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PAPER SERIES

Development of a Late Intake-Valve Closing

(LIVC) Miller Cycle for Stationary Natural Gas
Engines Effect of EGR Utilization -
Kazuhisa Okamoto, Fu-Rong Zhang, Satoshi Shimogata, and Fujio Shoji
Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd.

Reprinted from: Preparing Mixtures for Diesel and SI Engines

(SP-1305)

The Engineering Society

International Fall Fuels &
m A E , r Advancing Mobwty Lubricants Meeting & Exposition
and sea Air and Space. Tulsa, Oklahoma
October 13-16,1997
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (412)776-4841 Fax:(412)776-5760
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Development of a Late Intake-Valve Closing
(LIVC) Miller Cycle for Stationary Natural Gas
Encjines Effect of EGR Utilization
Katuhisa Okarnoto, Fu-Rong Zhang, Satoshi Shimogata, and Fujio Shoji
Copyright 1997 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The Late Intake-Valve Closing (LIVC) Miller
cycle was applied to a turbo-charged stationary gas
engine for co-generation. The engine, with a power of
324 kW, was operated under stoichiometric
conditions and equipped with a threeway catalyst.
The LIVC Miller cycle was aimed to improve the
thermal efficiency and lower the exhaust gas
temperature by increasing an expansion ratio, while
avoiding engine knocking by reducing an effective
compression ratio. This part of the study employed an
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to improve the
thermal efficiency of the LIVC Miller cycle engine. The
EGR was expected to improve the knocking limit and
reduce thermal damage to the engine's exhaust train.
The experiments clarified the basic characteristics of
EGR and its effect on the performance of the gas
engine. The LIVC Miller cycle with EGR operating at
stoichiometric conditions demonstrated a high
thermal efficiency of 38 % (LHV), rivaling that of
existing lean burn gas engines. NOx emissions were
maintained extremely low, under 40 ppm (=0.2 g/
kW.h), by using the three-way catalyst.
INTRODUCTION
Growing concern about the global
environmental problems has led to widespread use of
energy efficient co-generation systems. The major
advantage of a co-generation system is its high
overall thermal efficiency. For a yet wider utilization,
however, the generating efficiency of the co-
generationsystem needs to be improved. Demandfor
electricity is much higher than that for exhaust heat.
Recent stringent emission regulations in densely
-
Tokyo Gas Co.. Ltd.
populated urban areas in Japan, on the other hand,
require much lower NOx limits. Stationary gas
engines used for prime movers for co-generation,
therefore, need to reduce NOx emissions while
improving thermal efficiency.
For small or medium sized gas engines, two
different low NOx techniques are typically used, one
being the three-way catalytic technique and the other
being the lean burntechnique. The three-way catalyst
has the potential to reduce NOx to an extremely low
level under 10 ppm (e0.05 g/kW.h), guaranteeing
less than 40 ppm (e0.2 g/kW-h) even after 16,000
hours (about two years) of operation [I]. Despite its
high NOx reduction, the three-way catalytic technique
requires stoichiometric engine operation, which
inevitably leads to a high risk engine knocking as well
as a high thermal loading, thereby limiting engine
efficiency and brake mean effective pressure
(BMEP). The lean burn technique, on the other hand,
achieves a relatively high engine efficiency with
moderately low NOx emissions without relying on a
post de-NOx process. While marginally meeting the
strict NOx regulation in Japan (150 pprn=0.7 g/kW.
h), the lean burn technique appears to face tough
technological challenges to comply with stricter NOx
limits currently considered by authorities. Innovative
engine technology is necessary to achieve higher
engine efficiency and low NOx emissions. The
reduction of total hydrocarbon (THC) and CO
emissions are required as well.
A previous study employed a Miller cycle to
improve the thermal efficiency of stationary gas
engines that were operated at stoichiometric
conditions to combine a three-way catalyst for NOx
reduction [2,3]. The basic characteristicsof the Miller
cycle were extensively investigated. A number of
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
potential versions of the Miller cycle were tested and
compared, such as one with early rotary-valveclosing
(ERVC), late intake-valve closing (LIVC), combination
of the ERVC and LlVC and early intake-valve closing
(EIVC). Along with the experimental investigation,
numerical simulation was conducted to predict and
optimize the performance of the Miller cycle 141. The
experimental results identified the superior
performance of the LlVC system. The LlVC system
successfully improved thermal efficiency by a
relatively simple engine modification, thereby
guaranteeing a high engine reliability. The LlVC
system, however, showed one disadvantage. Due to
a large blow-back of hot mixture once introduced into
cylinders, the LlVC system caused a high mixture
temperature in the intake port. This increase in intake
temperature lowered the knocking limit and degraded
the thermal efficiency. An experimental study was
conducted to improve the performance of intake
cooling, for example a two-stage intake cooling
technique and a split cooling technique [5]. In the two-
stage intake cooling system, an additional inter-cooler
was installed in the intake passage close to the
cylinder head. The split cooling arrangement allowed
independent cooling of the cylinder heads and block.
The improvement of knocking limit with both of the
techniques was equivalent to that with 10-15 K
reduction of intake mixture temperature. The thermal
efficiency of the LlVC Miller cycle was slightly
improved. With the Miller cycle itself being nearly
optimized, further improvement of engine
performance appears, however, to require other
