515

GASIFICATION OF COAL*

D. Vamvuka**

1. INTRODUCTION
The excellent properties of gaseous fuels, as regards environmental protection and
ready transportability, combined with their wide range of uses as energy sources and
chemical feedstocks, indicate that their importance for the world's energy economy
will continue to increase in the future.
The conversion of coal to gaseous fuels has roots in commercial coal carbonisation
work, that spanned almost 300 years. With the advent of the oil embargo and
consequential drastic increases in oil prices, as well as serious shortages in natural gas in
the early 1970's, the interest in coal gasification was revived with great intensity
throughout the world. The coupling of this technology and electricity production creates
a possibility for higher effective fuel conversion, by application of the gas-steam cycle in
power stations. Also, it allows for solution of the problems connected with the utilisation
of high sulfur coals, that cannot be used by the power industry for environmental reasons.
Coal gasification generally refers to the reaction of coal with air or oxygen and
steam, to yield a gaseous product for use directly as a fuel, or as a feed to synthesis of
other gaseous or liquid fuels or chemicals. Gasification in essence is an incomplete
combustion. Although the physical and chemical processes are similar to the processes
in coal combustion, pollutant formation processes are however different from those in
coal combustion. The main difference is that, under reducing conditions, sulfur from
coal is converted mostly to H 2S, rather than S02' while nitrogen from coal is converted
mostly to NH 3 and almost no NO, is formed. It is on this basis that the technology is
characterised as a clean coal technology.
Depending upon the type of the gasifier and the operating conditions, coal
gasification can produce a gas suitable for different uses. A low-heating value gas is
produced by gasification with air and steam, for use as an industrial fuel and as a utility
power generation fuel. A medium-heating value gas, consisting essentially of CO and
H 2 (syngas), is produced by gasification with oxygen and steam for use as a fuel gas
or a chemical synthesis feedstock, yielding products such as ammonia, methanol and
gasoline derived from methanol. A high-heating value gas is derived from shift
conversion and methanation or hydrogasification and can be used as a substitute
natural gas (synthetic natural gas SNG).
This chapter begins with a brief discussion of the chemical reactions and
mechanisms involved in coal gasification. This is followed by an analysis of the low-
rank coal characteristics, which influence the design and the performance of the
process, rendering these coals good gasification feedstocks and in most cases better
overall than bituminous coals.
Gasification processes and technologies, the main topics of this chapter, are treated
in more detail. The treatment begins with a description of the principal gasification
processes, ie. fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, entrained-bed and molten-bath. In
continuation, the processes in commercial operation, as well as representatives of the
*This article is based on part of a book "Clean Use of Coals. Low-Rank Coal Technologies", MultiScience
Publishing Co. Ltd., 2000
**Assistant Professor. Technical University of Crete, 73132 Chania.
516 Gasification of Coal

many advanced gasification processes under development are discussed, backed up by

performance data obtained for low-rank coals.
Finally, underground coal gasification, as being a promising technology for coal
deposits of lower value on the one hand and an environmentally improved technology
on the other, it is described in some detail.

2. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND MECHANISMS

In gasification coal reacts with steam and oxygen or air. The organic material is
converted into various gases, such as CO, CO 2 , H2 , CH 4 and traces of sulfur-bearing
or nitrogen-bearing gases, while ash is left as a residue in the form of either dry
powder or molten slag, depending on the gasifier system. The fundamental reactions
involved in such a process are listed below:

Devolatilization _H (KJ/mol)
(I) 4C nH m -+ mCH 4 + (4n-m)C
Char Combustion
(2) C+_02-+CO -123.0
(3) C + 02 -+ CO 2 -406.0
Char Gasification
(4) C + H,O --> CO + H, +118.5
(5) C + CO 2 -+ 2CO - +170.7
(6) C + 2H 2 -+ CH 4 -74.8
Gas-Phase Reactions
(7) CO + _02 -+ CO 2 -282.0
\8) H 2 + _02 -+ HzO -241.6
(9) HzO + CO -+ Hz + COz (water-gas shift) -42.3
(10) CO + 3H z -+ CH 4 + HzO (methanation) -206.0

