Contents-

Acknowledgement 1

Chapter 1- Introduction 4

1.1 -Magnesite 5

1.2-Location and accessibility of Magnesite

in Pithoragarh 6

Chapter 2- Geological and tectonic settings of the area 7

Chapter 3- Petrography 16

Chapter 4- Genesis of Magnesite 27

Chapter 5- Indian occurrence of Magnesite 30

5.1 -Mining and marketing 36

5.2- Uses and specifications 37

5.3-Industry 38

Chapter 6- Origin of Magnesite deposits of Chandak area 40

Summary and conclusion 43

References 45

1
Acknowledgement –
I have taken efforts In this dissertation work however it would not
have been possible without the kind of support of my professor and
my colleagues.
I wish to express my thanks to Dr. R.A.Singh sir, my professor and
Head Department of Geology (L.S.M. Govt.P.G.College Pithoragarh)
for his guidance and encouragement, I am also thankful to Ms. Sunita
Kholiya Madam for her support.
Thanks are due to my classmates Chitra Joshi and Srikant Chaubey for
their cooperation in the field studies and laboratory work.

2
 Department of Geology
L.S.M. Govt. P.G. College, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. R. A. Singh Date: 18.09.2016

M.Sc., Ph.D. (Geology), P.G.Dip. (Spectroscopy), PGDCSA, FGS
Associate Professor and Head

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that MS. Amrita Pandey has carried out M.Sc. Dissertation
Thesis entitled ‘Geology of the area around CHANDAK, district
PITHORAGARH,UTTARAKHAND ˸ With special reference to Magnesite’
partial fulfilment of the degree of M.Sc .in geology 2015-16 .
This work has been carried out at Department of geology, L.S.M. Govt. P.G.
College, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand under my supervision.

3
1.1 Introduction –
Pithoragarh is the easternmost Himalayan district of Uttarakhand. The
Himalaya is youngest and northeast-southwest trending mountain
system in the world having about 2400 km length and width varying
from 230 to 320 km. It is located in the territories of India, China,
Nepal and Pakistan. It was formed as a result of the collision between
Indian plates with Eurasian plate. Himalaya is very much attractive to
the earth scientist because of its complex geological setting geo-
hydrology, geo-environment, mass movement, erosion, landslide etc.
The Himalayan orogenic belt is divided from west to east into three
distinct regions- the western, central and eastern Himalaya.

The western Himalaya cover the region from west of river Kali and
extends through Kumaun, Garhwal, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir
regions (Thakur, 1981). From south to north the western Himalaya
consist of Outer or Sub-Himalaya, Lower or Lesser Himalaya, Himadri
or Higher Himalaya, Tethys Himalaya and Indus Suture Zone (Heim
and Gansser 1939; Gansser 1964; Valdiya 1980). The Lesser Himalaya
is one of the most dynamic and ecologically most fragile parts of the
Himalaya. The Lesser Himalayan terrain comprises a very thick
succession of sedimentary and associated volcanic rocks. It is

4
surrounded by two thrusts i.e. the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the
north and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south. The Lesser
Himalayan terrain has a complex geological history and tectonic
framework (Gansser, 1964; Valdiya, 1980). It is the most stressed

segments of the entire Himalaya, not only the major thrusts such as

MCT and MBT are active but also few oblique and transverse faults
are active. The structure of this zone is very complex and affected by
tectonic processes.

Important minerals and rocks are found to occur in Pithoragarh are

slates, limestone, dolomite, dolomitic limestone, magnesite, copper,
lead- zinc and silver,talc which are associated with several structural
elements as folding, joints, veins, dykes, foliation etc. Here the
occurrence of Magnesite deposits are well known and have been
under exploration for the past several years. In Himalayan region the
Magnesite deposits occur along a belt and so as in Pithoragarh.

1.2 MAGNESITE -

Magnesite (MgCO3) is a carbonate of magnesium. It is usually found

as irregular veins as an alteration product of serpentine ultramafic
rocks and other magnesium rich rock types and formed by
replacement of Dolomite and Dolomitic limestone. Calcium and Silica
are, therefore, the most common impurities found in Magnesite along
with Fe2O3and Al2O3. It is a very important mineral for the
manufacture of basic refractories, which could be largely used in the
steel industry and used in the production of Magnesium mineral.
(Indian Minerals Yearbook 2013).

