Vitamins and Minerals needs but cannot

Submitted by: Christine manufacture on its own in

T. Bacus sufficient amounts.

Are You Getting What You Vitamins and minerals are

Need? considered essential
Vitamins and minerals are nutrients—because acting
essential nutrients in concert, they perform
because they perform hundreds of roles in the
hundreds of roles in the body. They help shore up
body. There is a fine bones, heal wounds, and
line between getting bolster your immune
enough of these nutrients system. They also convert
(which is healthy) and food into energy, and
getting too much (which repair cellular damage.
can end up harming you).
Eating a healthy diet But trying to keep track
remains the best way to of what all these
get sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals do
the vitamins and minerals can be confusing. Read
you need. enough articles on the
Essential nutrients for topic, and your eyes may
your body swim with the alphabet-
Every day, your body soup references to these
produces skin, muscle, nutrients, which are
and bone. It churns out known mainly be their
rich red blood that initials (such as
carries nutrients and vitamins A, B, C, D, E,
oxygen to remote and K—to name just a
outposts, and it sends few).
nerve signals skipping
along thousands of miles In this article, you’ll
of brain and body gain a better
pathways. It also understanding of what
formulates chemical these vitamins and
messengers that shuttle minerals actually do in
from one organ to the body and why you want
another, issuing the to make sure you’re
instructions that help getting enough of them.
sustain your life.
Micronutrients with a big
But to do all this, your role in the body
body requires some raw Vitamins and minerals are
materials. These include often called
at least 30 vitamins, micronutrients because
minerals, and dietary your body needs only tiny
components that your body amounts of them. Yet
failing to get even those Prevents birth defects.
small quantities Taking folic acid
virtually guarantees supplements early in
disease. Here are a few pregnancy helps prevent
examples of diseases that brain and spinal birth
can result from vitamin defects in offspring.
deficiencies: Healthy teeth. The
mineral fluoride not only
Scurvy. Old-time sailors helps bone formation but
learned that living for also keeps dental
months without fresh cavities from starting or
fruits or vegetables—the worsening.
main sources of vitamin C The difference between
—causes the bleeding gums vitamins and minerals
and listlessness of Although they are all
scurvy. considered
Blindness. In some micronutrients, vitamins
developing countries, and minerals differ in
people still become blind basic ways. Vitamins are
from vitamin A organic and can be broken
deficiency. down by heat, air, or
Rickets. A deficiency in acid. Minerals are
vitamin D can cause inorganic and hold on to
rickets, a condition their chemical structure.
marked by soft, weak
bones that can lead to So why does this matter?
skeletal deformities such It means the minerals in
as bowed legs. Partly to soil and water easily
combat rickets, the U.S. find their way into your
has fortified milk with body through the plants,
vitamin D since the fish, animals, and fluids
1930s. you consume. But it’s
Just as a lack of key tougher to shuttle
micronutrients can cause vitamins from food and
substantial harm to your other sources into your
body, getting sufficient body because cooking,
quantities can provide a storage, and simple
substantial benefit. Some exposure to air can
examples of these inactivate these more
benefits: fragile compounds.

Strong bones. A Interacting—in good ways

combination of calcium, and bad
vitamin D, vitamin K, Many micronutrients
magnesium, and phosphorus interact. Vitamin D
protects your bones enables your body to
against fractures. pluck calcium from food
sources passing through Niacin (vitamin B3)
your digestive tract Pantothenic acid (vitamin
rather than harvesting it B5
from your bones. Vitamin Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
C helps you absorb iron. Thiamin (vitamin B1)
Vitamin B6
The interplay of Vitamin B12
micronutrients isn’t Vitamin C
always cooperative,
however. For example, What they do
vitamin C blocks your Although water-soluble
body’s ability to vitamins have many tasks
assimilate the essential in the body, one of the
mineral copper. And even most important is helping
a minor overload of the to free the energy found
mineral manganese can in the food you eat.
worsen iron deficiency. Others help keep tissues
healthy. Here are some
A closer look at water- examples of how different
soluble vitamins vitamins help you
Water-soluble vitamins maintain health:
are packed into the
watery portions of the Release energy. Several B
foods you eat. They are vitamins are key
absorbed directly into components of certain
the bloodstream as food coenzymes (molecules that
is broken down during aid enzymes) that help
digestion or as a release energy from food.
supplement dissolves. Produce energy. Thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin,
Because much of your body pantothenic acid, and
consists of water, many biotin engage in energy
of the water-soluble production.
vitamins circulate easily Build proteins and cells.
in your body. Your Vitamins B6, B12, and
kidneys continuously folic acid metabolize
regulate levels of water- amino acids (the building
soluble vitamins, blocks of proteins) and
shunting excesses out of help cells multiply.
the body in your urine. Make collagen. One of
many roles played by
Water-soluble vitamins vitamin C is to help make
B vitamins collagen, which knits
together wounds, supports
Biotin (vitamin B7) blood vessel walls, and
Folic acid (folate, forms a base for teeth
vitamin B9) and bones.
Words to the wise under escort by proteins
Contrary to popular that act as carriers.
belief, some water-
soluble vitamins can stay Absorption of fat-soluble
in the body for long vitamins
periods of time. You
probably have several
years’ supply of vitamin
B12 in your liver. And Food containing fat-
even folic acid and soluble vitamins is
vitamin C stores can last ingested.
more than a couple of The food is digested by
days. stomach acid and then
travels to the small
Generally, though, water- intestine, where it is
soluble vitamins should digested further. Bile is
be replenished every few needed for the absorption
days. of fat-soluble vitamins.
This substance, which is
Just be aware that there produced in the liver,
is a small risk that flows into the small
consuming large amounts intestine, where it
of some of these breaks down fats.
micronutrients through Nutrients are then
supplements may be quite absorbed through the wall
harmful. For example, of the small intestine.
very high doses of B6— Upon absorption, the fat-
many times the soluble vitamins enter
recommended amount of 1.3 the lymph vessels before
milligrams (mg) per day making their way into the
for adults—can damage bloodstream. In most
nerves, causing numbness cases, fat-soluble
and muscle weakness. vitamins must be coupled
with a protein in order
A closer look at fat- to travel through the
soluble vitamins body.
Rather than slipping These vitamins are used
easily into the throughout the body, but
bloodstream like most excesses are stored in
water-soluble vitamins, the liver and fat
fat-soluble vitamins gain tissues.
entry to the blood via As additional amounts of
lymph channels in the these vitamins are
intestinal wall (see needed, your body taps
illustration). Many fat- into the reserves,
soluble vitamins travel releasing them into the
through the body only bloodstream from the
liver. vision.
Fatty foods and oils are Interact favorably.
reservoirs for the four Without vitamin E, your
fat-soluble vitamins. body would have
Within your body, fat difficulty absorbing and
tissues and the liver act storing vitamin A.
as the main holding pens Protect the body. Vitamin
for these vitamins and E also acts as an
release them as needed. antioxidant (a compound
that helps protect the
To some extent, you can body against damage from
think of these vitamins unstable molecules).
as time-release Words to the wise
micronutrients. It’s Because fat-soluble
possible to consume them vitamins are stored in
every now and again, your body for long
perhaps in doses weeks or periods, toxic levels can
months apart rather than build up. This is most
daily, and still get your likely to happen if you
fill. Your body squirrels take supplements. It’s
away the excess and doles very rare to get too much
it out gradually to meet of a vitamin just from
your needs. food.