The above reaction equations do not reveal any of the inherent mechanistic
complexities of the processes they represent. It has been confirmed' II that through the
carbon structure there exist active carbon-free sites (C f ) , due to lattice imperfection or
discontinuities. These sites provide unpaired electrons, required for effecting
chemisorption of reacting gas constituents to fonn surface complexes. The rates of
formation and removal of these surface complexes, as well as the number and extent
of coverage of the active carbon-free sites, determine the rate and the order of each
reaction. Thus, the mechanism of the basic gasification reactions can be described as
follows'?':

Char-Oxygen Reactions (2) and (3)

Irreversible chemisorption of oxygen on active sites C, + O 2 --+ C(O) + 0
Irreversible chemisorption of oxygen atom on active sites C f + 0 --+ C(O)
Decomposition of surface oxides C(O) --+ CO + C,

Annealing c, --+ Cinactive

Interaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen CO+0 2 --+ CO 2 + 0
Interaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen atom CO +0 --+ CO 2
Gasification of Coal 517

Char-Steam Reaction (4)

Reversible oxygen exchange between active sites
and steam C f + Hp <--> C(O) + H 2
Decomposition of surface oxides C(O) <--> CO + nCf
Reversible oxygen exchange between surface oxides
and carbon monoxide C(O) + CO <--> CO 2 + C,
Annealing c, -+ Cinaclive
The third step contributes to the water-gas shift reaction.

Char-Carbon Dioxide Reaction (5)

Decomposition of surface oxides C(O) --> CO + C,
Annealing C f -+ Cinactive
Reversible oxygen exchange between surface oxides
and carbon monoxide

Char-Hydrogen Reaction (6)

This reaction is believedl-l to proceed via successive hydrogen additions at the edges
of carbon crystallites, as Figure I shows.
These reaction mechanisms, together with the thermodynamic properties of the
various processes, impose important constraints on how fast, or how efficiently a coal
can be gasified and also determine the composition of the product gas obtained in any
particular instance.

2 CH. +
,
=' \,
/H\
C
H H /
C.
+2H
2

Figure I. Carbon hydrogenation by successive additions.

Like all chemical reactions, the gasification reactions tend to state of equilibrium,
which may be one-sided. This means that after a sufficient reaction time, depending
on the temperature and pressure, a fixed relation exists between the amounts of
starting materials and end products, which is expressed by the equilibrium constants.
Figures 2 and 3 show that changes of temperature or pressure, within relatively narrow
limits, can produce significant shifts of the equilibrium composition towards either the
starting materials, or the desired end products.
The oxygen-consuming reactions (2), (3), (7) and (8) proceed rapidly to completion
at normal gasification conditions. On the contrary, the reactions of carbon with steam
and carbon dioxide, (4) and (5), respectively, never reach equilibrium, since this
requires practically 100% steam decomposition and negligible carbon dioxide content
518 Gasification of Coaf

at temperatures above 1090'C and pressures from 1 to 20 atm (0.1 to 2 MPa). An

increase of temperature, for these reactions, favours the formation of the end products,
while an increase of pressure displaces the equilibrium towards the starting materials.
INLET SCF O/LB H,O INLET SCF O/LB H,o
,. • J. ~ • ... '1 I '_S"'.'OIl
r 0
I
IATM c~/ OAT!' .......
0
/ -o
.. /

0
,-'1<
f
. I"\.
i"<
H,
H,

0
/ 7 0
~<.J I'\.
i'-/,
0
t'--J
X (
. Ft K-I

x,
H,( 0
"" ~ ['p,
o 0
.....
1000 ItoO 1400 '.00 .00 tOOO 2ilOO 2400 1000 1200 '400 11i00 1100 2000 IZOO uoo
TEMPERATURE, OF

Figure 2. Equilibrium gas compositions of the carbon-oxygen-steam system at adiabatic conditions!"!

