggression among provoked individuals.
Hypothesis is a Greek work meaning "groundwork" or "foundation". It is said that once hypothesis
is stated half of the problem is solved.
Identification and definition of variables: Variables are anything that varies and evokes the sense
organs. In other words, stimulus can be regarded as variable. In an experiment, the experimenter
wants to see the effect of one variable (called independent variable - IV) to another (dependable
variable - DV). Thus, experimenter is concerned with IV and DV. In the above example, alcohol
would be considered an IV, a variable whose presence is manipulated by the experimenter so that
its effect may be determined. The measured results or outcomes in an experiment are called DV. It
is called dependent variable because the presence of intensity and durability of DV depends on IV.
In the above experiment, the aggressive behavior would be a dependent variable.
Design of the experiment: In order to control the other variables that can influence the DV, design
of the experiment is necessary. In the above experiment, we all know that aggression can be
evoked by other different causes. Further, alcohol can also lead to sexual arousal, visual-motor
coordination, performance on an intellectual task and so on. Design of the experiment controls all
these variables (called extraneous or relevant variables) so that experimenter can only introduce
IV and observe and measure its effect (DV). Design helps to control these relevant variables.
Further, design also helps us to select control and experimental subjects. Ideal experimental and
control subjects or experimental and control groups. Experimental subjects receive the treatment
while control subjects do not. Every effort is made to ensure that all other conditions are held
constant both for experimental and control subjects so that we can have confidence that the
experimental outcomes reflect the treatments, and not chance factors or variation. In the above
example, experimental groups would be given alcohol and controlled subjects would not.
Experimental method is rigorous but it helps to establish a precise relationship between 'cause'
(alcohol) and 'effect' (aggression) with the help of experimental control. Such rigorous control is
only possible in the laboratory setting.
Data collection: The process of data collection will be according to design of the experiment. The
experimenter will use the precise quantity of alcohol (as decided in the design) and apply to the
experimenter group. Thereafter, s/he will measure or observe the dependent variable with certain
accuracy.
Result interpretation, discussion and conclusion: Replication means repeat or duplicate. In
science, research must be reported in sufficient detail to permit other investigators to replicate it.
If one doubtful of whether alcohol leads to aggressive behavior as found in the above example,
one can adopt the procedure and replicate the experiment and test whether the finding is really
true or not.
Merits of experimental method
1. The data and result are objective, verifiable and replicable. The experimenter report the
process of data collection, tools used, experimental control, and statistical procedures.
 2. Stimulus variable can be precisely identified and the resulting response is measured. This
is the only method through which relationship between cause and effect can be
established.
3. Result can be repeated with creating the same situation in the laboratory. This will
increase the reliability and validity of the result.
4. This method can refute the theory.

Demerits of experimental method

1. Experimenter's bias, evaluation error can occur. Experimenter's effect can influence the
data. Subject can react according to the expectation of the experimenter.
2. If the sample of the study does not represent the population will influence the
generalization of the finding.
3. Inadequate control of the relevant variable can influence the result. And all variables
cannot be controlled.
4. Experiments are largely conducted on animals. It is debatable whether such results are
applicable to human beings (external validity).
5. All human phenomenon cannot be studied by experimental method.
6. Furthermore, it is costly and time consuming. Demands specific knowledge and training on
experimenter.

2. Observation method
Correlation approaches are most useful when the researchers cannot control the environment or
when the phenomena they want to study are complex. Instead of trying to simplify the situation,
the researchers observe the complex behaviors as they naturally occur. A third approach is called
naturalistic observation. This kind of research often is not highly quantitative (as in the objective,
systematic observation such as the experimental method. Experimental method is regarded as
systematic observation method); that is, observations are likely to be descriptive. The researcher
decides on some class of behavior to observe and records the situations in which that behavior
occurs and how it develops. A classic example of observational research was done by Jane Goodall
in her work with chimpanzees in the wild. She spent years observing their social interactions and
how the chimp "society" changed over time.

Observation is a purposive or intentional examination of something, particularly for the purpose of

gathering facts. Observation becomes scientific when the data are gathered systematically and
are related to other data also systematically gathered for the purpose of uncovering general
principle of human behavior (Kidder and Judd, 1986). Observation becomes scientific when it (1)
serves a formulated research purpose, (2) when it is planned deliberately, (3) when it is recorded
systematically, and (4) when it is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Scientific observation, thus, is made under precisely defined conditions, in a systematic and
objective manner, and with careful record keeping.