Fat-soluble vitamins A closer look at major

Vitamin A minerals
Vitamin D The body needs, and
Vitamin E stores, fairly large
Vitamin K amounts of the major
What they do minerals. These minerals
Together this vitamin are no more important to
quartet helps keep your your health than the
eyes, skin, lungs, trace minerals; they’re
gastrointestinal tract, just present in your body
and nervous system in in greater amounts.
good repair. Here are
some of the other Major minerals travel
essential roles these through the body in
vitamins play: various ways. Potassium,
for example, is quickly
Build bones. Bone absorbed into the
formation would be bloodstream, where it
impossible without circulates freely and is
vitamins A, D, and K. excreted by the kidneys,
Protect vision. Vitamin A much like a water-soluble
also helps keep cells vitamin. Calcium is more
healthy and protects your like a fat-soluble
vitamin because it too much sodium through
requires a carrier for table salt or processed
absorption and transport. foods, you could end up
losing needed calcium as
Major minerals your body rids itself of
Calcium the surplus sodium.
Chloride Excess phosphorus.
Magnesium Likewise, too much
Phosphorus phosphorus can hamper
Potassium your ability to absorb
Sodium magnesium.
Sulfur A closer look at trace
What they do minerals
One of the key tasks of A thimble could easily
major minerals is to contain the distillation
maintain the proper of all the trace minerals
balance of water in the normally found in your
body. Sodium, chloride, body. Yet their
and potassium take the contributions are just as
lead in doing this. Three essential as those of
other major minerals— major minerals such as
calcium, phosphorus, and calcium and phosphorus,
magnesium—are important which each account for
for healthy bones. Sulfur more than a pound of your
helps stabilize protein body weight.
structures, including
some of those that make Trace minerals
up hair, skin, and nails. Chromium
Copper
Words to the wise Fluoride
Having too much of one Iodine
major mineral can result Iron
in a deficiency of Manganese
another. These sorts of Molybdenum
imbalances are usually Selenium
caused by overloads from Zinc
supplements, not food What they do
sources. Here are two Trace minerals carry out
examples: a diverse set of tasks.
Here are a few examples:
Salt overload. Calcium
binds with excess sodium Iron is best known for
in the body and is ferrying oxygen
excreted when the body throughout the body.
senses that sodium levels Fluoride strengthens
must be lowered. That bones and wards off tooth
means that if you ingest decay.
Zinc helps blood clot, is Generally, food is a safe
essential for taste and source of trace minerals,
smell, and bolsters the but if you take
immune response. supplements, it’s
Copper helps form several important to make sure
enzymes, one of which you’re not exceeding safe
assists with iron levels.
metabolism and the
creation of hemoglobin, A closer look at
which carries oxygen in antioxidants
the blood. Antioxidant is a catchall
The other trace minerals term for any compound
perform equally vital that can counteract
jobs, such as helping to unstable molecules such
block damage to body as free radicals that
cells and forming parts damage DNA, cell
of key enzymes or membranes, and other
enhancing their activity. parts of cells.