0 o.
L> I--- P
H,W
I ATM
/
4.
20 ATM
-, fip IP::
--- ~

~ 40
ro. hi"
. N "i
H, I--.

...~
u;
0
1/
1\,.1H1 /
'0
r-,
cqrv
/ /'" Iro
~ N i'I
;:;: 2. 2.
o
U

'"
< 10
'0"" -,
/ 'Q
10
/
'7-1-...
K -,
o H,( / f-\V <; ~ <,
o
"'" -- H"
<,
0
....... I:"-
1000 IZOO 1400 1600 1900 2'000 2100 2400 1000 1200 1400 I~OO 1800 lOOO ZZOO 2400

TEMPLRATURE. OF

Figure 3. Equilibrium gas composition of the carbon-steam system!"!

For the water-gas shift (9) and the methane-forming reactions, (I), (6) and (10),
raising the temperature displaces the equilibrium composition towards the starting
materials. An increase of pressure, for the methane-forming reactions, favours the
formation of the end products, whereas the water-gas shift reaction is almost pressure
independent. At temperatures above 1090'C, thermodynamic equilibrium can be
assumed for this reaction, without a serious error, over the range of steam
decomposition encountered in practice.
In the light of these relations, it is clear that the formation of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, by gasification, will occur to a large extent only at high temperatures and
normal pressure. On the other hand, the formation of methane is favoured by a high
hydrogen pressure and a relatively low reaction temperature.
However, the actual composition of the product gas, from the gasification of coal,
Gasification of Coal 519

is critically dependent on the rate at which equilibrium is attained, as described by the

reaction kinetics. A distinction must therefore be made between the gas composition
corresponding to thermodynamic equilibrium and the composition which can be
reached during a given residence time, taking kinetics into account. Several studies'>'
have shown that the heterogeneous gasification reactions follow a Langmuir-type rate
equation, over limited temperature ranges. The order of reaction may vary from zero
to one, depending upon the temperature and reactant partial pressure, except for the
carbon-hydrogen reaction, the order of which may vary from one to two. Furthermore,
the diffusional step involved in these reactions, depends on concentration gradient and
molecular velocity of gases near the external solid surface and in the pores, while the
chemical step depends on the external and pore surface interaction with the gases. For
small particles of relatively non-porous materials, the diffusional resistance is less
important than the chemical resistance. In contrast, for large and porous particles, the
reaction rate is significantly influenced by internal diffusion.

3. COAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING GASIFICATION

Coal characteristics are perhaps the most important factors that influence the
gasification process selection and design.
Generally, low-rank coals are the preferable feedstocks for the commercially
available gasification processes, in comparison to the caking bituminous coals. The
main properties of low-rank coals, which impact the choice of gasifier or process
application, are the reactivity, the moisture and oxygen content, the volatiles content,
the caking properties, the ash characteristics and the sulfur content.

3.1. Reactivity
Various studies l6-81 on gasification of coal char have shown that low-rank coal chars
can display over I()() times greater reactivity than chars from higher rank coals,
decomposing steam more rapidly and sustaining that decomposition down to a lower
temperature.
This increased reactivity of low-rank coal chars is attributed to (a) the more active
sites that these coals posses, due to the smaller crystallite sizes, (b) the higher porosity,
which favours the accessibility to the reacting gas and (c) the higher calcium content
of the ash, the catalytic effect of which on char gasification is well known I6•9J•
Due to this property of low-rank coals, higher reactor space velocities can be used,
resulting in lower capital costs in the gasification sector. Also, oxygen and steam
consumptions may be reduced and higher carbon conversions can be obtained, which
is important for the gasifiers involving shorter residence times, such as the entrained-
bed type. Furthermore, the lower operating temperature is advantageous for the dry-
ash fixed-bed units llOI•

3.2. Moisture and Oxygen Content

The high moisture content of low-rank coals acts as a diluent in the gasification
process, requiring greater quantities of feed to the gasifier, to achieve the same energy
input as higher rank coals. The increased coal feeding rate generates a greater amount
of solids, liquids and gases, so that larger process equipment is required.
520 Gasification of Coaf