Classification of observational methods: Observational methods can be classified according to the

degree to which an observer intervenes in an observational setting as well as according to the way
in which that behavior is recorded. Observations can be classified as:
 1. observation without intervention
2. observation with intervention

Observation without intervention: Observation of behavior in a more or less natural setting,

without any attempt by the observer to intervene, is frequently called naturalistic observation, a
naturalistic field study, or, more formally, systematic observation in a natural setting.
The observer in such method is passive recorder of the event.
S/he cannot manipulate or control the situation and the event occurs in natural setting.
(Laboratory situation is an artificial situation and the experimenter controls the setting.)
Systematic observation in a natural setting helps to establish the external validity of laboratory
finding.

Observation with intervention: Intervention rather than non-intervention characterize most

psychological research. Kinds of intervention vary widely in psychological studies, depending on
such things as the purpose of investigating behavior, the nature of the behavior under
observation, and the ingenuity of the researcher. Under this category, observation can be
a) participant observation
b) structured observation, and
c) the field experiment.

a) Participant observation
PO is observation of behavior by someone who also plays an active and significant role in
the situation or context in which behavior is recorded. This type of observation can be
divided into two sub types –
Undisguised participant observation is one in which people who are being observed know
that the observer is present for observation. Anthropologists frequently use this method.
Disguised participant observation is one in which people who are being observed do not
know that they are being observed. This method is used because many times people behave
differently when they know that they are being observed. Participant observation allows an
observer to gain access to a situation that is not usually open to scientific observation. In
addition, the participant observer is often in a position to have the same experiences as the
subjects under study. Such position provides important insights and understanding of
individuals or groups. But sometimes the same advantage hinders the observer to be
objective and accurate in recording the behavior.
b) Structured observation
Sometimes according to the nature of study the observer intervenes in order to cause an
event to occur or to “set up” a situation so that events can be more easily recorded than
they would be without intervention.
Structured observations may occur in a natural setting or in a laboratory setting where
observer creates quite elaborate procedures to investigate a particular behavior more fully.
Clinical psychologists, educational psychologists, developmental psychologists often make
structured observation.
 c) Field experiment
An experiment carried out in a natural setting rather than in the laboratory is called a field
experiment. In other words, it can said that when an observer manipulates one or more
independent variables in a natural setting in order to determine their effect on behavior, the
procedure is called a field experiment.

In conducting a field experiment, the observer (experimenter) seeks to control the

antecedents of an event in order to measure systematically the effect of a variable on
behavior. The observer can assign the subjects to conditions. It is one of the most frequently
used field-observation techniques in social psychology.

The observer (experimenter) use confederate (a person who is instructed [by experimenter]
to behave in such a way to produce an experimental situation). Latane and Darley have
done some good field experiments on helping behavior.

Merits of observational method

1. Simplicity is the characteristic of this method.
2. This method is objective and impersonal
3. Science begins with observation and must, ultimately return to observation for its final
validation.
4. With this method psychology can study - social groups like mob, crowd, family, mentally
disturbed.
5. This method helps to develop hypothesis. It is best for pilot study.
6. Observation method is both quantitative and qualitative in nature
7. This method can be objective and impersonal. The data are not based on guess
(introspection) but on perception.
8. Reliability can be tested through statistical method (e.g., in objective observation).
9. Objective observation method can be applied to different situations – animal behaviors, mob
behaviors etc. which cannot be studied through other methods.
10. No of data can be increased within a short period as compared to experimental or
introspective method. This can increase the reliability.
11. Since observation method is conducted in natural setting, the validity is high as compared to
other methods.
Demerits of observation method
1. This method does rarely generate the knowledge about the cause and effect. This is because
all variables cannot be controlled and situation is natural. Only controlled systematic
observation method (e.g., experimental method) is successful to control intervening
variables.
2. There are chances of personal biases of the observers i.e., influence of attitudes, prejudices,
needs, ambitions, expectations etc.
3. Psychology not only describes the behavior but also finds causes of behavior. Chances of
error are high in explaining the cause by simply observing the behavior. Verbal report is
important to find the cause of behavior.
 4. There is a chance of Hawthorne effect. The presence of observer can bring unnatural
behavior from people who are being observed. One-way screen window can reduce the
effect but such observation/study is not always possible..
5. All social phenomenon cannot be studied by observation.
6. Cognitive processes (attitude, need, prejudices, aspiration, expectation, feelings, emotions,
thinking, memory, imagination, dreams etc.) cannot be observed.
7. Some of the observation types lack reliability.
8. No control of extraneous variables (e.g., Latane and Darley (1970) helping behavior).
9. Losses control over the environment (e.g., Latane and Darley's study).