Words to the wise Your body cells naturally

Trace minerals interact produce plenty of
with one another, antioxidants to put on
sometimes in ways that patrol. The foods you eat
can trigger imbalances. —and, perhaps, some of
Too much of one can cause the supplements you take—
or contribute to a are another source of
deficiency of another. antioxidant compounds.
Here are some examples: Carotenoids (such as
lycopene in tomatoes and
A minor overload of lutein in kale) and
manganese can exacerbate flavonoids (such as
iron deficiency. Having anthocyanins in
too little can also cause blueberries, quercetin in
problems. apples and onions, and
When the body has too catechins in green tea)
little iodine, thyroid are antioxidants. The
hormone production slows, vitamins C and E and the
causing sluggishness and mineral selenium also
weight gain as well as have antioxidant
other health concerns. properties.
The problem worsens if
the body also has too Why free radicals may be
little selenium. harmful
The difference between Free radicals are a
“just enough” and “too natural byproduct of
much” of the trace energy metabolism and are
minerals is often tiny. also generated by
ultraviolet rays, tobacco Each of the nutrients
smoke, and air pollution. that has antioxidant
They lack a full properties also has
complement of electrons, numerous other aspects
which makes them and should be considered
unstable, so they steal individually. The context
electrons from other is also important—in some
molecules, damaging those settings, for example,
molecules in the process. vitamin C is an
antioxidant, and in
Free radicals have a others it can be a pro-
well-deserved reputation oxidant.
for causing cellular
damage. But they can be Words to the wise
helpful, too. When immune Articles and
system cells muster to advertisements have
fight intruders, the touted antioxidants as a
oxygen they use spins off way to help slow aging,
an army of free radicals fend off heart disease,
that destroys viruses, improve flagging vision,
bacteria, and damaged and curb cancer. And
body cells in an laboratory studies and
oxidative burst. Vitamin many large-scale
C can then disarm the observational trials (the
free radicals. type that query people
about their eating habits
How antioxidants may help and supplement use and
Antioxidants are able to then track their disease
neutralize marauders such patterns) have noted
as free radicals by benefits from diets rich
giving up some of their in certain antioxidants
own electrons. When a and, in some cases, from
vitamin C or E molecule antioxidant supplements.
makes this sacrifice, it
may allow a crucial But results from
protein, gene, or cell randomized controlled
membrane to escape trials (in which people
damage. This helps break are assigned to take
a chain reaction that can specific nutrients or a
affect many other cells. placebo) have failed to
back up many of these
It is important to claims. One study that
recognize that the term pooled results from 68
“antioxidant” reflects a randomized trials with
chemical property rather over 230,000 participants
than a specific found that people who
nutritional property. were given vitamin E,
beta carotene, and people who consume higher
vitamin A had a higher levels of these
risk of death than those antioxidants in food have
who took a placebo. There a lower risk of many
appeared to be no effect diseases.
from vitamin C pills and
a small reduction in The bottom line? Eating a
mortality from selenium, healthy diet is the best
but further research on way to get your
these nutrients is antioxidants.
needed.
Adapted with permission
These findings suggest from Making Sense of
little overall benefit of Vitamins and Minerals, a
the antioxidants in pill special health report
form. On the other hand, published by Harvard
many studies show that Health Publishing.
Table: RDAs and ULs for
2,000
Vitamins and Minerals
mg/day
The Institute of Medicine
Age 70 and
has determined upper
older: 1,800
limits for 24 nutrients.
mg/day
This table is for adults
ages 19 or older. It Cholin Women: 425 3,500
doesn't apply to women e mg/day * mg/day
who are pregnant or (Vitami Men: 550
breastfeeding, because nB mg/day *
they have different compl
nutritional requirements. ex)
Copper 900 10,000
Vitami Recommend Upper
micrograms/ mcg/da
n ed Dietary Tolerab
day y
or Allowance le Limit
Minera (RDA) or (UL)
l Adequate The
Intake (AI) highest Fluoride Men: 4 10
Nutrients amoun mg/da mg/day
with AIs are t you y*
marked with can Wome
an (*) take n: 3
withou mg/da
t risk y*

Calciu Age 19-50: Age19- Folic Acid 400 1,000

m 1,000 50: (Folate) mcg/d mcg/day
mg/day 2,500 ay This
Women age mg/day applies
51+: 1,200 Age 51 only to
mg/day and synthetic
Men age up: 2,0 folic acid
71+: 1,200 00 in
mg/day mg/day suppleme
nts or
Chlorid Age 19-50: 3,600 fortified
e 2,300 mg/day foods.
mg/day There is
Age 50-70:
 no upper 310 and water
limit for mg/da
folic acid y
from Wome
natural n age
sources. 31 and
up:
Iodine 150 1,100 320
mcg/d mcg/day mg/da
ay y
IRON Iron 45 Mangane 11
Men: 8 MG/DAY se Men: mg/day
mg/da 2.3
y mg/da
Wome y*
n age Wome
19-50: n: 1.8
18 mg/da
mg/da y*
y
Wome
n age
Molybden 45 2,000
51 and
um mcg/d mcg/day
up: 8
ay
mg/da
y Phosphor 700 Up to age
Magnesi Men 350 us mg/da 70: 4,000
um age 19- mg/day y mg/day
30: This Over age
400 applies 70: 3,000
mg/da only to mg/day
y MAGNESI Selenium 55 400
Men UM in mcg/d mcg/day
age 31 suppleme ay
and nts or
up: fortified
420 foods. Sodium Age 2,300
mg/da There is 19-50: mg/day
y no upper 1,500
Wome limit for mg/da
n age magnesiu y*
19-30: m in food Age
 51-70: Vitamin Men: 35
1,300 B3 16 mg/day
mg/da (Niacin) mg/da This
y* y applies
Age 71 Wome only to
and n: 14 niacin in
up: mg/da suppleme
1,200 y nts or
mg/da fortified
y* foods.
There is
Vitamin A Men: 3,000
no upper
900 mcg/day
limit for
mcg/d
niacin in
ay
natural
Wome
sources.
n: 700
mcg/d
ay
 Vitamin B6 Men age 19-50: 1.3 100 mg/day
mg/day
Men age 51 up:1.7
mg/day
Women age 19-50: 1.3
mg/day
Women age 51 up: 1.5
mg/day

Vitamin C Men: 90 mg/day 2,000 mg/day

Women: 75 mg/day

Vitamin D (Calciferol) Age 1-70: 15 mcg/day 100 mcg/day

(600 IU, or international
(4,000 IU)
units) *
Age 70 and older: 20
mcg/day (800 IU) *

Vitamin E 22.4 IU/day 1,500 IU/day

(alpha-tocopherol) (15 mg/day)
(1,000 mg/day)
This applies only to
vitamin E in supplements
or fortified foods. There is
no upper limit for vitamin
E from natural sources.