innovative technologies that can be combined with
the Miller cycle.
EGR has been mainly used for vehicles in
order to reduce NOx emissions by lowering
a-charger
I lh
Air
Combustion
Analyser
pressure
Gas Engine
Dynamo.
Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of The Experimental
Apparatus
combustion temperature. Besides NOx reduction, a
number of studies reportedthe positive effect of EGR
on the improvementof engine knocking and BMEP 16,
71. Unlike the lean burn system that introduces
excessive air into the engine, EGR can be used for a
stoichiometric engine equipped with a three-way
catalyst and is expected to improve engine
performance due to a suppression of knocking. This
study highlights the application of EGR to improve the
thermal efficiency and reduce the thermal loading of
the LlVC Miller cycle. The effect of EGR on
combustion characteristics and engine performance,
in particular thermal efficiency, has been investigated.
APPLICATION OF EGR TO AN LlVC MILLER
CYCLE
BASIC PERFORMANCE OF THE LlVC MILLER
CYCLE - This section shows the basic performance
of the LlVC Miller cycle that was obtained in previous
studies [2,3], followed by a discussion on the
possibilityof incorporating EGR.
Figure Ishows a schematic diagram of the
experimental apparatus. Note that Figure 1 shows
only the original UVC Miller cycle that is not equipped
with an EGR system. Table 1 summarizes the engine
specifications. The experiment employed a turbo-
charged, inter-cooledand &cylinders gas engine with
displacement volume of 23.1 5 litre. The equivalence
ratio was set at 1.0 for a three-way catalyst. The rated
output, originally 220 kWl1200 rpm with BMEP=0.95
MPa for the baseline Otto cycle, was increased to324
kWl1500 rpm with BMEP=1.12 MPa for the Miller
cycle in order to compete with the performance of
current lean burn gas engines. The baseline Otto
cycle engine had compression and expansion ratios
Table 1 Engine Specifications
Gas ComwsMon
iser
NOX
COIC02
02
THC
meter
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
of 10.3 and an Intake-ValveClosing (IVC) timing of 40
deg.aBDC. The LlVC Miller cycle was created by
changing the piston geometry and intake camshaft to
increase the expansion ratio while delaying the IVC
timing to lower the effective compression ratio [2]. The
expansion ratio and the IVC timing ranged between
10-18 and 40-140 deg.aBDC respectively. Since
delayed timing of the intake valve closing allowed the
blow-back of air-fuel mixture, a higher supercharging
pressure and its optimization with the engine were
necessary to maintain engine output power.
Tabie 2 compares the performance of the
baseline Otto cycle and the LlVC Miller cycle. The
original performance of the Otto cycle engine at rated
output of 220 kWl1200 rpm with BMEP=O.95 MPa
was thermal efficiency of 33.2 % and exhaust
temperature of 980 K. When the engine output was
increased to 324 kWl1500 rpm with BMEP=1.12
MPa, the thermal efficiency was reduced to 32.6 %
and the exhaust temperature was increased to 1050
K, over an allowable limit. Compared to the baseline
of 32.6 %and 1050 K with an expansion ratio of 10.3
and an IVC timing of 40 deg.aBDC, the LlVC Miller
cycle improved the thermal efficiency to 37.0 % and
reduced the exhaust temperature to 990 K with an
expansion ratio of 14.2 and an IVC timing of 120
deg.aBDC. Increasing the knocking limited engine
output to 115 % degraded the thermal efficiency to
36.5 % due to delayed ignition timing. When the
intake temperature was loweredto 293 K at the exit of
the inter-cooler, though not practical, the expansion
ratio could be increased to 15.8 resulting in a higher
thermal efficiency up to 38.0 %.
Figure 2 shows the effect of delayed IVC
timing on the intake port temperature. Delaying the
IVC timing to avoid knocking by reducingthe effective
compression ratio resulted in a sharp increase in the
intake temperature possibly due to a large blow-back
of the mixture. The increase in intake temperature in
general degraded the effectiveness of the lowered
Table 2 Comparison between Otto Cycle
and Miller Cycle
324 kW. Expansion Raiio=l5.8
IVC deg.aBDC
Figure2 Effect of IVC Timing on Intake Port
Temperature
effective compression ratio on the improvement of the
knocking limit. Excessive delay in the IVC timing
therefore does not necessarily improve the engine
performance, indicating a maximum possible
improvement achievable by the LlVC Miller cycle.
INCORPORATIONOF AN EGR SYSTEM - EGR has
been widely utilized for vehicle engines. Since it
employs a lower intake pressure relative to the
exhaust pressure, due to the intake throttle valve, to
induce the exhaust gas, an EGR system is often
applied to naturally aspirated engines or can be
acti~atedmainly during the partial load operation of
supercharged engines. Unlike vehicle engines,
however, gas engines for co-generation systems need
t o run continuously at the full load even with
supercharging. Boost pressure is therefore relatively
high and would be much higher for a turbo-charged
Miller cycle engine. Careful consideration is thus
needed to apply EGR to turbo-charged Miller cycle
engines.
Figure 3(a) shows the pressure fluctuations
at five representative positions along the intake and
exhaust trains of the tested turbo-charged gas engine
as a function of crank angle. Note that the test engine
had two separate exhaust manifolds (one for cylinders
1-3 and the other for cylinders 4-6) and the pressure
fluctuation at the turbine inlet @ shows the combined
pressure fluctuations generated by the two exhaust
manifolds. Figure3(b) shows the relationship between
engine output and the mean of the pressures over a
cycle. Higher engine output needs a higher boost
pressure at the exit of the compressor @ and the
throttle valve @. At a high engine output, which is
regularly the case for gas engines for co-generation,
the pressures at the exit of the throttle valve @ as well
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018