5
Magnesium is a grey white light weight chemical element with symbol
Mg and atomic number 12.It is the ninth most abundant element in
universe and eights most abundant element in earth’s crust.
(Wikipedia)

Magnesium is used in producing light weight materials and alloys and

to purify the solvents, for example-preparing super-dry ethanol.

In Pithoragarh the Magnesite is mainly found associated with the

Stromatolite bearing Dolomite and Dolomitic Limestone.

1.3 Location and accessibility of Magnesite in Pithoragarh –

The Magnesite deposits of Pithoragarh are mainly found in Chandak

area, which is situated at a distance of 7km. north-west from the main
city. The Chandak Magnesite area lies N. Lat. 29°35'15" to 29'37'12"
and E. Long. 80°10'28" to 80°13'12".the altitude of the Chandak
Magnesite area is about 6901 ft. above the mean sea level.( Studies on
the geology and beneficiation of Chandak magnesite deposit from
Pithoragarh District, Uttar Pradesh R. N. Koshta, K. C. Agarwala, N. N.
Subrahmanyan and J. J. Rao)

Magnesite is also found in MARH & Silouli villages and in bisabajer

village of Pithoragarh, where the Silouli village is located at a distance
of 5.5km from city, Marh is located 6.4km and Bisabajer is around
9km far from Pithoragarh city.

Topographically the area consists of a rough, rocky mountainous

landscape the northern, southern and eastern sides of the Magnesite
deposits of Chandak is covered by hills.

6
Chapter 2-

Geological and tectonic setting of the

area-
The Kumaun Himalaya lies between the borders of Nepal and Garhwal
regions. It is dominated by crystalline nappe rocks and Precambrian to
Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks. Auden (1935) and Heim and Gansser
(1939) first described the rocks of Pithoragarh belongs to the two
tectonic units, one belongs to the Almora Crystalline zone and the
second to the sedimentary zone of Garhwal Group.

Valdiya (1980) described the regional stratigraphy and structural

synthesis of Kumaun Himalaya. He distinguished four major litho-
units; the autochthonous unit of the Damtha and Tejam, the Krol
nappe, the Ramgarh nappe, and the Almora nappe. He described the
root of the Almora nappe to be the Munsiari Formation constituting
the base of the Great Himalaya.

7
STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION OF THE KUMAUN LESSER HIMALAYA
Thalkedar Blue grey banded limestone ,
limestone often with chert laminae &
MANDHALI nodules , & argillaceous
FORMATION limestone alternating with
[Sor Formation] calcareous grey phyllite .
Sor slate Light green & grey green
sandstone .
Dhari member Blue grey limestone with calc
slate & marlite .
Chandak member Dolomitic limestone
characterized by spectacular
DEOBAN development of
FORMATION stromatolites.Pockets of flat
[Gangolihat pebble intraformational
dolomite, conglomerate. Conspicuous
Kapkot chain of lentiform deposits
formation] of magnesite.
Hiunpani member Fine-graned cherty dolomite
of pink & white colours
alternating with chert
laminae.
Chhera member Pink violet & maroon slate
phyllite interbedded wih
subordinate pink , green &
white marble , often sandy .

Figure 1

The stratigraphic succession is shown in above figure 1, Valdiya (1962)

recognised three stratigraphic formations in the southern part of

8
Pithoragarh area viz-the calc Zone, the quartzite zone and the
crystalline Zone of Askot.in the chandak area only the calc zone is
observed. this Calc-zone consists of dolomitic and cherty limestones,
slates, stromatolite- limestone and magnesite beds. This Calc-zone
has been compared by Valdiya with the Deoban limestone, shali
series and the Naldera-Kakarhotti limestone of the Simla series.
Valdiya has divided the zone into two formations- Deoban and
Mandhali Formation,and named the carbonate sequence as
Gangolihat dolomite. The thickness of Gangolihat dolomite is about
700m in Pithoragarh. It further divided into four members named as
Chhera, Hiupani, Chandak and Dhari respectively. The Gangolihat
Formation is overlain by Sor Formation with Sor Slate and Thalkedar
limestone members. The most characteristic features of Deoban
Formation are the algal bioherms made up of columnar branching
Stromatolites. The Stromatolites have a wide variety of shape and size
mainly branching in nature. The age of the Gangolihat
Formation/Deoban Formation is assigned as middle to late Riphean
(according to the Stromatolitic occurrence).