3. Correlation method
A second approach involves the correlational technique. This approach does not include control of
the environment by the researcher. Instead, measurements are made as they naturally occur. For
example, a group of high school students took two tests that required them to solve analogies and
to recognize antonyms. The researchers discovered a correlation between students' abilities to
complete analogies correctly and to identify antonyms. In general, students who were good at one
task were also good at the other; students weak in one task were weak in the other. In correlational
research, no attempt is made to state that one thing causes another, only that one thing is
predictable from the other. E.g., Survey research with the use of questionnaire, interview or
psychological test (paper/pencil).

4. Case study method

In-depth analyses or intensive study of a single individual or event is called case study. Case study is
vivid, illustrating unusual or dramatic events in detail. It is observation technique in which one
person (or group) is studied in depth in the hopes of revealing universal principles (David G. Myers,
1996). Sigmund Freud constructed his theory of personality from a handful of case studies. Intensive
case study is very revealing.

Case study method: The previous techniques all involve observing a group of individuals.
Sometimes, psychologists are interested in studying a single person in depth. This is called a case
study. This approach is common when clinical psychologists work with a person over a long period
of time. The final product in a case study is an in-depth description of a great number of different
aspects of the individual's life and development. The strength of this approach is that detail is
abundant; the weakness is that the psychologist cannot generalize to other people from the single
individual being analyzed because that person may differ in important ways from the average
person.
Advantage
 Case studies can suggest hypothesis for further study but sometimes it has problems:
Disadvantages
 Good for research stimulation but not always for arriving at conclusion
 Individual are atypical not representative thus, case sometimes misleads.
 Relies on people’s memories and interpretation of the event (which can be inaccurate)
  The result cannot be logically generalized from one case to another.

5. Archival method
In archival method researcher use records that already exist in order to find the most likely
explanation for an event. Examples of records used are those kept by libraries, government, and
private institution. Archival research data is a source of evidence that is based upon records or
documents relating alternative to or in conjunction with other research methods.

Psychologists can use archival information to answer questions. Archival research differs
considerably from the other approaches because it does not rely on direct observation or
interaction with the people being studied. Rather, psychologists use records or other already
existing information. For example, some psychologists were interested in whether the percentage of
left-handed people in the population has remained constant throughout history. They obviously
could not observe people who have died, so they decided to use existing information about the
past. They recorded the percentage of left-handed people in paintings and other such renderings.
After poring over paintings, they concluded that the percentage of left-handed people has not
changed over the last few centuries. More commonly, archival information comes from birth and
death records and other official statistics.

Evaluation
 One of the advantages is that the data are already gathered
 Interviewer’s social biases of people, event are avoided
 Disadvantages of this method include: data off target, incomplete, distorted, bias etc.

E. SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
To be a psychologist, a person must earn an appropriate higher degree, perhaps be certified, and
then get a job using these credentials. Two critical steps are training and occupation. A psychologist
usually is the holder of a Ph.D. degree in psychology. They should specialize in certain area of
psychology. American Psychological Association (APA) has listed more than 44 major areas of
psychology. In USA, most of the psychology students are interested in clinical psychology. They are
also interested in experimental psychology, counseling and guidance psychology, educational
psychology, and in other psychologies. In developed countries psychologists are involved in teaching
and research, management or administration, clinical practice and other areas.

Psychologists differ in their interests; one way of representing these is by the division of the APA.
APA has list of several branches of psychologies which indicate the scope or range of psychology.
Some of these psychologies are shown in the table
1 Adolescent Psychology 1 Health psychology
9
2 Adult development and aging 2 Indigenous psychology
0
3 Cognitive psychology 2 Industrial and organizational psychology
1
 4 Child psychology 2 Military psychology
2
5 Clinical psychology 2 Para psychology
3
6 Community psychology 2 Personality psychology
4
7 Consulting psychology 2 Personnel psychology
5
8 Consumer psychology 2 Physiological and comparative psychology
6
9 Counseling psychology 2 Psychobiology
7
1 Cross-cultural psychology 2 Psychology of women
0 8
1 Cultural psychology 2 psychopharmacology
1 9
1 Developmental psychology 3 Psychotherapy
2 0
1 Educational psychology 3 Rehabilitation psychology
3 1
1 Engineering psychology 3 Rural psychology
4 2
1 Environmental psychology 3 School psychology
5 3
1 Evaluation and Measurement 3 Social psychology
6 4
1 Experimental psychology 3 Space psychology
7 5
1 General psychology 3 Others
8 6