Zinc Men: 11 40 for a variety of

different functions.
mg/day mg/day
Minerals are involved in
Women: 8
the formation of bones
mg/day
and teeth; they are
essential constituents of
body fluids and tissues;
Minerals and trace they are components of
elements enzyme systems and they
are involved in normal
Minerals are inorganic nerve function.
substances required by The body requires
the body in small amounts different amounts of each
mineral; people have  
different requirements,
according to their age, What are minerals?
sex, physiological state
(e.g. pregnancy) and Minerals are inorganic
sometimes their state of substances required by
health. the body in small amounts
The Department of Health for a variety of
has published Dietary functions. These include
Reference Values (DRVs) the formation of bones
for minerals for and teeth; as essential
different groups of constituents of body
healthy people. fluids and tissues; as
What are minerals? components of enzyme
Requirements and systems and for normal
recommended dietary nerve function.
intakes; bioavailability
and absorption of Some minerals are needed
minerals; deficiencies in larger amounts than
and excess intakes others, e.g. calcium,
Calcium phosphorus, magnesium,
Phosphorous sodium, potassium and
Magnesium chloride. Others are
Sodium required in smaller
Potassium quantities and are
Iron sometimes called trace
Zinc minerals, e.g. iron,
Iodine zinc, iodine, fluoride,
Fluoride selenium and copper.
Copper Despite being required in
Selenium smaller amounts, trace
Manganese minerals are no less
Chromium and other trace important than other
elements minerals.
 