9
Structural map of the area

Figure 2

10
Geological map of the area

Figure 3

11
Common rocks present in the Pithoragarh area are dolomite,
dolomitic limestone, limestone, slate, shale phyllite and talc.

Brown slates:
The slates of the area are brownish in colour, compact, heavy and
relatively hard, which expand over a large area and found
interbedded with the Dolomitic Limestone. Slate rock formation is
shown in the figure 4 below.

Figure 4

12
Stromatolitic limestones :
The Stromatolitic Limestone unit has got a peculiar structure and the
thickness vary from 5' to 15'. The horizon is significantly persistent
throughout the Magnesite deposits of this locality,as shown in figure
5.The limestone is black to bluish black in colour and slightly
Dolomitic.

Figure 5

13
Dolomite and Dolomitic Limestone :

The Dolomitic Limestone of the area (in figure 6) consists of Limestone

rich in Mg content. The rock is fine grained and attain approximately a
thickness of 700m around the area in Pithoragarh.

Figure 6

14
Magnesite :
The Magnesite of the area is medium to coarse grained in nature,
(figure 7).Sometimes Magnesite is fine grained and compact. Pockets
and layers of greyish and blackish grey talc are common within the
deposit. Another striking feature of the deposit is the occurrence of
big and small masses of bluish Dolomitic Limestone enclaves within
Magnesite. Magnesite is extremely amenable to erosion. The total
reserve of the Chandak magnesite deposit has been estimated to be
about 3 million tons.

Figure 7

15
Chapter 3-

Petrography-
To establish and clarify the presence of Magnesite in the Deoban
Formation in Pithoragarh, petrographic studies of several rock
samples collected from the area have been carried out.

Magnesite-
Under thin section studies, collected sample of Magnesite reveal the
granoblastic to seriate porphyroblastic fabric of magnesite. Coarse
grained variety of Magnesite show the Mosaic Texture. Few grains are
showing well developed rhombic cleavage, whereas most of the
grains are not showing cleavage. Large xenomorphic crystals are often
showing two sets of lamellar twinning. At places, Magnesite grains
show highly sutured boundary and marginal granulation of the grains
is also observed. This suggests disturbed geological conditions of
formation. At some places, the Magnesite grains show simple
boundary.

Among the other associated impurities, dolomite and calcite are

however, closely similar to Magnesite except for the granularity.

16
Dolomite is mostly fine grained, whereas Magnesite is coarsely
crystalline showing rhombic cleavage some times. 

17
Figure 8

Figure 9

18
The impurities are occurring mostly at the margins of magnesite
grains and as relicts in between the big magnesite crystals. The
textural studies of magnesite and dolomite indicate that magnesite
has been formed at the expense of the fine grained dolomite, the
presence of apatite is also found in the parent rock dolomite which
indicates the mineralization of magnesite from the parent dolomitic
rock.

19
Slate-
Slates(figure 10)are low grade metamorphic rocks formed from fine-
grained sediments as shale and mudstone. The sample from
Pithoragarh area, under microscope sample show foliated texture
and slaty cleavage. The common mineral present in the sample are
biotite, chlorite, feldspar and iron oxides.

Figure 10

20
Figure 11

Figure 12

21
In the thin section(figure 11 & 12)the minerals are aligned and biotite,
muscovite and feldspars are the dominant minerals present in the
sample and showing slaty cleavage. Biotite is brownish and greenish
in colour and pseudo-hexagonal crystals.

Igneous intrusion-
In some places igneous intrusion is also present as in takari and in
Chandak area (figure 13). Under thin section these samples report
plagioclase, hornblende, spinel, biotite, muscovite, and pyroxenes
(reference from stress analysis of mafic dykes and associated litho-
units around Pithoragarh, Kumaun Lesser Himalaya by Dr.R.A.Singh,
N.Surdas and Santosh Kumar in Geology Biodiversity & Natural
resources of Himalaya and their intellectual property laws ,year
2014,edited by Dr.R.A.Singh)) . The alignment of minerals indicate a
regional metamorphism process which is changing the petrology of
the exposure.