The cluster of subfields that we call psychology has less unity than most other sciences. But in their
diverse activities, from biological experimentation to cultural comparisons, psychologists share a
common quest: describing and explaining behaviour and the mental processes that underlie it. All
the subfields of psychology can be categorized under the broad heading of Basic psychology and
applied psychology. Below is the description of some of the branches of Basic (theoretical) and
Applied (practical) psychology.

Basic (theoretical) psychologies

General (or Basic) Psychology:
Psychology that is exclusively concerned with the basic description and explanation of human
behaviour is called General psychology. This psychology is concerned with normal individual and
describes and explains the basic laws and principles that govern various mental and physical
activities. This includes perceptions, learning, memory, motivation, emotions, intelligence,
personality, etc. This psychology not only explains about psychology but also how and why we
behave. For example, what we learn, why we learn and how we learn, and what is the basic
purpose of learning, and how it helps us to adjust in the environment, etc. General psychology
explains different concepts and its relations with human mental functions and behaviours with
the help of various principles and theories.
Abnormal Psychology (Psychopathology)
Besides general psychology that studies normal human behaviour there is also another division
of psychology that studies abnormal behaviour. It is called Abnormal psychology. It is another
important theoretical branch of psychology that describes and explains in detail about abnormal
behaviour, how it occurs, why it occurs and what are the symptoms and causes of abnormal
behaviour, etc. Some of the main problems of abnormal psychology are abnormalities related to
emotions, motivations and other psychological functions. Apart from that it also studies
abnormalities manifested in social situation or as a result of social situation such as criminal
behaviours, sexual perversions, alcoholism, drug addictions, and personality problems, namely,
the neurosis, psychosis, psychopathic personality, psychosomatic disorders, etc. abnormal
psychology also deals with applications of various psychotherapeutic techniques-their objectives
and general procedures.

Social Psychology
Social behaviour is one of the main components of psychology. Most of the behaviours
psychology studies are manifested in social situation to influence and control other people. Life
is meaningless in absence of other people. Many times individual's behaviour is influenced by
social situation. A rational and responsible man can be irresponsible and aggressive in social
situation such as in mob or in crowd. In fact, no aspect of human behaviour can be isolated from
social influences. Social psychology that studies social behaviour is a very important branch of
psychology.

Social psychology studies a person's behaviour in his/her social and cultural background. But
social psychology is not only confined to individual behaviour rather it also studies group and
how it influence the individual's behaviour. It studies how socialization takes place, how growth
and development is affected by a person's social environment. Besides, social psychology also
studies about social perception, social motivation, development and changes in attitudes,
development of prejudices, social learning, group dynamics, leadership, causes and remedial
measures of social tensions, propaganda, public opinions, social integration, social pathologies,
etc. These studies shed lights on individual's behaviour in relation to his/her social background.

Some behaviour cannot be understood when studied isolated from social context but when it is
described or explained in relation to its social and cultural background the meaning and
significance of behaviour becomes clear. For example, In North America, when people are
invited to dinner in someone's home they generally show their appreciation of their host's
cooking efforts by eating all of the food they are served. In India, this behaviour would be
insulting to the host, as guests are expected to leave some food on their plates. The leftover
food acknowledges the generosity of the host, implying that he or she provided so much food
the guest could not eat it all (Moghaddam, Taylor, & Wright, 1993). Social psychology helps to
explain meaning of many simple to complex social behaviour.
 Experimental Psychology
There are many psychologists who are more concerned in experimental studies of psychological
processes. The study of sensations, perceptions, learning, memory and forgetting, motivation,
physiological bases of behaviour, and many others in laboratory study are the primary problems
of experimental psychology. As the name itself indicates, experimental psychology is rigorous
and is primarily conducted in the laboratory. The basic aim of this psychology is to experiment
and understand fundamental causes of behaviours. This method helps to identify variables and
their relationship in causing behaviour which ultimately helps to develop laws and principles,
test and retest their authenticity. For example, does cigarette smoking cause cancer? Either one
says 'yes' or 'no' is not valid until one conducts experiment. The result derived from the
experiment proves whether it is true or false. Experimental psychologists do not only study
observable behaviour but also do rigorous experimental on how brain functions, the role of
neurons or different glands and hormones in shaping or directing behaviour. Experimental
psychology as a fundamental subfield of psychology carries on experiments to determine
relations between stimulus and response, variables that are associated with behaviour events,
confirms the hypothesis about behaviour and brings forth new facts about behaviour events.