Fixed-bed gasifiers can accommodate moistures of up to 35%, provided the ash

content is not in excess of about 10%. Fully entrained and fluidized-bed gasifiers
require the moisture content to be reduced generally to less than 5%, by drying. In
slagging gasifiers, if the moisture level of the feed is high, the heat produced in the
lower region of the reaction will be insufficient to vaporise it. As a result, the bed
temperature will drop and the flow of molten slag may be stopped, shutting down the
unit!'?'. This problem was observed in the pilot-scale gasification of Gascoyne (North
Dakota) lignite, which has a moisture content in excess of 40%1 111.
The high oxygen content of low-rank coals affects the gasification process, in a
similar way to the moisture content. Since low-rank coals are partially oxidised, the
energy content of the product gas is lower. Thus, in order to produce an equivalent
energy content in comparison to higher rank coals, the throughput must be increased.

3.3. Volatiles Content

The chemical composition of the volatile substances, produced from low-rank coals
during the gasification process, is quite different than that of higher rank coals.
Therefore, separation treatment and utilisation of these by-products will be different in
plants using low-rank coals, than in plants using high-rank coals.
In fixed-bed gasifiers a large amount of tars, oils, phenols and other compounds are
produced, while in fluidized and entrained-bed systems, operating above 8ooT, such
organic liquid products are cracked to carbon and hydrogen, thus eliminating the need
for complex treatment facilities.

3.4. Caking Properties

Most bituminous coals tend to swell and agglomerate when heated between 350 and
550'C. The masses of coke that form cause disruptions to the even flow of gas through
the reactor, as well as lower thermal efficiencies. These coals can be gasified without
problems in entrained-bed systems, where particle interactions are minimised.
However, they are not suitable for use in fixed or fluidized-bed systems without some
kind of pre-treatment, which will reduce their caking tendency.
On the other hand, low-rank coals do not have caking properties and can be
processed without pre-treatment in all types of gasifiers.

3.5. Ash Characteristics

The unit operations in coal gasification plants place a number of requirements on the
physical and chemical properties of the coal mineral matter. Within the gasifier, the
important ash characteristics are the catalytic effects on the gasification rates, the
temperature-viscosity behaviour and the corrosive action on refractory surfaces.
The higher reactivity of low-rank coals in gasification is thought to be, at least in
part, due to the presence of exchangeable metal cations on their surface 112- 16 1. The
catalytic effects of these metal cations vary with the gasification atmosphere I 17. 18 1. In
an oxidising atmosphere, sodium, potassium and calcium improve the char reactivity.
In a reducing atmosphere sodium is the most effective catalyst below 45% carbon
bum-off, whereas iron is a better catalyst at higher burn-offs. Under a steam
atmosphere, potassium and calcium are better catalysts than sodium and iron. The
Gasification of Coaf 521

natural minerals trona, limestone and taconite have been foundl'?' to improve the
gasification rates of low-rank coal chars by 2-10 times, over the rates of the
uncatalyzed reactions.
Although ash fusion temperature is relevant to slagging gasifier operation (fixed-
bed and entrained-bed), a more important relationship is that between temperature and
viscosity, since it is the flow characteristics of the slag that are critical. Ash can have
a low fusion temperature, but a flat viscosity-temperature curve, that may require the
addition of fluxes for satisfactory slag removal 120I. Low-rank coal ashes display a
different temperature-viscosity relationship than higher rank coal ashes and therefore,
require different gasification temperatures, to maintain slagging or non-slagging
conditions. The effect of ash composition on the fusion temperature and the slag
viscosity has been discussed in detail, in Section 3.3.6.
The behaviour of low-rank coal ashes toward refractory materials in the gasifier is
also expected to be different than for ashes of high-rank coals. Some low-rank coals
have a high content in calcium, in their mineral matter, which has been shown to be
corrosive to silicon carbide refractory liners. However, low-rank coals are generally
lower in iron, which is also a corrosive agent in certain casesl'Pl,