22
Figure 13
The plagioclase mineral present in the thin section shows euhedral to
anhedral grains and tabular to lath like habit. It is usually colourless
and grains appear cloudy due to alteration, twinning is the
distinguishing feature of plagioclase.

Spinel mineral is also present in the given sample of igneous rock,in

plane polarized light it appears as colourless and pale green to
yellowish colour. It does not show pleochroism.

23
Biotite mineral present in the given section appear as platy and lath
like and pseudo-hexagonal with brownish to greenish colour.

Hornblende is the dominant mineral in the given thin section. It is

dark colourd mineral which shows directions of excellent cleavage it is
usually columnar or fibrous and pleochroic. In plane polarized light
hornblende shows green to dark brown.

Pyroxenes is colourless to brownish in thin sections shows two

prismatic cleavages, and shows pinkish to greenish pleochroism.

24
Figure 14

Figure 15
Thin section of Igneous intrusion sample

25
Dolomitic Limestone-
Dolomite(figure 16) occurs in extensive beds at many geological
horizons. In Pithoragarh area Dolomite is formed by the alteration of
Limestone. In thin section Dolomitic Limestone is in white to greyish
colour with the rhombohedral habit with lamellar and fibrous grains.
The twinning of Dolomite is less frequent and changes in relief with
rotation.

Figure 16
Hand specimen of dolomitic limestone

26
Figure 17

Figure 18
Dolomite is usually colourless in thin section and euhedral grains with
cloudy and saccharoidal texture.

27
Chapter 4-

Genesis of Magnesite-
Magnesite (MgCO3) is one of three important carbonate minerals in
the earth, and only two types of Magnesite deposits present high
economic signatures for the refractory industry (Pohl, 1990). One type
of Magnesite deposit is associated with ultrabasic rocks. The other is
characteristic of giant strata-bound body, consisting of coarsely
crystalline pure Magnesite, which accounts for 90% of the economical
Magnesite deposits. Detail investigations have been carried out
during last century, but the genesis of the strata-bound magnesite
deposits is still in debate: epigenetic or sedimentary (Aharon, 1988;
Pohl, 1990). The epigenetic genesis is suggested that the magnesite is
formed by the enrich magnesium incursive fluid replacing the
Dolomite and Calcite. On the contrary, the sedimentary view is
suggested that the Magnesite precipitates from the seawater and the
formation of the Magnesite occurs with precipitation from seawater
in an evaporated environment or early diagenesis process.

The metamorphism and transformation event (ca. 1.9 Ga) and

regional thermodynamic metamorphism (ca. 1.8 Ga) significantly
affect the Magnesite deposit. The Magnesite is the major mineral for
the ore bed of the Magnesite deposit, and Dolomite, quartz, pyrite
are less presented. Most of the magnesite are recrystallized
significantly with a seriate porphyroblastic texture and a larger grain
size (about several to tens of millimeters), indicating an intensive
recrystallization.

28
In commerce, the term 'Magnesite' refers not only to the mineral, but
also to many products, obtained by calcining the natural carbonate;
e.g., Caustic Magnesite (Magnesia obtained by calcining crude
Magnesite at comparatively low temperatures, 700 to 1,000o C, and
retaining 2 to 7% CO2 as carbonate) and Deadburnt or refractory
Magnesite (magnesia obtained by calcining Magnesite at high
temperatures, 1,500 to 1,800o C, usually containing less than 0.5%
CO2). Pure Magnesite calcined at still higher temperatures (1,600 -
1,8000 C) to expel carbon dioxide completely is termed as 'Periclase'
(MgO)in the trade.

4.1 RESOURCES-

The total reserves/resources of Magnesite as per UNFC system as on

1.4.2010 are about 335 million tones of which reserves and remaining
resources are 42 million tones and 293 million tones, respectively.
Substantial quantities of resources are established in Uttarakhand
(69%), followed by Rajasthan (16%) and Tamil Nadu (12%). Resources
are also located in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Karnataka and Kerala. Occurrences of Magnesite in Tamil
Nadu are low in lime and high in silica, whereas those of Uttarakhand
are high in lime and low in silica. The grade wise and state wise
reserves The grade wise and state wise reserves and resources of
Magnesite are given in figure 19 .

