U NIVERSITY OF THE P HILIPPINES D ILIMAN

INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERIN

CE 297 Practical and Research Applications of Non-Destructive Testing

2nd Semester AY 2020-2021

BASIC METHODS

After this lesson, the student should be able to:

Define the basic methods;
Understand the fundamental principles;
Enumerate the instruments needed;
Discuss the test procedure.

Outline
This lecture is broken into 5 parts

Definition
Historical Background
Fundamental Principles
Equipment
General Applications

* It should be noted that the contents of this lecture material were directly taken from
the Non-destructive Testing of Concrete Structures by the International Atomic
Energy Agency (2002).

I. Definition

It is often necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has hardened to
determine whether the structure is suitable for its designed use. Ideally such testing
should be done without damaging the concrete. The tests available for testing concrete
range from the completely non-destructive, where there is no damage to the concrete,
through those where the concrete surface is slightly damaged, to partially destructive
tests, such as core tests and pullout and pull off tests, where the surface has to be
repaired after the test. The range of properties that can be assessed using non-
destructive tests and partially destructive tests is quite large and includes such
fundamental parameters as density, elastic modulus and strength as well as surface
hardness and surface absorption, and reinforcement location, size and distance from
the surface. In some cases it is also possible to check the quality of workmanship and
structural integrity by the ability to detect voids, cracking and delamination. Non-
destructive testing can be applied to both old and new structures. For new structures,
the principal applications are likely to be for quality control or the resolution of doubts
about the quality of materials or construction. The testing of existing structures is
usually related to an assessment of structural integrity or adequacy. In either case, if
destructive testing alone is used, for instance, by removing cores for compression
testing, the cost of coring and testing may only allow a relatively small number of tests

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to be carried out on a large structure which may be misleading. Non-destructive testing

can be used in those situations as a preliminary to subsequent coring.

The basic NDT methods that will be covered in this lecture material will be Key test,
Push test, Spray test, but primarily on Visual test.

Key Test – This involves scraping the portion of the concrete (or masonry) with a key
(or knife). With this method the weak portions can be identified and suitable further
investigation at these locations can be planned and carried out.

Push Test – This involves literally pushing the structural member to determine which
portions will move/deflect/detach/vibrate which can possibly indicate weak or
damaged portion. It should be noted that this method will be suitable to thin members.

Spray Test – This involves spraying the surface of a concrete or masonry member with
water. With this simple method the cracks may appear more visible and further
investigation ca be done on these portions.

Visual Test – Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests.
It can often provide valuable information to the well-trained eye. Visual features may
be related to workmanship, structural serviceability, and material deterioration and it
is particularly important that the engineer is able to differentiate between the various
signs of distress which may be encountered. These include for instance, cracks, pop-
outs, spalling, disintegration, color change, weathering, staining, surface blemishes
and lack of uniformity. Extensive information can be gathered from visual inspection
to give a preliminary indication of the condition of the structure and allow formulation
of a subsequent testing programme. The visual inspection however should not be
confined only to the structure being investigated. It should also include neighboring
structures, the surrounding environment and the climatic condition. This is probably
the most difficult aspect of the whole structural investigation or any diagnostic works
since what appears obvious to one may not be so to another. The importance and
benefits of a visual survey should not be underrated. Often the omission of what
appears to be insignificant evidence can lead to a wrong conclusion being made.

II. History

Visual inspection aided or unaided, direct or remote, is a valuable NDT tool. Visual
inspection with good lighting is usually one of the first methods employed for locating
suspected defect areas in large structures and heavy equipment. Once located, the
areas of interest can be more thoroughly examined and evaluated in detail.

Remote visual testing is divided into three categories: borescopes, fiberscopes, and
video technology. These have been developed chronologically. “Borescopes,” also
referred to as “endoscopes,” were originally used to inspect the bores of rifles or
cannons utilizing a hollow tube and mirror (Figure 1). The second generation of the
endoscopes included a relay lens system in a rigid tube. This upgraded the image.
Due to its rigid structure, endoscopes are limited to straight-line access. Later
innovations corrected this limitation by providing flexibility to the endoscopes. By 1955,
the introduction of glass fiber bundles and fiber optic image transmission enabled the

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INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERIN

development of the fiberscope. Medical researchers experimented with different

techniques in fiber optic image transmission during this period.