3.6. Sulfur Content

Low-rank coals contain, generally, a significantly lower sulfur quantity, than higher
rank coals, which reduces the requirements for removal to meet environmental
standards. Thus, a lower cost for acid gas scrubbing systems may be expected.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF GASIFICATION PROCESSES

Coal gasification processes can be classified in a variety of ways. These classifications
are based on the method used to generate heat for the gasification reactions, on the
method of contacting reactants and on the physical state of the residue removed.
On the basis of the technique of heat transfer chosen, the gasification processes may
be autothermic or allothermic. In autothermic processes the heat required is generated
in the reactor itself, by using oxygen and steam as the gasifying medium. The great
advantage of these processes is that any losses associated with heat transfer are
avoided. The construction of the gasifier is also simplified. Further, the amount of heat
needed for the reaction can be adjusted quickly and accurately, as required, by
regulating the oxygen content of the gasifying agent. On account of these advantages,
all the gasification processes, which are at present being operated on a large industrial
scale, are autothermic processes. In allothermic processes the heat required is
generated either by gaseous, liquid (molten slag, salts or metals), or solid heat carriers,
which are brought into direct contact with the coal, or indirectly via heat exchange
surfacesl-!',
On the basis of the mode of conveyance of the coal and the gasifying medium, the
gasification processes can be classified as fixed-bed, fluidized-bed and entrained-bed.
Apart from the flow pattern of the reactants and products, these processes differ from
each other with respect to the type and rank of coal which can be used, the size
distribution of the coal, the residence time and the reaction temperature and pressure.
522 Gasification of Coat

Finally, on the basis of the physical state of the residue removed, the gasification
processes are distinguished as slagging and non-slagging.
The principal features of the main types of gasifiers are illustrated
diagrammatically in Figure 4. The choice of a gasifier will generally depend on: (a)
the production rate of energy, (b) the turndown requirements, (c) the heating value of
the gas (low-heating value gas with calorific value 3.8-7.6 MJ/m 3 for use as an
industrial fuel and a power generation fuel, medium-heating value gas with calorific
value 10.5-16 MJ/m 3 for use as a chemical synthesis feedstock and fuel gas and high-
heating value gas with calorific value over 21MJ/m 3 for use as a substitute natural
gas)l2ll, (d) the temperature and pressure, (e) the allowed gas purity (sulfur, carbon
dioxide etc.), (g) the allowed gas cleanliness (tars, soot, ash), (g) coal availability, type
and cost, (h) the gasifier/end-use locations and interactions and (i) the size constraints.

[coat

steam &
oxYW n _
/
(a) FIXed bed
~+ ash
steam & (noll slagg,ng I
400 1100 1800 2500
oxygen
Temperature, OF

l:C~"
tgas
I
I
coal '[coa! I
(0-02,n) I
1'---------..:,

,J '"' "' " , ' ""

,
steam & I

OXyr~l --- -r,Char

~OC 1100 1800 2500

steam &
oxygen ~
char Temperature, OF

(c) Entrcllncd flow

slag 400 1100 1800 2500 3200

coal Temperature, OF
«0005,n)
coal «01111)
\ coal t gas
,,
steam~l..gHS + +steam :I
oxygenXD· ~--": ,,: & oxygen ,
- -melt --_-.
melt & -- _- - - - .
t me1t
ash - - (d) Molten bath 400 1100 1800 2500
Temperature, OF

Figure 4. Classification and characteristics of principal gasification systems l 211 1

Gasification of Coal 523

4.1. Fixed-Bed Gasification

Fixed-bed in gasification technology actually refers to a bed of lump fuel maintained
at a constant depth between two fixed extremities. The coal is supplied at the upper
extremity, while the residue is removed at the lower one, which also provides a
support for the bed. The coal moves countercurrent to the rising gas stream, through
four definable, but not distinctly separate zones, illustrated diagrammatically in
Figure 5.

coalIced

1
coal dryin~~ 'l1H.J
I'rellt';t1/1111t'

Ilt'\,\llalill/.01tiIHl/Ollo;'

gasiJic<llion W!1l'

\1,\;dalil1ll/lllle

ash zone

l!<I:--if\'il1l!lnediulll ash Il'rlH1V<l1

'( up\lrafl Jesign)

Figure S. Dry-bottom fixed-bed gasifier.