29
Figure 19
30
Chapter 5- Indian occurrence of
Magnesite-
The data in the figures give the knowledge about the occurrence and
distribution of Magnesite in all over India. In India, Magnesite
deposits are found in the states of Himachal Pradesh,), Jammu and
Kashmir ,Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu (T.N.), and Uttar
Pradesh (U.P.)(the Indian occurrence of Magnesite in shown in the
figure 20). The deposits in HP belong to Carboniferous age, that of
U.P. occur in rocks belonging to Permian age, and those in T.N. and
Karnataka are confined to formations of Precambrian age.

HIMACHAL PRADESH- in H.P. Magnesite deposits are reported in two

tehsils, namely, Brahmani and Pangi.

JAMMU AND KASMIR (J&k)- In J&K occurrences of Magnesite deposits

are reported in Kargil, Ladakh and Uthampur districts. All these
deposits belong to Pre-Cambrian age.

KARNATAKA-
In Karnataka, the Magnesite deposits are located in the districts of
Coorg and Mysore. The area forms a part of the Sargur Schist complex
of the Dharwar Super group which represents the high grade
metamorphic terrain of the earth's crust. The ultrarmafics with which
the Magnesite deposits associated are intrusive into the Sargur Schist
complex and adjoining gneissic complex.

31
KERALA-
In this state, occurrences of Magnesite deposits have been reported
from t w o locations in Palghat district. One occurs in the N.E. part of
Attapadi Valley at Kalkandi and the other a t 1-5 kern, away from
Narasirnmakkai. In both deposits, Magnesite occurs within Peridotites
as veins and vein lets measuring a few mm. to 30 cm, in width. The
occurrence at Kalkandi extends over a Length of 150m- The ratio of
Magnesite to host rock in the richer zone of this deposit was found to
be 1:3.

RAJASTHAN-
In this state, Magnesite deposits have been reported from Ajmer, Pali
and Udaipur districts.

TAMIL NADU (T.N.)-

Tamil Nadu is the largest Magnesite producing, state in INDIA here
Magnesite is found in the districts of Coimbatore, Dharmapuri,
Nilgiris, North Arcot, , Periyar , Salem, Trichy and Trinelveli. The rock
types associated with the mineral are mostly ultrabasic bodies such as
Peridotite, Dunite and Pyroxenite. These deposits are considered be
of Pre-Cambrian age.

UTTARAKHAND-
Uttarakhand is one of the principal Magnesite producing states in
India. Magnesite deposits occur along a belt in Himalayas. In this
state, Magnesite is found in the districts Almora, Chamoli and
Pithoragarh. Rock types found here mostly are Dolomite, slate,
Limestone, Talc, Phyllite and basic intrusive.

32
In Almora district-
In this district there are many Magnesite deposits. However,
only two deposits are operated and these occur at Gadera and
Jhiroli.

i) GADERA DEPOSIT : It covers an area of 71.06 hecteres . The

Magnesite in this area is coarsely crystalline, hard and
massive. Patches of Dolomite and talc are also seen here.

ii) JHIROLI DEPOSIT: Jhiroli deposit occurs between Someshwar and

Bageshwar. It constitutes Dewaldbar sector and is presently known as
Jhiroli deposit. This deposit occurs in the region of Chhaeng - JhiroLi
mining villages and extends over a length of 2.9 k.m. on the southern
slope of Jhiroli ridge. The main geological formation found in this area
comprises quartizite, phyllite carbonates and crystalline rocks.
The area has been subjected to folding, faulting and thrusting. The
Magnesite of this area is massive crystalline variety and of
heterogenous texture. The main impurities found in it are dolomite,
calcite, limestone, talc, siderite and occasionally chlorite and quartz.

B) CHAMOLI DISTRICT-
There are fifteen reported occurrences of Magnesite deposits within
the district. They are- (i) Gulab Khothi, Mamolta-Mahola, (ii) Palla-
Jakhola-Kimara, (iii) Tapoban -Dwing, (iv) Lanji, (v) Huyana - Lokhari,
(vk) Gauri, (xi) North of Tangi, (xii) Belakachi, (xiii) Ghuni, (xiv) Rami
and (xiv) Bagoli. None of these deposits have been prospected and
explored so far.