Imaging with fiber optic bundles decreased the clarity of the image transmission
compared with the rigid lens systems of borescopes; however, this was a small price
to pay for the opportunities it presented. The flexibility of the bundle opened up
previously inaccessible areas to remote visual inspection, providing a more versatile
tool to be used in industrial situations. This often eliminated the need to dismantle
equipment for inspection. A typical fiberoptic borescope is illustrated in Figure 1.

The evolution of the endoscope continued as the problems of eye fatigue associated
with the use of endoscopes and fiberscopes prompted the development of various
“add-on” cameras or closed-circuit TV (CCTV) cameras that allowed for the display of
images on a monitor (Figure 2). The first of such innovations was the tube-type
camera. Many add-on camera systems are still presently in use, but due to their bulky
exterior, smaller, solid-state imaging sensors, some of which are known as charge-
coupled devices (CCDs), are replacing them.

This new generation of CCDs stimulated a new wave of video endoscope technology.
Small in diameter with high-resolution images, this new technology increased the
range of industrial endoscopy applications. The physical size of the CCD as well as its
ability to allow for electronic image processing and its other advantages broaden the
application possibilities. One technological aspect worthy of mention is the CCD’s
ability to record images. Whether the camera is orthicon or vidicon tube technology or
CCD technology, the present systems can record the images on videotape. With the
advent of digital storage technology, the recording of images on other permanent
media enhances the system’s versatility.

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diretindustry.com

Fiberoptic borescope

Straight borescope

Figure 1. Industrial Borescopes. Figure 2. Industrial Borescopes.

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INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERIN

III. Fundamental Principles

Structural System
- The engineer should be familiar with the structural system, structural behavior, and
serviceability requirements.
- Must look at the main framing system, bracings, etc.
- In case non-availability of structural drawings, the existing framing, bracing and
stiffness provisions must be recorded during the inspection.
- Malfunctions, if any, due to structural deficiency should be identified with reference
to material distress observed at site.

Ineffective Drainage System

- Water stagnating areas in a structure which are subjected to alternate
wetting/drying cycle.
- Concealed water supply and drainage lines are the general source attracting
damage to the structure.
- Inefficiency of rainwater disposal system may not be noticeable, but damage
continues until spalling of concrete cover takes place.
- Discolorations in the structural members should be marked on the drawings and
photographed.

Types of Cracks
- The location of cracks and their pattern give the first indications of the problems.
- Cracking & spalling, cracking & rust staining or rust staining are the visual
indications of corrosion of rebars.
- Rust staining in freshly laid concrete is indicative of honeycombed concrete which
could result in severe rusting and deterioration of concrete at a later time.
- Cracking along the bar can be an important indication that the reinforcements are
subjected to corrosion
- Cracks at right angle to main reinforcements are generally associated with
structural deficiency
- Mesh pattern of cracks suggests drying shrinkage, surface crazing, or alkali-
aggregate reaction

Color & Texture of concrete surface

- The texture of a concrete surface may indicate the possibility of chemical attack
and associated disintegration by leaching
- In fire damaged structures, the color of the concrete gives an indication of
maximum temperature level to which the surface had been subjected

Obstructions to visual inspection

- False ceilings, carpets, recently done paints, patch work repairs of plaster, re-
plaster, etc. should be recorded and analyzed with due care
- The access height from within and from outside during the inspection could also be
a major problem
- Notes of these obstructions/limitations of visual inspection should be recorded and
taken into account when preparing the details on repairs/rehabilitation

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Items to look for during Inspection

Concrete
- Pattern, location, and orientation of cracks
- Efflorescence and staining
- Scaling, spalling, and disintegration of the surface
- Honeycombing
- Exposed reinforcement
- Corrosion of reinforcing bars