Applied (Practical) Psychologies

Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is application of general principles of behaviour in the area of education.
Educational psychologists are primarily interested in answering certain pertinent questions
relating to entire processes of education, such as-when to teach, what to teach and how to
teach? All these three questions are important for chalking out an effective educational
programme, formulation of curriculum and evolving effective teaching methods. Besides,
educational psychologists are also interested in explaining possible causes of educational
'backwardness, special teaching of gifted' children., evaluation of capabilities, improving teacher
taught relations, motivational aspects relating to education, tackling the problem of
absenteeism, etc.

In essence, the major task of educational psychologist is to evolve and develop principles upon
which a sound and effective educational system may base and also to discover the ways and
means to solve various problems that arise in educational field from time to time such as
education and problem children, gifted children, developing a reliable and valid techniques of
evaluation, measurement of aptitude, interests and motivating children to profit more and more
from education.

Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the largest subfield of psychology in which general psychological principles
are being applied by most of the psychologists designated as clinical psychologists.
Approximately 30% psychologists are clinical psychologists whose main pre-occupations are
rendering services to abnormal persons or to deviant behaviour individuals. Their main concern
is the diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behaviour problems, such as mental illness,
 juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, criminal behaviour, mental retardation, marital and family
conflicts, and other less serious adjustment problems. Clinical psychologists are found in the
hospitals, juvenile courts or probation offices, in a mental health clinic homes or institutions for
mentally retarded, medical schools, or practicing privately. Clinical psychologists often work in
association with other professional colleagues such as counselors, social workers, psychiatrists
or medical professionals.

Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychology is an offshoot branch of clinical psychology. A counseling psychologist
performs much of the functions of a clinical psychologist, but typically he renders his services
mostly to the school and college students by advising them on problems of social adjustment,
educational problems, vocational selections, accomplishment of educational goals, etc. Like
clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists render their services in schools, colleges,
counseling and guidance centres and even practice privately.

Thus, counseling psychology is a professional branch of psychology in which psychological

principles are applied in solving less serious behavioural problems of adjustment in vocational
educational and social fields.

Industrial and Engineering Psychology

Industrial psychology studies the behaviour of man in industrial situations, organizations which
make available many goods to the comfort and satisfaction of living. Industries and
organizations face with many problems relating to working personnel such as, selection of fit
persons for job, fitting or placing of selected persons to the fit job, efficient working conditions,
controlling wastage of manpower, quality improvement, creating peaceful atmosphere,
controlling pollutions on account of misuse of technology, analysis of job, organizational set up,
industrial training, developing harmonious relationship between management and worker,
effective leadership, adjustment problems, group morale, communication, etc. Industrial and
engineering psychologists are deeply involved with these problems. Their involvement is at two
distinct but interdependent levels. On the one hand, industrial and engineering psychologists
are concerned with human factors in industries and organizations, such as personnel selection,
employee morale, and designing of machines to minimize human errors. At another level,
psychologists are concerned with larger problems of industrial civilization. At this level, an
industrial psychologist joins hands with social psychologists and other scientists in planning for
the future. They share their concern to the problems relating to resources, environmental
pollution, over crowding, interpersonal relationships, health problems, and safety from
accidents, security and other related influences on the quality of life. This area of psychology is
now-a-days termed as "environmental psychology".

F. CONTRIBUTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN DIFFERENT FIELDS

Psychology is a practicing science. Its theories and laws are evidence based. The scientific exercises
are rigorous and the results are applied in various human development areas including education,
workplace, health and social care by focusing on normal as well as ‘abnormal’ people of all ages, sex,
race and caste of different setting and context. The contribution of psychology in almost all fields is
enormous. The branches of psychology itself tell the profession and responsibilities of psychologies.