33
PITHORAGARH DISTRICT

In this district, Magnesite deposits are found in Gol Block and

Kanlichinna Gorigonga areas.

i) GOL BLOCK AREA : In this area Magnesite deposits occur in

Chamagaon, Ganai - Borger, and Gorigonga. The deposits
show a bedded structure. Mineralization is seen to alternate
with the bands of Slate and Dolomite. Magnesite is fine to
coarsely crystalline in nature and white gray, light brown and
steel gray in colours, fine grained variety contains a mosaic of
Magnesite grains and coarse grained Magnesite shows bladed
crystals with planner intergranular contacts
ii) Kanlichinna Gorigonga area: Here the types of rocks found are
mostly cale-series-slates, shales and phyllite with dolomite
band. Mineralisation here occurs in the form of scattered
lenses and pockets which appear to be controlled by
lithology. The associated minerals are talc,dolomite and
marble. In this area deposits of magnesite occur in four
places, namely, i) Chandak, ii) Dewalthal, iii) Dharepani and
iv) Duanda.
( by Indian mineral yearbook 2012part 1,51st edition state
reviews Uttarakhand, Government of India, Ministry of
mines ,Indian Bureau of Mines )

34
Figure 20

35
Figure 21
36
5.1-MINING AND MARKETING-
Magnesite is being worked by opencast method by developing
benches. In Salem area (Tamil Nadu), Magnesite is found chiefly as
encrustations, veins and stringers in ultra basic rocks like Dunite and
Peridotite. Stringers and veins occurring irregularly in fractures of
rocks giving rise to different patterns. Veins are broken and Magnesite
is sorted out. Major Magnesite producing mines in Salem area belong
to Tamil Nadu Magnesite Ltd (a State Government Undertaking),
Dalmia Magnesite Corporation (a Private Sector Enterprise) and SAIL
Refractory Co. Ltd (a Central Government Undertaking). These mines
are semi-mechanised as well as mechanized, and use compressors,
wagon drills, jackhammers, power shovels, loaders, dumpers, dozers
and pumps. Normally, Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil Mixture (ANFO)
with high explosives as booster is used for blasting. The powder factor
may go up to 10. The blasted rock or run of-mine material containing
25 to 30% Magnesite is subjected to manual sorting. The hand-picked
crude Magnesite is further subjected to sorting and dressing in the
dressing yard. Magnesite lumps which are not considered fit for
dressing (containing 10 to 20% silica)constitute 2 to 6% of the run-of-
mine. These lumps are hand-picked and stacked separately as rejects.
The remaining material is further dressed to obtain usable Magnesite
containing less than 3% silica. The usable Magnesite hardly
constitutes 4 to 8% of blasted rocks even though run-of-mine contains
20 to 30% Magnesite. Magnesite mine in Karnataka is worked by Tata
Steel. In Uttarakhand, Almora Magnesite Ltd and N.B. Minerals
Corporation are the important producers having mines in Bageshwar
and Nainital districts, respectively. Magnesite is marketed generally
after calcination; that is, after converting it into lightly Calcined or
Caustic Magnesite by heating the mineral to 800 to 1,000o C and
37
dead-burnt variety to 1,800o C. At TANMAG, the recovery of
Magnesite from blasted earth is one in fourteen. After picking the
Magnesite, the remaining reject material is removed by mechanical
operation using HEMM. TANMAG's crude Magnesite production
capacity is in the range of 75,000 to 100,000 tones( Indian Minerals
Yearbook 2013 (Part- III : Mineral Reviews of Indian bureau of mines).

5.2-USES AND SPECIFICATIONS-

The major proportion (about 98%) of Magnesite mined is used for
conversion in Calcined form which finds many applications. The other
industries where raw Magnesite is used are mosaic tiles, electrodes,
chemicals and manufacture of magnesium metal. Magnesite is also
used in fertilizers and by food processing industry. Raw Magnesite is
dead-burnt for making basic refractory bricks, basic refractory
mortars, ramming mass, tar/pitch impregnated Magnesite, magnesia-
carbon bricks, slide-gate plates and other refractories. Caustic
Calcined Magnesite is used in manufacturing sorel cement
(magnesium oxy-chloride), castable refractories and extraction of
magnesium metal. It is also the source material for manufacture of
magnesium compounds like Magnesium Sulphate (Epsom salt) and
other salts used in paper and pharmaceutical industries. In paper
industry, Magnesium bi-sulphate produced from Magnesite was used
as cooking liquor for preparing pulp. It is also used in textile, rubber,
glass, ceramic industries and as animal feed stuff. Fused magnesia
finds application as insulating material in tubular heating elements in
electrical industry and refractory brick linings in steel furnaces.