161kW
160
'ji
9
150
m
Compressor Turbine 140
Inlet Exit 4 130
120
g 110
Compressor 100
Exit 90
0 180 360 540 720
Throttle-Valve BDC TDC BDC TDC BDC
Exit Crank Angle deg.
-B 250

m 200
m
e 150
e=
V1

e
a
100 --------
- 0

50
0 100 200 300 400
Engine Output kW
Figure 3 Pressure Fluctuations in The Intake and Exhaust Trains
as the compressor @ are higher than at the inlet of the advantages that a natural gas as a fuel includes no
turbine a. It is therefore impossible to recirculate the sulfur and NOx emissions are much lower than that of
exhaust gas from the turbine inlet into the diesel engines, in particular stoichiometric burn
compressor exit @ and the throttle valve exit @. The engines with three-way catalyst. Soot and particulates
EGR gas needs, therefore, to be introduced into the in the exhaust gas are also very low level. It would be
compressor inlet @. The exhaust gascan be extracted thus believed that there is little negative effect on an
either from the inlet a or exit of the turbine. The engine's durability, such as corrosion by sulfuric acid
turbine exit appears preferable in order to supply as or nitric acid and abrasion by soot or particulates.
much energy to the turbine as possible. The consideration here led to the design of
Gas engines, on the other hand, have some the LlVC ~ i l l ecycle
r equippedwith an EGR system as
shown in Figure 4. The EGR system included an EGR
cooler to generate cooled dry exhaust gas. The
system introduced EGR gas from the turbine exit into
the compressor inlet after cooling it and eliminating
drained water. Figure 5 shows the relationship
Air
.
:
0
2 . . I . . . , $ . . , , * . . , . .

15 -...................
.-
0
-...................+.........;...................... ;
a lo b----+&---&--i b - A A :
a
................... ...................... ...................... ....................:
: +EGR Valve=Full Open
:d - E G R Valve=liZ Wen
100 200 300 400
Figure 4 EGR System of Gas Engine for Engine Output kW
Co-generation Systems Figure 5 Effect of Engine Output on EGR Ratio
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018

between the engine output and EGR ratio. A higher
engine output leads to a higher EGR ratio with a fixed
EGR valve setting possibly due to the larger pressure
difference between the turbine exit and the
compressor inlet. The positiie effect of engine output
on the increased EGR ratio appears advantageous in
order to suppress engine knocking that is more likely
to occur at higher engine output.
The experiment evaluated the effects of
EGR ratio on combustion characteristics and engine
performance. Two levels of ignition timing were used,
one being constant at 15 deg.bTDC and the other
being adjusted to MBT. The test engine was operated
at constant output of 161 kW, half the rated output of
the engine, with the expansion ratio and IVC timing
being 15.8 and 120 deg.aBDC respectively.