Minerals are often
The mineral content of absorbed more efficiently
foods and drinks can be by the body if supplied
found in McCance and in foods rather than as
Widdowson’s 'composition supplements. Also, a diet
of foods integrated that is short in one
dataset' on the nutrient mineral may well be low
content of the UK food in others, and so the
supply, which can be first step in dealing
viewed here. with this is to review
and improve the diet as a
whole. Eating a varied
diet will help ensure an implications for future
adequate supply of most bone health.
minerals for healthy
people.
Requirements and
The National Diet and recommended dietary
Nutrition Surveys (NDNS) intakes
have revealed that some
sub-groups of the The body requires
population have low different amounts of each
intakes of some other mineral because each
minerals, for example mineral has a different
potassium, magnesium, set of functions.
zinc in men, and for Requirements vary
women, iron, calcium, according to age, sex and
copper and iodine. Young physiological state (for
British adults, example pregnancy). They
especially young women, may also be influenced by
have particularly poor state of health. The
diets which are likely to Department of Health has
put their future health published recommendations
at risk unless in the form of Dietary
improvements are made. Reference Values (DRVs)
See our section on for minerals for
nutrient requirements for different groups of
more information. healthy people (see
Nutrient requirements).
Most people do not show The Reference Nutrient
signs of deficiency but Intake (RNI) is the
this does not mean their amount of a nutrient that
intakes or nutrient will satisfy the needs of
status are adequate. For practically all the
example, adolescent population (i.e. 97.5%);
girls, women of in other words it is
childbearing age and some usually not necessary to
vegans/vegetarians are exceed the RNI. Lower
more susceptible to low Reference Nutrient
iron status as their Intakes have also been
dietary intake may not established. These are
match their requirements, levels judged to be
and therefore they are at sufficient for only 2.5%
risk of iron deficiency of a given population,
anaemia. There is also everyone else will
concern about the calcium require more. So if, say,
intake of some 10% of a population group
adolescents, and young have intakes of a
and older women and the nutrient below the LRNI
for that nutrient, it is form of the mineral,
highly likely that the other substances present
majority of these people in the diet and (for
are having insufficient nutrients such as iron)
for their needs. the individual person’s
needs as determined by
Tables showing the mean how much of the nutrient
intakes of mineral and is already stored in the
trace elements from food body. This is because the
sources as a percentage body has sensitive
of Lower Reference mechanisms for preventing
Nutrient Intake (LRNI), storage of nutrients that
by age and sex, are can be damaging in excess
available in the attached (as is the case with
pdf file below. These iron).
tables give an indicator
of where intakes of For example, the
minerals and trace bioavailability of iron
elements are of concern. from plant sources (non-
haem iron) is relatively
But certain groups of poor compared with iron
people may have higher from meat (haem iron) but
requirements for specific absorption is increased
minerals, e.g. women with when vitamin C is
particularly heavy consumed during the same
periods may need extra meal because the vitamin
iron, and extra calcium C converts it to a more
(and vitamin D) is bioavailable chemical
sometimes recommended by form.
doctors for women at high
risk of osteoporosis. In Some dietary constituents
such cases, supplements reduce bioavailability.
may be useful but should Phytate, for example,
not replace a varied and found in products made
healthy diet. from wholegrain cereals
(especially unleavened
The bioavailability and breads such as chapattis)
absorption of minerals can bind and hence reduce
the absorption of
The bioavailability of a calcium, iron and zinc.
mineral (i.e. how readily Iodine absorption may be
it can be absorbed and hindered by nitrates.
used by the body) may be Similarly, oxalate
influenced by a variety present in spinach and
of factors. rhubarb binds any calcium
Bioavailability will present, making it
depend upon the chemical unavailable for
absorption. Also an existing markers of
excess of one mineral may status and also by the
hinder the absorption of available information on
another by competing for requirements, an example
the same transport being selenium.
systems in the gut, e.g.
excess iron reduces zinc On the other hand, excess
absorption. This intakes of minerals are
generally only becomes a also sometimes of concern
problem when zinc intakes (for example sodium, one
are already marginal. of several risk factors
associated with high
Unlike some vitamins, blood pressure). In
minerals are fairly general, excess intakes
stable in normal food of a range of minerals
processing and storage have been reported to
conditions. have varying effects,
ranging from no effect
Deficiencies and excess (e.g. no adverse effects
intakes have been reported for
excess iodine intakes up
Iron deficiency anaemia to 2mg iodine/day) to
is the most common severe (e.g. excess
nutritional deficiency in fluoride can cause
the world, often skeletal fluorosis).
affecting women and young However, more information
children, and is found in is needed about the
the UK population too. effects of excess intakes
Iodine deficiency is also of many of the essential
commonplace worldwide. minerals and trace
Nutritional deficiencies elements. For further
of other minerals are information see the
rare in the UK (although report of the Expert
as indicated above, Group on Vitamins and
dietary intakes of a Minerals (EVM)
number of minerals are (http://www.food.gov.uk/)
low in sub groups of the .
UK population and
nutritional status of
individuals may therefore
be affected). Policy
decisions about the Calcium
adequacy of current
nutrient intakes in Calcium (Ca) is the most
maintaining appropriate abundant mineral in the