38
5.3-INDUSTRY-

Dead-burnt Magnesite (DBM)-

When the raw Magnesite is Calcined between 1,660-1,800o C in the
rotary kiln, carbon dioxide is expelled completely and a dense product
'Deadburnt Magnesite' is obtained. Dead-burnt Magnesite refers to
the Magnesite that is un-reactive, namely 'dead' because it has been
Calcined at a temperature high enough to enable it to be used in brick
making or monolithic hearths without undue difficulty arising out of
hydration or shrinkage.

Caustic/Calcined Magnesia -Low Calcined Magnesite, also known as

Caustic/Calcined Magnesia, is obtained by Calcining Magnesite in a
shaft or rotary kiln at a temperature upto 1,800oC. Because of
incomplete dissociation, it still contains 8 to 10% carbon dioxide as
carbonate. Low calcined Magnesia when mixed with water forms a
feebly plastic paste. Industries like paper, rubber, ceramic, asbestos
products, glass, etc. use caustic magnesia.

Fused Magnesia- Fused Magneisa is produced by the fusion of the

high-grade Magnesite in Higgin's or electric arc tilt furnaces between
2,500 and 3,000o C. It is resistant to the action of molten metals, basic
slags and fluxes and high temperatures. It is used in the form of
moulded vessels and as compressed material for covering resistant
elements of the furnaces used in the melting of lead, tin, etc.

Sea Water Magnesia (SWM)-

Sea water or lake bitterns is an alternative source to obtain magnesia
by chemical reaction. The main raw materials required other than sea

39
water are Dolomite or Limestone, fresh water and sulphuric acid. The
magnesia content of sea water is about 0.2%, and even by enrichment
with dolomite, around 300 kilograms sea water need to be processed
to obtain a kilogram of Magnesia. The sea water Magnesia can be
used to manufacture dead-burnt Magnesite, Caustic Magnesia and
the Magnesium compounds. Marine By-products Carbonates,
Chlorides and Sulphates of Magnesium are obtained as by-products in
the production of common salt by solar evaporation. Salt
Commissioner, Jaipur, reported 16,336 tones production of
Magnesium Chloride and by- product Magnesium Sulphate 37 tones in
2011-12. The production is normally reported from the salt pans in
Jamnagar Gandhinagar Gujarat. (Indian Minerals Yearbook 2013 (Part-
III : Mineral Reviews of Indian bureau of mines).

40
Chapter-6
ORIGIN OF MAGNESITE FROM CHANDAK
AREA-

Origin of Magnesite deposit from Chandak Area Muktinath (1949),

Nautiyal (1953), Hore and Viswanathan (1961) and Dubey and
Srivastava (1965) considered the Garhwal Kumaun Magnesites to
have been formed by the secondary process involving the
replacement of Dolomites by magnesium-rich hydrothermal solutions.
These hydrothermal solutions are thought to have been derived from
the basic intrusions of the region. Misra and Valdiya(1961) suggested
a sedimentary origin for these Magnesites and believed that the
precipitation of MgCO3 took place in an essentially sedimentary
environment and was probably aided by algal activity. On the basis of
field characters, Basu(1973) and Gupta (1973) advocated a
sedimentary origin for the Magnesite deposits of Kanda region.
According to Valdiya (1968) the Magnesites of Pithoragarh region are
due to a volume for volume replacement during the diagenesis of the
sediments. He disregards the possibility of an external source of MgO
such as the thin impersistent metabasic bodies. He further considers
that in view of the absence of appreciable amounts of calcite deposits
in the vicinity of Magnesite and strong stratigraphical control of
mineralization and post-diagenetic replacement, the formation of

41
magnesite by an external source is not tenable. Tiwari ( 1970, 1973 ),
on the basis of fluid inclusions in Magnesites of Kanda and studies on
hydrous MgCO3 pleaded for a sedimentary origin.