EFFECT OF EGR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF Effect of EGR on Basic Combustion

THE LiVC MILLER CYCLE
BASIC CHARACTERISTICSWITH EGR
Exwrimental Condition - EGR ratio is defined as the
fraction of the dry exhaust gas to the fresh intake air in
the form of molar flow rate and calculated by
measuring concentrations of C02 in the intake and
exhaust gases as follows;
[ C02-in ] - [ COz-air ]
EGR Ratio % =
[ Co2-ex ] - ( [ C02-in ] - [ C0z-air ] )
where [COz-in], [COz-air] and [COz-ex] are COz
concentrations in the intake mixture, the air and the
exhaust gas respectively.
Characteristics - Figure 6 shows the variations of in-
cylinder pressure and the rate of heat release (RHR).
At the constant ignition timing of 15 deg.bTDC, higher
EGR ratios resuit in lower peak values of in-cylinder
pressure and RHR as shown in Figures 6(a) and (b)
respectively. A higher EGR ratio leads to lower R&,
suggesting that the EGR reduces the combustion
speed and extends the combustion duration. With the
MBT ignition timing, on the other hand, as shown in
Xloo Figures 6(c) and (d), EGR ratios show little effect on
the variations of in-cylinder pressure. While lowering
peak values of RHR, a higher EGR ratio does not
necessarilychange the RHR variation.
Figure 7 shows the effect of EGR ratio on
combustion durations and center of RHR