status are often hindered body and is essential for
by the limitations of a number of vital
functions. The body needs the rate of bone
adequate dietary calcium development, so as well
(alongside vitamin D and as protecting vital
several other nutrients organs, the skeleton acts
such as vitamin K) to as a ‘bank’ of minerals
develop and maintain from which calcium and
healthy bones and teeth. phosphorus may be
Calcium also plays a continually withdrawn or
vital role in many deposited to support
systems including physiological
intracellular signalling requirement.
to enable the integration
and regulation of Calcium levels in the
metabolic processes, the blood are carefully
transmission of regulated and blood
information via the plasma levels are
nervous system, the maintained within narrow
control of muscle limits. Calcium
contraction (including absorption is well
the heart) and blood controlled to match the
clotting. Furthermore, it needs of the body and so
has been suggested that calcium balance can be
adequate calcium intake maintained at a variety
(for example from reduced of different levels of
fat dairy products) may calcium intake. Even at
help lower high blood low levels of intake,
pressure and may help there is evidence from
protect against colon the Gambia, for example,
cancer, although more that calcium balance can
evidence is needed to be achieved. Calcium
fully substantiate these status is maintained by
functions. balancing calcium
absorption from the gut,
The skeleton contains excretion via the kidneys
about 99% of the body’s and mobilisation and
calcium with deposition in the bone.
approximately 1kg present These sites are regulated
in adult bones. The major by feedback mechanisms
constituents of bone are controlled by several
calcium and phosphate, hormones including
forming hydroxyapatite, parathyroid hormone and
which is associated the activated form of
within a meshwork of vitamin D. Plasma levels
collagen fibres to form a of calcium only become
rigid structure. The abnormal if there is a
body’s requirement for breakdown of this
calcium fluctuates with homeostatic mechanism,
and not usually as a calcium.
result of differences in
dietary calcium intake. In terms of dietary
The body invests this supply, a significant
effort because small proportion of young women
variations in plasma have average calcium
calcium concentrations intakes below the Lower
may have serious Reference Nutrient
consequences to the Intakes (8% of women aged
functioning of vital 19-24 years and 6% of
organs and to health in women aged 25-34 years)
general. Low blood indicating these intakes
calcium is called are likely to be
hypocalcaemia and high inadequate. An adequate
blood calcium is called calcium intake is vital
hypercalcaemia.. for health, particularly
in times of growth (in
Deficiency childhood, adolescence,
pregnancy) to establish
For some nutrients, peak bone mass and also
nutritional deficiency is during lactation
identified by the (breastfeeding).
existence of a low blood Supplements are sometimes
level of the nutrient but recommended for those at
for nutrients such as risk of osteoporosis. See
calcium, for the reasons nutrient requirements for
described above, low information on calcium
blood levels rarely requirements throughout
occur. Because of the the life course.
need to maintain blood
levels, the impact of a Adverse effects
poor supply of calcium is
usually reflected in bone Obtaining calcium as part
density because bone acts of a varied diet is
as a reservoir in times unlikely to cause any
of need. For example, adverse effects but
insufficient calcium in taking high dose
bones can result from an supplements sometimes
inadequate supply of causes stomach pain and
vitamin D which is diarrhoea.
essential for absorption
of calcium. In children, Food sources
vitamin D deficiency
results in rickets and, Milk, cheese and other
in adults, osteomalacia, dairy products provide
in which bones become about half of the calcium
weak owing to lack of in the UK diet. Bread is
also an important source may be bound by phytates
in the UK because most and oxalates in foods,
bread flour (though not which makes the calcium
wholemeal) is fortified unavailable for
with calcium by law. absorption from the
Calcium is also provided intestine into the blood.
by some green leafy However, absorption from
vegetables such as some plant foods is good
broccoli and cabbage (but e.g. broccoli, although
not spinach), fortified the amount present is
soya products and fish usually lower than in
eaten with the bones such milk.
as sardines, tinned
salmon and whitebait. For Phosphorus
more information about The major function of
the dietary sources of phosphorus is in the
calcium click here. formation, with calcium,
of the bone component
Calcium absorption hydroxyapatite. 80% of
the phosphorous in the
Calcium absorption is body is present as
influenced by a number of calcium salts in the
promoting and inhibitory skeleton and, therefore,
factors. Promoting is essential for healthy
factors include vitamin bone and tooth structure.
D, lactose, dietary In the adult, there is a
protein, non-digestible dynamic equilibrium
oligosaccharides and an between calcium and
acidic environment in the phosphate in the
small intestine. Calcium continual remodelling of
is most readily absorbed bones.. The rest of the
from milk and dairy body’s phosphorus is
products. Inhibitory distributed in all cells.
factors include phytates It is essential for the
(e.g. in wholegrain structure of cell
cereals, pulses), oxalate membranes (in
(e.g. from spinach, phospholipids) and
rhubarb, beetroot), use intercellular phosphorus
of antacids, unabsorbed contributes to a number
dietary fats, excessive of processes associated
intakes of dietary fibre with energy metabolism.
and large intakes of
phosphoric acid (e.g. Deficiency
from carbonated drinks). Phosphorus is unlikely to
Calcium is often less be in short supply in UK
available from plant diets because it is
foods where the calcium available in many foods.
 common in severely ill
Adverse effects patients, alcoholics and
Phosphorus has very low those with malabsorption
toxicity. disorders.