As the coal slowly descends, the hot gases produced in the combustion and
gasification zones exchange energy with the colder solid. After drying, the coal is
pyrolized in the devolatilization zone with the evolution of methane, higher
hydrocarbons and tar. In the gasification zone, the char reacts with steam and carbon
dioxide with an absorption of heat and a consequent progressive fall in temperature.
Accompanying gasification in this zone is the water gas shift reaction and the char-
hydrogen reaction, if the process is carried out under pressure, which contribute heat
to support the endothermic gasification reactions. When coal reaches the combustion
zone it is finally consumed, providing heat to the process and leaving an incombustible
residue, the ash. The ash is discharged from the base, either through a grate if it is in
a dry form, or through some form of slag tap. In non-slagging operation, the gasifying
medium, which is composed of steam and air or oxygen, is preheated by the hot ash
in the ash zone, before entering the combustion zone, while the maximum temperature
is limited below the fusion point of the ash, by supplying extra steam.
In general, fixed-bed gasification systems are simple and reliable, offering a high
thermal efficiency and coal efficiency, because oflow heat losses and minimal carbon
fine acid ash carry-over in the gas stream. They are suitable for lump coals, in the
range of 50 to 6mm and have only a limited capability to accept materials less than
524 Gasification of Coal

3mm in size. Caking coals cannot be used without pre-treatment to render them non-
agglomerating. The solid residence time may be of the order of several hours, while
the gas residence time is of the order of seconds. The devolatilization products are
released in the region of relatively low temperature and lack of free oxygen, so that
tars, oils and heavier hydrocarbons are neither cracked, nor oxidised, but added to the
product gas. In the slagging operation, where the maximum temperatures are
considerably higher (I500-1800°C) than those in the non-slagging operation (1200-
1300T), the oxygen concentration is higher. As a result, a higher throughput is
obtained, with a lower consumption of steam l20I.

4.2. Fluidized-Bed Gasification

In a fluidized-bed the coal is supplied as a powder, usually less than 3mm in size.
which is then maintained in a suspended state of continuous random motion, by the
gasifying agent. In this system, no reaction zones are able to form, as they do in fixed-
bed, owing to the intensive internal mixing of the solid particles (Figure 6). Instead.
the fluidized state of the solid results in a very homogeneous temperature distribution
throughout the whole volume of this turbulent layer, so that the gasification reactions
take place much more uniformly. The composition of the gas varies continuously
through the bed, since combustion processes predominate in the lower part of the bed
and gasification processes in the upper part. Carbonization no longer occurs
separately. The feed coal is heated very rapidly to the reaction temperature and any
volatile compounds released are cracked, so that at the gasifier exit the raw gas
contains hardly any tar or hydrocarbonsl-!'.

Entrained
Particles

Sulids Addition
loBed ~

-; "~.-'

.':'" "

I-'JlIiJi,,:d _~-t--? Solids

Hed Removal
~rnm Bed

n=======~:f-::l' Hubbtes
(ias Di!'>lrihUliun Plait.' .\1l1\/inlo!
Through Bt'd

i r r.:~Gas

Figure 6. Fluidized-bed gasifier

The characteristics, which are advantageous to coal gasification, are the high
efficiency of heat transfer, the uniform and moderate temperature, the high specific
gasification rate, the high product uniformity, the high tolerance to a wide range of
Gasification of Coal 525

feedstock compositions and the capability of handling fines.