161kW. Expansion Ratio=15.8, IVC=120 deg.aBDC

IT=15 deg.bTDC IT=MBT

250

200
----EGR=lOSb,IT-29
150

100

50

0
-40 -20 TDC 20 40 60 -40TDC 20-20 40 60
Crank Angle deg.aTDC Crank Angle deg.aTDC
Figure 6 Effect of EGR Ratio on In-cylinder Pressure and Rate of Heat Release
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
corresponding to a crank angle at 50 % heat release.
A higher EGR ratio leads to a longer combustion
duration for 0-10 % heat release for both of the two
settings of the ignition timing. A higher EGR ratio
reduces an oxygen concentration in the mixture and
increases the working fluid, thereby lowering the
temperature during the initial phase of combustion.
Since ignition delay and laminar combustion speed
are believed to dominate the initial phase of the
combustion reaction, a higher EGR ratio appears to
directly and solely affect the combustionduration. The
effect of EGR ratio on the combustion duration for 10-
90 %heat release and the center of RHR depends on
the settings of the ignition timing. For the constant
ignition timing of 15 deg.bTDC, a higher EGR ratio
increases the combustion duration and delays the
center of RHR. For the MBT ignition timing, on the
other hand, EGR ratio shows little effect on the
combustion duration and the center of RHR. For the
constant ignitiontiming, a higher EGR ratio delays the
entire process of combustion, thereby lowering the
maximum peak of in-cylinder pressure and
temperature as shown in Figures 6(a) and (b). For the
MBT ignition timing, advanced ignition timing
compensates for the ignition delay that a higher EGR
ratio causes during the initial stage of combustion.
161kW, Expansion Ratio-1 5.8. IVC=120deg.aBDC
0 5 10 15
EGR Ratio %
Figure 7 Effect of EGR Ratio on Combustion
Duration and Center of RHR
161kW, Expansion Ratio-15.8, IVC=100~110~120dsg.aBDC
Combustion Duration Delay tar 0.50% Heat Release dsg.
Figure 8 Relationshipbetween MBT Advance
and Combustion Duration Delay for
0-50 % Heat Release
The MBT ignition timing successfully compensates
for the negative effect of EGR, assuring a similar
upsurge in RHR variation as shown in Figure 6(d).
Furthermore, the increased amount of working fluid
due to a higher EGR ratio achieves a slightly higher
variation of in-cylinder pressure as shown in Figure
6(c).
Figure 8 shows the relationship between
the combustioin duration delay for 0-50 % heat
release from the duration without EGR and the
additional ignition advance correspondingto MBT for
the range of EGR ratios tested. The duration delay for
0-50 % heat release almost corresponds to the
additional ignition advance for MBT for the three
levels of IVC timings. This duration delay can be used
to determine whether or not the engine is being
operated at the MBT timing.
Effect of EGR on Enaine Performance Figure 9 -
shows the effect of EGR ratio on engine performance.
Pumpingmean effectivepressure (PMEP), coefficient
of variation in indicated mean effective pressure
(COV-IMEP), exhaust temperature and thermal
efficiency are presented.
For both of the ignition timing settings, a
higher EGR ratio results in a lower PMEP, possibly
due to decreased pressure losses across the throttle
valve caused by an increased amount of working
fluid. For the constant ignition timing, a higher EGR
ratio sharply increases the COV-IMEP, suggesting
that the combustion speed is largely reduced. The
increased COV-IMEP, along with the reduced
combustion speed, is attributed to the decrease in
20 thermal efficiency at high EGR ratios. The exhaust
gas temperature remains almost constant over the
EGR ratio range tested, possibly due to the
combination of delayed combustion and increased
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
161kW. Expansion Ratio=15.8. IVC=120deg.aBDC
0 5 10 15
EGR Ratio %
Figure 9 Effect of EGR Ratio on
Engine Performance
exhaust pressure caused by the increased working
fluid at high EGR ratios. For the MBT ignition timing,
on the other hand, the positive effect of EGR is clearly
observed. A high EGR ratio results in lower PMEP
and exhaust temperature, resulting in higher thermal
efficiency while maintaining COV-IMEP low at an
acceptable level.
Effect of EGR on Exhaust Emissions - Figure 10
shows the effect of EGR ratio on exhaust emissions
such as THC, CO and NOx. An increase in EGR ratio
results in increasing THC emissions and decreasing
CO and NOx emissions. A remarkable reduction of
NOx emissions is observed. For the MBT ignition
timing, an EGR ratio of 20 % reduces NOx emissions
by 60 %, from 2500 ppm without EGR to 1000 ppm,
showing a favorable impacton the three-way catalyst.
For the constant ignition timing, little effect of higher
EGR ratios on THC emissions is observed, possibly
due to the extended combustion duration and the
essentially constant exhaust temperature.
FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS WITH EGR - Previous
EGR Ratio %
Figure
- 10 Effect of EGR Ratio on
Exhaust Emissions
sections have shown the promising performance of
the LlVC Miller cycle combined with EGR. The EGR
has proven to be effective not only for NOx reduction
but also for the improvement of thermal efficiency and
thermal loadings. Following the previoussections that
showed the basic characteristics of EGR gained at
161kW, half the rated output of the test engine, this
section shows the characteristics of EGR at the rated
output of 324 kW to improve and optimize the
performance of the LlVC Miller cycle.
Effect of EGR o n Knockina Limit - In order to
evaluate the effect of EGR on the suppression of
engine knocking, the ignition timing was advanced
until knocking was detected. Engine output was
maintained at 324 kW, rated output. The test
employed two levels of expansion ratio, 14.2 and 15.8