Steel
- Corrosion
- Stress concentration (evident from cracks in the paint)
- Crippling or buckling of weds or flanges
- Bowing, misalignment, deformation, twisting
- Cracks in welds or missing welds
- Missing bolts / rivets

Masonry
- Quality of bricks / masonry units
- Mortar
- Cracking
- Differential movement

Timber
- Defects in wood
- Insect damage
- Decay
- Cracking

Limitations
- Can only detect surface defects and it is necessary to clean the surface
- Low reliability
- Good lighting is necessary
- Subjective were the quality will vary with the inspector

IV. Equipment

An engineer carrying out a visual survey should be well equipped with tools to facilitate
the inspection. These involve a host of common accessories such as measuring tapes
or rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers and others. Binoculars, telescopes,
borescopes and endoscopes or the more expensive fiber scopes may be useful where
access is difficult. A crack width microscope or a crack width gauge is useful, while a
magnifying glass or portable microscope is handy for close up examination. A good
camera with the necessary zoom and micro lenses and other accessories, such as
polarized filters, facilitates pictorial documentation of defects, and a portable color
chart is helpful in identifying variation in the color of the concrete. A complete set of

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relevant drawings showing plan views, elevations and typical structural details allows
recording of observations to be made.

Drones and robotic crawlers equipped with cameras have become another tool
commonly used in NDT for collecting visual data. Due to limitations in the technology,
for some time drones and crawlers could only provide supplementary visual data for
inspectors but could not take the place of inspectors physically collecting visual data
themselves. However, as technology has improved, inspectors have been able to use
drones and crawlers more and more as remote visual inspection (RVI) tools, in some
instances completely replacing the need for them to collect visual data manually.

Here are two of the primary ways drones are helping with NDT these days:

Safety - By removing the need for inspectors to enter dangerous spaces in order to
collect visual data, drones are helping improve safety in the workplace. For outdoor
inspections of assets like power lines or towers, using a drone to collect visual data
reduces the amount of time a person needs to physically be in the air on the tower or
line. For indoor inspections of assets like pressure vessels or boilers, using a drone
like the Elios 2 (Figure 3) to collect visual data means the inspector does not have to
enter a confined space to do so, again helping significantly reduce the exposure to
risk.

Savings - Drones can help companies improve their return of investment in both indoor
and outdoor scenarios, but savings are especially significant for indoor inspections.
Using a professional indoor drone instead of sending an inspector in to collect visual
data manually means that companies save on not having to build and take down
scaffolding, and can reduce downtimes associated with those requirements, in some
cases by as much as one to two days.

To date, the primary use case for drones in NDT has been for the collection of visual
data. But in the last few years, thermal sensors attached to drones have allowed
inspectors to collect thermal data by drone, and as time passes it’s likely that we’ll see
new sensors developed for drones to support even more NDT techniques. Figure 4
shows the modern equipment for visual inspection.

Figure 3. ELIOS 2

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pine-environmental.com

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Figure 4. Modern Instruments Used for Remote Visual Inspection

V. General Applications

For existing structures, presence of some feature requiring further investigation is

generally indicated by visual inspection, and it must be considered the single most
important component of routine maintenance. It will also provide the basis for
judgements relating to access and safety requirements when selecting test methods
and test locations. As mentioned earlier, a visual inspection provides an initial
indication of the condition of the concrete to allow the formulation of a subsequent
testing programme. It is also through such inspections that proper documentation of
defects and features in the concrete structure can be affected. With a trained eye,
visual inspection can reveal substantial information regarding the structure such as
the construction methods, weathering, chemical attack, mechanical damage, physical
deterioration, abuse, construction deficiencies or faults and many others.

REFERENCES

[1] Malhotra, V. M. and Carino, N. J. (2004), Handbook on Nondestructive Testing

of Concrete Second Edition. CRC Press, USA.

[2] International Atomic Energy Agency (2002), Guidebook on Non-destructive

Testing of Concrete Structures, AIEA, Austria.

[3] Japanese Society for Non-destructive Inspection (JSNDI).

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