Psychological theories and models are widely used to understand, enhance and reshape human
behaviour. For example, learning theory (LT) which includes instrumental learning and classical
conditioning, is a body of theories that alerts us to the fact that much of our behaviour is habitual
and arises out of rewards and punishments operating outside conscious awareness. The learning
theories are widely used in educational sector, organizational behaviors, hospital setting, armed
services, and so on. Similarly, other theories are also used to understand and reshape the behavior.
For example, Judgment and decision making theory (JDM) is a body of theory that alerts us to biases
in our judgments about the likelihood of things happening and the value we place on those
outcomes. Among the myriads of contributions of psychology in different fields, below is an example
of how motivational theories developed in psychology is used in Organizational setting.

Applications of Motivation in Organizational Settings: Some Examples

Newstorm (2007, p.133) has stated that money as reward can be applied to motivate the employee
and ultimately help them to gain varieties of physiological and social needs. In relation to drive he
writes that achievement-oriented employees maintain a symbolic scorecard in their minds by
monitoring their total pay and comparing it with that of others. Their pay is a measure of their
accomplishments. Money also relates to other drives, since people can use it to buy their way into
expensive clubs (affiliation) and give them the capacity (power) to influence others, such as through
political contributions.

Greenberg and Baron (2000, pp.136-137) write that the greatest value of need theories is their
practical implications for management. Need theories indicate that managers can help their
subordinates to become self-actualized and self-actualized employees are likely to work their
maximum creative potential, so it makes sense to help people attain this state by helping them to
meet their needs. To achieve this, the writers suggest that the organizations can help the employees
to meet the following needs.

1. Promote a Healthy Workforce

Some companies help to satisfy their employees' physiological needs by providing incentives to stay
healthy. For example, Hershey Foods Corporation and Southern California Edison Company, among
others, give insurance rebates to employees with healthy lifestyles and charge extra premiums to
employees whose habits (e.g., smoking) put them at greater risk for health problems. To the extent
as these incentives encourage employees to adopt healthier lifestyles the likelihood of satisfying
their physiological needs is increased.

Companies also are interested in promoting their employees' mental health as well. Visits to
psychotherapists can be very expensive and mental health professionals are not always available in
remote locations. To meet this need, the psychological services company Wilson Banwell, which is
based in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, provides a World Wide Web-based counseling
service, PROACT. Wilson Banwell provides live, on-line "cybertherapy" sessions with one of 68 staff
psychologists. It may not be the same as face-to-fact therapy, but patients generally like the service
and their employers welcome the unique opportunities it affords.

2. Provide Financial Security

Financial security is an important type of safety need and some companies are going beyond the
more traditional forms of payroll savings and profit-sharing plans. Notably, Com-Corp Industries,
which is an auto-parts manufacturer based in Cleveland, Ohio, found that its employees had serious
financial difficulties when faced with sending children to college--leading the company to offer
employees very low interest loans (only three percent annually for 10 years) for this purpose.

Financial security is the key aspect of job security, particularly in troubled economic times. To help
soften the blow of layoffs, more and more organizations are providing outplacement services -- that
is, assistance with securing new employment. In the most extensive of such programs, AT & T and
Wang have provided extensive career counseling and job-search assistance to its laid-off employees.
It certainly is more desirable not to be laid off at all, but knowing that such assistance is available, if
needed, helps to reduce the negative emotional aspects of job insecurity.

3. Opportunities to Socialize
To help satisfy its employees' social needs, IBM holds a "Family Day" picnic each spring near its
Armonk, New York, headquarters. Some other companies also have incorporated social activities
deep into the fabric of their cultures. For example, Odetics, Inc., the Anaheim, California,
manufacturer of intelligence machine stems, not only has its own repertory theater troupe but also
regular "theme" days (e.g., a "sock hop" in the company's cafeteria) and a standing "fun
committee," which has organized events such as lunch-hour "employee Olympics," complete with
goofy games.

Motivating Employees: Managerial Implications

Managers must realize that all motivation theories are not equally good nor equally useful.
Managers cannot assume they understand employees' needs. They should recognize the variety of
needs that motivate employee behavior and ask employees to better understand their needs.
Individual employees differ in their needs, and managers have to be sensitive to ethnic, national,
gender, and age differences in this regard. Employees with high needs for power must be given
opportunities to exercise influence, and employees with high needs for achievement must be
allowed to excel at work.

Managers should be aware that morally mature employees are more likely to be sensitive to
inequities at work. At the same time, these employees are less likely to be selfish or self-centered
and more likely to be concerned about equity issues for all employees. Morally matured employees
will act ethically for the common good of all employees and the organization.
From the above example of how motivational theories can contribute in understanding the
employee as well as to achieve the organizational goal we can understand the contribution
psychological theories can make in society, organization and in individuals.