Figure 22
Magnesite exposure in Chandak(figure 22)

42
Figure 23
Stromatolite in the dolomitic limestone near Magnesite exposure in
Chandak

The Chandak Magnesite show that the Magnesites are formed by the
replacement of Stromatolite bearing Dolostones. The following
observations support the above view (1) The Stromatolite bearing
algal columnar structures are well preserved within Magnesite; (2)
The fraying out of Magnesite into Dolostones and the dentition of
Magnesite and Dolomite at their contacts are also supporting the
replacement theory. The above observations indicate that the almost
invariably associated Stromatolite bearing Dolostone was replaced by
Magnesite.

43
Summary and conclusion-
Indian Magnesite can be classified into two types crypto crystalline
type and crystalline type. The Magnesite exposure in Chandak
Pithoragarh is mainly of crystalline type.

The crystalline Magnesites of Chandak, Pithoragarh Uttarakhand are

derived from the replacement of Stromatolite bearing Dolostones.
The Magnesite deposit has also undergone post-formational
deformations resulting in the alteration of the inherent minerals and
addition of certain impurities.

The main impurities in these Magnesites are talc, calcite / dolomite,

micaceous minerals, apatite and ferruginous minerals apart from
amphiboles and quartz in small quantity.

The Magnesite deposits are of good quality for making bricks and
normal refractories.

44
References-
1-Wikipedia

2- Mukherjee S.,Carosi ,RPA vander beek ,Mukherjee

B.K.,D.M.Robinson D.M. Tectonics of Himalaya
(https://books.google.co.in/books?
id=hwN7CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=Mukherjee+S.,Carosi+R.,
+PA+vander+beek+,Mukherjee+B.K.,D.M.Robinson+D.M.
+Tectonics+of+Himalaya+edited+by&source=bl&ots=viylqpy2p7&sig=
Tj19FWYj21AXADyUSyfKWJte0MQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjW08j
X-JHPAhXFKZQKHUd6CzYQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=gangolihat
%20dolomite&f=false)p.p.253-261

3- Valdiya K.S. The making of India Geodynamic evolution,

(https://books.google.co.in/books?
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%20dolomite&f=false)p.p.247,250,267,268)

4- Tiwari Meera, Pant C.C. and Tiwari V.C, Neoproterozoic sponge

spicules and organic walled microfossils from the Gangolihat dolomite
,lesser Himalaya, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, 33, General
Mahadev Singh Road, Dehradun 248 001, India ,Geology Department,
Kumaun University, Nainital 263 001, India.
(http://www.iisc.ernet.in/~currsci/sep102000/651.pdf)

5- Winter J.D.’ Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology

6- Koshta R.N., Agarwala K. C., Subrahmanyan N. N.and Rao J. J

Studies on the geology and beneficiation of Chandak magnesite
45
deposit from Pithoragarh District, Uttarakhand.
(http://eprints.nmlindia.org/4418/1/282-292.PDF)

7-Indian Minerals Yearbook 2013 (Part- III : Mineral Reviews) 52nd

Edition MAGNESITE (ADVANCE RELEASE) by INDIAN BUREAU OF
MINES,
(http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/01192015115023IMYB_2013_Vol
%20III_Magnesite%202013.pdf)

8-Indian mineral yearbook 2012part 1,51st edition state reviews

Uttarakhand, Government of India, Ministry of mines ,Indian Bureau
of Mines.

9- Dr.Singh R.A.,Surdas N. and Kumar Santosh, stress analysis of mafic

dykes and associated litho-units around Pithoragarh, Kumaun Lesser
Himalaya in Geology Biodiversity & Natural resources of Himalaya and
their intellectual property laws ,year 2014 Pratyush Publication
Delhi ,edited by Dr.R.A.Singh )p.p.112-127

10-RAO D. RAMESHWAR and SHARMA RAJESH ‘Petrogenesis of the

Granitoid Rocks from Askot Crystallines, Kumaun Himalaya ,Wadia
Institute of Himalayan Geology, 33 General Mahadeo Singh Road,
Dehradun.(from journal of Geological society of India volume 74,issue
3,September 2009)

11-Perkins Dexter ,Mineralogy

12- Gribble C.D. Rutley’s elements of mineralogy

13-Prasad U.,Economic geology

Self data

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