Food sources In contrast, intakes of

Phosphorus is abundant in magnesium that are judged
red meat, dairy products, to be too low are quite
fish, poultry, bread, common in the UK. Despite
rice and oats and is magnesium being available
usually found in foods in a wide range of foods,
that also contain one in five women aged
calcium. 19-34 years and more than
half of teenage girls
have intakes below the
Magnesium LRNI (51% of 11-14 age
Magnesium is an essential group and 53% of 15-18
mineral present in all age group) and more than
human tissues, especially 20% of boys aged 11-14
in bone. It has both years are also at risk of
physiological and low intakes.
biochemical functions and
has important Adverse effects
interrelationships with There is no evidence that
calcium, potassium and large dietary intakes are
sodium. It is needed for harmful to humans with
the activation of many normal kidney function.
enzymes (for example However, regular intake
enzymes concerned with of high dose supplements
the replication of DNA can result in diarrhoea
and the synthesis of RNA) and may also result in
and for parathyroid raised blood levels of
hormone secretion, which magnesium with associated
in involved in bone adverse effects.
metabolism. It is also
needed for muscle and Food sources
nerve function. Magnesium is present in
both plant and animal
Deficiency cells and is the mineral
Nutritional deficiency is in chlorophyll, the green
rare and characterised by pigment in plants, and so
progressive muscle is widely available.
weakness and Sources include green
neuromuscular leafy vegetables, nuts,
dysfunction. Mild bread, fish, meat and
hypomagnesaemia (low dairy products.
blood magnesium) is
Sodium The kidneys normally act
Sodium is responsible for to protect the body’s
regulating body water stores of sodium, but in
content and electrolyte Addison’s disease failure
balance. The control of to produce aldosterone
blood sodium levels (hormone that allows the
depends on a balance kidneys to retain sodium
between sodium excretion and water) leads to the
and absorption at the kidneys inability to
kidneys, which is conserve sodium.
regulated by nerves and Renal failure: The
hormones. Sodium is also kidneys may also lose
required for the sodium in some types of
absorption of certain renal failure.
nutrients and water from Drugs: Diuretic drugs may
the gut. Sodium is a remove large amounts of
component of common salt, sodium in the urine.
known as sodium chloride
(NaCl). Adverse effects
High sodium intakes,
Deficiency along with obesity and
As with some other high alcohol intake, are
minerals, sodium levels considered to be among
in blood and tissues are the risk factors for high
under homeostatic blood pressure
control. The kidneys (hypertension), which is
tightly regulate sodium a risk factor for
concentration and can cardiovascular disease
make the urine almost and stroke. A low salt
salt-free or excrete diet may be used in the
sodium in urine when treatment of
supply is excessive. hypertension.
Sodium intakes in the UK
are considered to be too Food sources
high and so deficiency of Most raw foods contain
sodium is unlikely but very small amounts of
under some circumstances sodium chloride (salt).
losses can occur: But salt is often added
during the processing,
Excess sweating:, e.g. preparation, preservation
due to exercise in a hot and serving of foods. The
environment, may cause Food Standards Agency’s
some sodium depletion. 2008 urinary sodium
Diarrhoea can cause fluid survey assessed salt
loss and dehydration intakes in the general
leading to some sodium adult population in the
depletion. UK and showed that some
progress had been made pasta sauces and 25% in
towards the 6g/day target leading brands of soups;
for adults.. The survey and salt in cheeses has
showed a reduction in the been reduced e.g. 50%
UK’s average daily salt less in a range of soft
consumption from 9.5g to white cheeses and 32% in
8.6g since the National some standard cheese
Nutrition and Diet Survey slices. In addition
(NDNS) in 2000/01. Work retailers have achieved
continues to reduce the salt reduction across a
amount of salt present in wide range of own brand
the food supply. To date products.
much of the emphasis has
been on foods sold The public also has a
through supermarkets but role to play in
food consumed outside the restricting the addition
home is also beginning to of salt to their food in
be targeted by the FSA’s the kitchen and at the
activities. table. About 20% of salt
consumed is added at home
In May 2009, the FSA during cooking and at the
published its revised table.
salt targets for 2010 and
2012, following a review For more information on
of the existing targets salt:
during 2008. The FSA http://www.salt.gov.uk/
emphasised the reductions
that had already been
achieved across the food Potassium
industry: the average Potassium is essential
amount of salt in pre- for water and electrolyte
packed bread is down by a balance and the normal
third; there have been functioning of cells,
reductions of the order including nerves.
of 44% in the salt Increased dietary intakes
content of branded of potassium have been
breakfast cereal; in 2007 associated with a
alone there was a 13% decrease in blood
reduction in the salt pressure, as it promotes
content of standard loss of sodium in the
crisps, 32% in extruded urine. It is suggested
snacks and 27% in that an increase in
pelleted snacks (some potassium intakes may
standard crisps have been offset the impact of some
reduced by up to 55%); of the sodium in the
30% reductions in popular diet, therefore helping
brands of cooking and to protect cardiovascular
health. Iron
Deficiency Iron is essential for the
Low blood potassium formation of haemoglobin
levels (hypokalaemia) can in red blood cells;
result from severe haemoglobin binds oxygen
diarrhoea. Symptoms and transports it around
include weakness, mental the body. Iron is also an
confusion and, if essential component in
extreme, heart failure. many enzyme reactions and
has an important role in
Low dietary potassium the immune system. In
intakes have been addition, it is required
observed in the UK: in for normal energy
the NDNS of adults about metabolism and for the
1 in 5 women had intakes metabolism of drugs and
below the LRNI and in foreign substances that
common with some other need to be removed from
minerals, potassium the body.
intakes were lower among
younger women. In the Deficiency
NDNS of young people, 10– A lack of dietary iron
15% of boys had intakes depletes iron stores in
below the LRNI but among the body and this can
girls, about 1 in 5 11-14 eventually lead to iron
year olds and about 2 in deficiency anaemia. In
5 15–18 year olds had particular, women of
intakes below the LRNI. child bearing age and
teenage girls need to
Adverse effects ensure they consume
High supplementary doses adequate dietary iron
of potassium can be because their
harmful especially if the requirements are higher
kidneys are not than those of men of the
functioning properly. same age. Also, loss of
blood due to injury or
Food sources large menstrual losses
Potassium is present in increases iron
almost all foods but requirements in the short
fruit (particularly term. Data from the NDNS
bananas), vegetables, indicate that average
meat, fish, shellfish, daily iron intakes from
nuts, seeds, pulses and foods are below the RNI
milk are useful sources. for women in all age
Processed foods typically groups, except for older
contain less than raw women (over the age of 54
foods. years). A very
significant proportion of
younger women (2 out of two basic forms. Either
5) have intakes below the as haem iron (from animal
lower reference nutrient sources) or non-haem iron
intake (LRNI) i.e. (from plant sources).
intakes that are likely Haem iron is the most
to be inadequate. bioavailable form of
iron. However, the
Currently, there are no predominant form of iron
recommendations for in all diets is non-haem
increasing iron intake iron, found in cereals,
during pregnancy as the vegetables, pulses,
extra demand should be beans, nuts and fruit.
offset by pre-existing Absorption of non-haem
body stores, lack of iron is affected by
menstrual blood loss and various factors in food.
the increased intestinal Phytate (in cereals and
absorptive capacity of pulses), fibre, tannins
the mother during the (in tea) and calcium can
second and third all bind non-haem iron in
trimesters of pregnancy. the intestine, which
reduces absorption.
More than 2 billion However, vitamin C,
people worldwide suffer present in fruit and
from iron deficiency vegetables, aids the
anaemia, making it the absorption of non-haem
most common nutritional iron when eaten at the
deficiency condition. same time, as does meat.