and three levels of IVC timing, 100, 110 and 120
deg.aBDC.
Figures Il(a) and (b) show the effect of
EGR ratio on the additional ignition advance and the
combustion duration delay for 0-50 % heat release.
Both of them shows additional degrees from the
values at EGR ratio of 0 %. Figure 1I(a) clearly shows
that a higher EGR ratio allows more advanced ignition
timing. A more delayed IVC timing or a smaller
expansion ratio also allows more advanced ignition
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
324kW, Expansion Ratio=14.2-15.8, IVC=100~110~120
-0 5 10 15 20
EGR Ratio %
Figure 11 Effect of EGR Ratio on Additional IgnitionTiming Advance, Combustion Duration Delay
for C-50 % Heat Release and Effective ignition Timing Advance
timing. Figure I 1(b) shows that a high EGR ratio
delays the combustion duration. Recalling Figure 8
that correlates the combustion duration delay for 0-50
% heat release with the ignition advance for MBT, the
ignition timing needs to be virtually advanced at the
same degree as the combustion duration delay to
compensate for the reduced combustion speed
caused by the increase in EGR ratio. The effective
ignition timing advance that contributes to the
improvement of thermal efficiency is therefore
obtained by subtracting the combustion duration
delay in Figure I l ( b ) from the additional ignition
timing advance in Figure I 1(a). Figure I 1(c) shows
the effect of EGR ratio on the effective ignition timing
advance. The effectve ignition timing advance due to
EGR is relatively independent of the expansion ratio
and the IVC timing tested and is in the range of 2 to 3
degrees at an EGR ratio of 20 %.
Figures 11(d)-(9 show the effect of effective
compression ratios [2] on the effective ignition timing
advance in a similar manner to Figures Il(a)-(c). A
lower effective compression ratio leads to a more
advanced ignition timing and a larger delay in the
combustion duration, suggesting but little influenceof
the effective compression ratio on the effective
deg.aBDC
25 9 10 11 12 13
Effective Compression Ratio
ignition timing advance as shown in Figure 11(9. The
0bse~atiOnhere suggests that while suppressing
knockingto a large extent, the effect of EGR is mainly
attributed to the decreased combustion speed, thus
after compensating for the combustion delay, the
effect of EGR on the improvementof knocking limit is
reduced. The improvement of the thermal efficiency
would be expected, however, by the effective ignition
timing advance, though not so large. Besides the
advanced timing, the thermal efficiency would be
improved by an increased specific heat ratio of
burned gas and reduced heat losses resulting from a
lowered combustion temperature.
lm~rovementof Combustion Chamber - Advanced
ignition timing compensates for the ignition delay
caused by a high EGR ratio in the initial stage of
combustion. Reduced combustion speed resulting
from a high EGR ratio, however, increases exhaust
temperature and degrades thermal efficiency due to
the increased combustion duration and reduced
effective expansion stroke. The combustion chamber
was thus modified to improve the thermal efficiency
by enhancing the combustion speed [8].
Figures 12(a)-(c) show combustion
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018
(a) BAlWUBType (b) DEEP BOWLTyp
.Originai .Lsrgs Squish region
Figure 12 Combustion Chambers
chambers tested. Figure 12(a) shows the original
BATHTUB type combustion chamber with a relatively
small squish region at the piston top surface. Figures
12(b) and (c) show the DEEP BOWL type and
REENTRANT type combustion chambers
respectively. These combustion chambers were
expected to generate stronger turbulence in the
chamber than the original one by broadening the
squish region. Moreover the REENTRANT type had a
chamber lip and reduced the top clearance by about
1.0 mm to enhance the turbulence.
The effect of combustion chamber on
engine performance was investigated at an engine
output of 324kW with an expansion ratio of 14.2 and
324KW, Expansion Ratia=l4.2, iVC=llOdeg.aBDC
................... ......... ..... ..................... ....................
I " ' I
(b)EGR Raiio=20%
Y
-20 TDC 20 40
Crank Angle deg.aTDC
Figure 13 Effect of Combustion Chambers
on Rate of Heat Release
an IVC timing of 110 deg.aBDC. Figures 13(a) and (b)
compare the variations of RHR as a function of crank
angle. Compared to the original one, the
REENTRANT type substantially increases the
combustion speed even at an EGR ratio of 20 %,
possibly due to an enhanced turbulence.
jh REEMRAM Type Figures 14(a) and (b) show the effect of
, Large squish region
, wih Chamber Li
EGR ratio on ignition timing at knocking limit and the
,~ a n o w e d ~ o p ~ i s i a n c e degree of constant volume (DCV) calculated by
measured in-cylinder pressure. At 0 % EGR ratio, the
increase in combustion speed shows little effect on
the DCV. A higher combustion speed appears to
need larger delay of ignition timing to avoid engine
knocking, resulting in a virtually similar level of the
DCV. An increase in EGR allows advanced ignition
timing, increasing the DCV. At high levels of EGR, the
BATHTUB type shows the least improvement of the
DCV among the three combustion chambers tested,
due to the lowest combustion speed. Figures 14(c)
and (d) show the effect of EGR on exhaust
324 kW, Expansion Ratio=14.2, IVC=110 deg.aBDC
35
0 BATHTUB Type
30 A DEEP sOWLType ...............................
z5 Cf REENTRANTTYPO............... ..L ......i.xr--
<c:.
20 ............. 2......... '. ......&.-." ........5...............
4
...................... ....................
' " I " '
DEEP BOWL Tvwe
EGR Ratio %
Figure 14 Effect of Combustion Chambers
on Engine Performance
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Tuesday, September 25, 2018

temperature and thermal efficiency respectively. A
higher EGR ratio reduces the exhaust temperature
and improves the thermal efficiency. The
REENTRANT type demonstrates a superior
performance at a high EGR ratio, lower exhaust
temperature and higher thermal efficiency, due to the
large improvement of combustion speed. The
REENTRANT type combustion chamber was thus
installed to the test engine to improve the LlVC Miller
cycle with the EGR system.
Effect of EGR o n Engine Performance - Figures
15(a)-(h) show the effect of EGR ratio on engine
performance. The test engine was operated at 324 kW
and an ignition timing was advanced until knocking
limit with the expansion ratio of 14.2, IVC timing of 110
deg.aBDC and intake temperature at the exit of the
inter-cooler of 318 K. The engine used the
REENTRANT type combustion chamber that was
previously shown to have a superior performance.
Three levels of pressure ratio of the turbo-charger
were employed for the test.
Figure 15(a) shows the effect of EGR ratio
on the ignition timing advance. While a higher EGR
ratio allows substantialadvance in the nominalignition
timing, the advance in the effective ignition timing that
potentially improves the thermal efficiency is rather
marginal, approximately 2.5 degree with an EGR ratio
of 20%. Figures 15(b) and (c) show that due to the
increase in working fluid, a high EGR ratio reduces the
pressure loss across the throttle valve resulting in
decreasing PMEP. A high EGR ratio increases
thermal efficiency while reducing exhaust gas
temperature as shown in Figures 15 (d) and (e). At an
EGR ratio of 10 %, the exhaust temperature
decreased by approximately 45 K with each turbo-
charger. A high EGR ratio reduces the combustion
temperature, which increases the specific heat ratio
and reduces the heat loss during the expansion
stroke, thereby improving the thermal efficiency. The
reduced exhaust gas temperature is favorable for the
reliability and durability of engines as well.
Figure 15(f) shows that a high EGR ratio
leads to a high exhaust pressure, due to the increased
amount of exhaust gas. Figure 15(g) shows that the
EGR ratio has little effect on the pressure ratio of the