Adverse effects Liver, red meat, pulses,

As with some other nuts, eggs, dried fruits,
minerals, under normal poultry, fish, whole
circumstances absorption grains and dark green
of iron is tightly leafy vegetables are all
controlled as iron can sources of iron. Since
have adverse effects the 1950s in the UK, all
owing to its ability to wheat flours (other than
generate oxygen free wholemeal) have been
radicals. However, 1 fortified with iron and
person in 200 of northern many breakfast cereals
European descent is are also fortified with
genetically predisposed iron and so contribute to
to the iron loading iron intake, However, the
disease haemchromatosis. nature of these foods
imposes limitations on
Food sources the type of iron that can
be used as a fortificant
Dietary iron is found in and so low
bioavailability may be an though it is not certain
issue, as suggested in that this is due to zinc
the recent draft report deficiency alone.
on iron from SACN here.
Adverse effects
A draft review of iron Excess zinc in the body
and health has recently from very high doses can
been published by the interfere with copper
Government’s advisory metabolism.
committee, SACN here. 
Food sources
Zinc is present in many
Trace elements foods and is most readily
absorbed from meat, which
Zinc provides about a third of
The major function of zinc in the UK diet.. It
zinc in human metabolism is also present in milk,
is as a cofactor for cheese, eggs, shellfish,
numerous enzymes. Zinc wholegrain cereals, nuts
has a key role as a and pulses. For cereals
catalyst in a wide range and pulses, zinc’s
of reactions. It is availability is limited
directly or indirectly by phytates.
involved in the major
metabolic pathways Iodine
concerned with protein, Iodine is an essential
lipid, carbohydrate and component of the thyroid
energy metabolism and is hormones, thyroxine and
also essential for cell triidothyronine, which
division and, therefore, are vital regulators of
for growth and tissue metabolic rate and of
repair and for normal physical and mental
reproductive development. development.
In addition, zinc is
required for the Deficiency
functioning of the immune Iodine deficiency results
system and in the in lethargy and swelling
structure and function of of the thyroid gland in
the skin, and hence plays the neck which forms a
a vital role in wound goitre. Iodine deficiency
healing. is relatively rare in the
UK but is still prevalent
Deficiency in many areas of the
In some countries, world, where it remains a
delayed puberty and small major nutritional public
stature have been linked health issue.
to zinc deficiency, Infants born of severely
iodine deficient mothers routinely added to most
may be mentally retarded toothpastes.
(cretinism).
With regard to low In rare cases, very large
dietary intakes in the amounts of (non-dietary)
UK, data from the NDNS fluoride can cause
indicate that 12% (1 in fluorosis. Symptoms may
8) young women have be mild such as mottling
intakes below the LRNI. and crumbling of the
This may be associated teeth, or more severe
with low intakes of milk causing skeletal changes
and milk products. such as calcification of
ligaments and tendons
Adverse effects which leads to muscle,
Excess iodine is not joint and bone problems.
absorbed so toxicity is
unlikely in healthy Fluoride is found in
individuals. fluoridated water, tea
and fish. The diet
Food sources provides only about 25%
The amount of iodine in of total intake. The
plant foods such as addition of fluoride to
vegetables and cereal toothpaste is important
grains is determined by in those areas where the
the amount of iodine in water supply is low in
the growing plant’s fluoride.
environment, and the
amount in the soil or Copper
water can vary Copper is the third most
dramatically. The only abundant dietary trace
rich sources of iodine metal after iron and
are seafoods (sea fish, zinc. It is a component
shellfish and seaweed), of many enzymes and is
but milk is also a needed to produce red and
source. In some countries white blood cells. The
certain foods, e.g. salt body also needs copper to
and bread, are fortified utilise iron efficiently
with iodine. and it is thought to be
important for infant
Fluoride growth, brain
The main function of development, the immune
fluoride in the body is system and for strong
in the mineralization of bones.
bones and teeth. Fluoride
also protects the teeth Dietary induced copper
from dental caries (tooth deficiency is extremely
decay) and is now rare due to the plentiful
supply in the diet and damage. It is also
the high efficiency of necessary for the use of
absorption. However, a iodine in thyroid hormone
rare genetic condition, production, for immune
known as Menke’s disease, system function and for
results in the inability reproductive function.
to absorb copper and
leads to severely The best characterised
impaired mental selenium deficiency
development, failure to condition is Keshan
keratinise hair and disease, a heart
skeletal and vascular condition that affects
problems. children and women of
child-bearing years in
As with some other rural China where soils
minerals, under normal are deficient of
circumstances absorption selenium, leading to
of copper is tightly continuing low levels in
controlled so overload of the food chain.
copper is very rare.
However, Wilson’s Selenium intakes in the
disease, another genetic UK are below the DRVs but
condition, leads to the the implications of this
inability to excrete are uncertain because of
excess copper in bile and the lack of reliable
results in copper biomarkers for selenium
accumulation in the body, status and requirements.
especially the liver and
brain, with consequent In excess selenium is
pathological damage. exceedingly toxic.
Symptoms of selenosis
Sources of copper include (selenium excess) include
shellfish, liver, kidney, brittle nails and hair,
nuts and wholegrain skin lesions and garlic
cereals (about a third of odour on the breath.
intake in the UK is from
cereals). Selenium is found in a
variety of foods,
Selenium especially Brazil nuts,
The main function of bread, fish, meat and
selenium is as a eggs. The selenium
component of some of the content of cereals is
important antioxidant directly proportional to
enzymes (e.g. glutathione the selenium content in
peroxidase), and the soil. In the UK
therefore to protect the selenium intakes have
body against oxidative fallen with the decline
in import of North glucose levels in the
American selenium-rich blood. Subjects with
wheat and the increased adequate dietary chromium
use of European cereals have improved control
which are less rich in over blood glucose and a
the mineral. However, better blood lipid
some bread manufacturers profile.
still import wheat from
North America. One significant
characteristic of
Manganese chromium deficiency is
Manganese is required for impaired glucose
bone formation and for tolerance, which can be
energy metabolism. It is improved by chromium
also a constituent of an supplementation. However,
antioxidant enzyme, which chromium supplementation
helps prevent free does not improve insulin
radical-mediated damage action for people who
to cells. were not initially
deficient.
Manganese deficiency is
rarely seen. Chromium is not known to
Manganese toxicity is not show toxicity.
a problem because blood Sources of chromium
levels are carefully include meat, nuts,
controlled. cereal grains, brewer’s
yeast and molasses.
It is present in plant
foods such as vegetables, Other trace elements
cereals and nuts. Tea is
also a rich source. In There are other minerals
the UK, 50% of manganese which are needed in tiny
intake is derived from amounts and which appear
cereals and cereal to be essential in the
products. diet, e.g. molybdenum,
boron. Others occur in
Chromium the diet, but whether
Chromium (III) is the they are essential is
active form of this unclear, e.g. nickel,
nutrient and its main lithium, antimony,
functions appear to be aluminum and lead.
linked with carbohydrate
and lipid metabolism.
This form of chromium is
thought to promote the
action of insulin, the
hormone which controls
 http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/w
ebpage/vitandmin/

 https://www.helpguide.org/harvard/vit
amins-and-minerals.htm
https://www.webmd.com/vitamins-
REFERENCES:
and-supplements/vitamins-minerals-
For more information on trace elements
how-much-should-you-take
see the report from the Expert Group
https://www.nutrition.org.uk/nutritions
on Vitamins and Minerals on Safe
cience/nutrients-food-and-
UppeR Levels for Vitamins and Minerals
ingredients/minerals-and-trace-
(2003):
elements.html?showall=1&limitstart=