324kW, Expansion Rati0~14.2,IVC=l10 deg.aBDC, Temperature at Exit of inter-cooier=318K

Combustion Chamber : REENTRANT Type

Figure 15 Effect of EGR Ratio on Performance of The LlVC Miller Cycle

96
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compressor of the turbo-charger. EGR shows rather a
negative effect on the pressure ratio at a high EGR
ratio. The positive effect of the increased exhaust
pressure and working fluid on the increase in the
pressure ratio appears to be overwhelmed by the
negative effect of the reduced exhaust gas
temperature. Figure 15(h) shows the effect of EGR
ratio on the ratio of the compressor pressure ratio to
the turbine pressure ratio, nclnt. A high EGR ratio
results in a large decrease in nclnt. This implies that
the exhaust gas pressure needs to be increased to
maintain the intake pressure unchanged as the EGR
ratio increases.
When designing engines, the pressure loss
across the throffle valve is regularly predeterminedto
secure practical operation of engines. It would
therefore be appropriate to discuss the effect of EGR
while maintaining the pressure loss constant. The
thick lines in Figure 15 show the effect of EGR ratio at
the constant pressure loss of 20 kPa. A higher EGR
ratio results in a substantial increase in PMEP, the
exhaust pressure and the pressure ratio of the
compressor as shown in Figures 15(c),(f) and (g).
Under the constant pressure loss across the throttle
valve, the effect of EGR on the improvement of
324kW, Expansion Ratio=14.2, Pressure Loss at Throttle Valve=20kPa, Temperature at Exit of Inter-cooier=318 K
Combustion Chamber : REENTRANT Type
EGR Ratio %
Figure 16 Comparison between Effect of EGR Ratio and IVC Timing on Engine Performance
thermal efficiency and the reduction of exhaust
temperature becomes relatively small comparedto the
net effect of EGR. Thermal efficiency is, however,
improved by over 1.0 percentage-point and exhaust
temperature is reduced by 80 K with an EGR ratio of
18 %. Further improvement of thermal efficiency
definitely requires an increase in the pressure ratio of
the compressor correspondingto a high turbo-charger
efficiency.
Com~arisonwith Effect of IVC Timing - Figures
16(a)-(f) compare the effect of EGR ratio and that of
IVC timing on the performanceof the gas engine. The
engine was operated at 324 kW with REENTRANT
type combustion chamber. ignition timings were set at
knocldng limit and the pressure loss across the throffle
valve was maintained constant at 20 kPa. Two levels
of IVC timing, 110 and 120 deg.aBDC, were tested.
According to the previous study [2], delaying
the IVC timing from 110 to 120 deg.aBDC without
EGR reducesthe effective compression ratio by about
1.O. This reduction appears to allow the advance in
ignition timing by about 1.5 degree, increasingthermal
efficiency a little as shown in Figures 16(a) and (c).
Delaying the IVC timing, however, requires a higher
EGR Ratio %
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intake manifold pressure, thus a higher pressure ratio
of the turbo-charger, resulting in a higher exhaust
pressure. An increase in EGR ratio also requires a
higher intake manifold pressure due to an increased
amount of working fluid as shown in Figure 16(d).
Here, the intake manifold pressure is maintained
constant to compare the effects of EGR ratio and IVC
timing on thermal efficiency. Figure 16(d) shows that
an EGR ratio of 10 % is equivalent to a 10 degrees
delay in the IVC timing from 110 to 120 deg.aBDC in
terms of increasing the intake manifold pressure by
180 kPa. The EGR ratio of 10 %, which allows 5
degrees more advanced ignition timing than the IVC
timing of 120 deg.aBDC as shown in Figure 16(a),
shows almost no advance in the effective ignition
timing represented as the center of RHR in Figure
16(b). While both of the EGR ratio of 10% and the IVC
timing of 120 deg.aBDC have almost the same
effective ignition timing advance, the EGR ratio of 10
% shows a higher thermal efficiency by 0.5
percentage-point. This difference is attributed to the
lower combustion temperature generated by the EGR.
The higher specific heat ratio and lower cooling loss by
the lower combustion temperature appear to result in
higher thermal efficiency. For this operating condition,
the EGR ratio of 10% shows better thermal efficiency
than the IVC timing of 120 deg.aBDC for the same
intake manifold pressure.
Without EGR the best thermal efficiency in
this study is generated with the expansion ratio of
14.2 and IVC timing of 120 deg.aBDC. Further delay
in the IVC timing results in higher intake temperature
due to the blow-back of hot mixture from cylinders,
which has a negative impact on engine knocking and
thermal efficiency. The LlVC Miller cycle with EGR
improves the knocking limit without increasing the
intake temperature and reduces combustion
temperature, thereby improving thermal efficiency
with lower thermal loading. A higher EGR ratio,
however, requires higher exhaust pressure due to
lower exhaust temperature, which increases the
PMEP. The efficiency of the turbo-charger is therefore
crucial to improve the engine performance.
Table 3 summarizes the performance of the
LlVC Miller cycle demonstrated in this study.
Compared to the baseline Otto cycle gas engine, the
engine output was dramatically increased by 47 %,
from 220 kWl1200 rpm to 324 kWi1500 rpm, with
increased BMEP by 18 %, from 0.95 MPa to 1.12
MPa. The LlVC Miller cycle with EGR demonstrated a
high thermal efficiency of approximately 38 % with
lowering exhaust temperature. As the engine was
Table 3 Performance of LlVC Miller Cycle
Thermal Ellioiency % 33.2 37.0 37.8
equipped with a three-way catalyst, both of extremely
low NOxemissionsanda high thermal efficiency were
achieved concurrently.
In this study, a higher EGR ratio improves
thermal efficiency by allowing the advance in ignition
timing to MBT and reducing the delayed IVC timing to
decrease the intake port temperature. It should be
noted that thermal efficiency could be improved by
increasing the expansion ratio or engine output. The
lower thermal loading achieved by the EGR is
believed to have a positive effect for the improvement
of engine output.
CONCLUSIONS
This study described a series of
experimental investigations to improve the thermal
efficiency of gas engines for co-generation systems.
EGR was employed to improve the thermal efficiency
of gas engines operating in the LIVC Miller cycle. The
study focused on the effect of EGR on the thermal
efficiency of a LlVC Miller cycle gas engine. The
following results have been obtained;
(1) The LlVC Miller cycle improves thermal efficiency
dramatically compared to that of a conventional Otto
Cycle.
(2) Gas engines of co-generation systems need to
introduce the EGR gas into the inlet of the
compressor. For the LlVC Miller cycle engines, which
need a higher boost pressure, it is preferable to
extract the EGR gas from the exit of the turbine to
supply as much energy as possible to the turbine.
(3) Combustion duration delay plays a major role in
improving the knocking limit. The effective ignition
timing advance compensated by the MBT timing
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advance is about 2 to 3 degrees with an EGR ratio of ElVC Early lntake Valve Closing
20 %. ERVC Early Rotary Valve Closing
EVC, EVO Exhaust Valve Closing, Opening
(4) A high EGR ratio with the REENTRANT type IMEP IndicatedMean Effective Pressure
combustion chamber successfully improves thermal IT IgnitionTiming
efficiency and reduces exhaust temperature. An EGR IVC, IVO lntake Valve Closing, Opening
ratio of 20% improves thermal efficiency by as much LHV Low Heat Value
as 1.0 percentage-point and reduces exhaust LlVC Late lntake Valve Closing
temperature by approximately 80 K at a constant MBT Minimumadvancefor Best Torque
pressure loss of 20 kPa across the throttle valve. PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
RHR Rate of Heat Release
(5) For the LlVC Miller cycle with an expansion ratio of TDC, bTDC Top Dead Center, before TDC
14.2 and an IVC timing of I 1 0 deg.aBDC, 10 degrees THC Total Hydrocarbon
delay in the IVC timing to 120 deg.aBDC showed the RC Pressure ratio of a compressor
same effect as 10 % EGR ratio on the increase in the Rt Pressure ratio of a turbine
intake manifold pressure. However, an EGR ratio of nclnt Ratio of R c to R t
10 % demonstrated a higher thermal efficiency and
lower exhaust temperature. REFERENCES

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[3]Fu-Rong ZHANG et al. ; Development of the Miller
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Average in IMEP
[6]Tatsuo SAKONJI et al. ; Study on lmprovement of
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[7]ltaru FUKUTANI et al. ; Knock Reduction of Spark-
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z : specific heat ratio

EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation

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