However, fluidized-bed coal gasification also implies several disadvantages. Due to
the grading effect of the gas stream, a substantial proportion of fine particles is
inevitably carried out and the dust content of the raw gas is therefore high. This may
result in erosion, fouling or plugging of downstream equipment and a loss in thermal
efficiency, if the fines contain unreacted carbon, which is not returned to the bed.
Furthermore, slagging and channelling may occur if the length/diameter ratio of the
bed is high, the particle size distribution is narrow or the feed coal agglomerates. In
spite of the tremendous degree of agitation in the bed, caking coals may agglomerate
to form lumps, thus altering the fluid mechanical behaviour of the system and
lowering the rate of gasification. The rate of gas production is also lowered, because
of the high ash requirements for achieving acceptable carbon conversions. Finally, the
sensible heat of the exit gases, which are in thermal equilibrium with the uniformly-
mixed solid at the gasification temperature, has to be recovered separately' 10.20.21 I.
Low-rank coals display advantages to higher rank coals for gasification in
fluidized-bed systems, due to their higher reactivity and non-caking character.

4.3. Entrained-Bed Gasificationl20,211

In the entrained-bed gasifier, pulverised coal (particle size less than O.12mm) is
entrained with the gasifying agent to react in cocurrent flow, in a high temperature
flame, from which part of the ash may separate as a liquid slag.
Virtually all types of coal can be gasified by this technique. Swelling and caking
characteristics do not affect the operability of the process, since each discrete particle
is separate from others in the flowing gas stream. The full entrainment of the particles
requires relatively high gas velocities and these lead to high throughputs and residence
times of only a few seconds.
In order to obtain complete utilisation of the coal and satisfactory slag run-off, high
reaction temperatures (above 1500°C) are needed and these are obtained by using a
medium containing only a small proportion of steam. The devolatilization products are
released in the region of high temperature and excess oxygen. Thus, tars, oils, phenols
and hydrocarbon gases are cracked and oxidised to carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide and steam. Also, the raw gas does not contain the same pollutants, as
in coal combustion. The sulfur from coal is converted mostly to H 2S and small
amounts of COS, rather than S02' while the nitrogen from coal is converted mostly to
NH} and small amounts of HCN (almost no NO x is formed).
Entrained-bed gasifiers are simple in design and have few internal components.
Their dimensions are determined by the particle size and the reactivity of the fuel, the
reaction temperature and the gas velocity. The higher reactivity of low-rank coals
results in higher conversion efficiencies. Furthermore, the low methane content of the
product gas is an advantage, if this is required for synthesis of ammonia or methanol.
The main disadvantages generate from the low concentration of fuel in the gasifying
medium and the cocurrent flow of the reactants. This arrangement lowers the
gasification rates at the reactor outlet and leads to unfavourable conditions for heat
transfer, resulting in high gas outlet temperatures, compared with fixed and fluidized-
bed processes. The need for extensive heat exchange surfaces, to recover the sensible
526 Gasification of Coaf

heat of the product gases, offsets some-how the simplicity of the gasifier. The heat
recovery problem is complicated by the presence of entrained solids, particularly
molten ash particles. Also, due to the high temperature requirements, the oxygen
consumption in this gasifier is relatively high, compared with that of other types.

4.4. Molten-Bath Gasification l201

Most of the molten bath processes involve the gasification of coal, in direct contact
with steam and either air or oxygen, in a bath of molten slag. Development of such
systems has been encouraged by their potential to overcome the disadvantages of gas-
solid reaction systems.
High temperatures are normalIy required to maintain the bath molten and this
favours high reaction rates, hence high throughputs. Gasification is also enhanced by
catalytic properties of the melt. The high thermal capacity of the melt causes rapid
heating of the fuel on entry to the gasifier, so that tars and oils are not formed. The
rapid release of volatile matter causes the coal to disintegrate, resulting in a large
increase in surface area, which in tum also increases the reaction rates. Unlike fixed-,
fluidized- and entrained-bed gasifiers, the majority of molten bath gasifiers utilise
coarsely ground coal, including fines.
Advantages of such processes are that strongly caking coals, even with high ash or
sulfur contents, can be gasified and retention of sulfur in the melt can result in the
production of an essentialIy sulfur-free gas stream. Also, the residue can be relatively
simply removed, since both this and the heat carrier are in the liquid state. The main
disadvantages are the high oxygen requirements, the high heat losses and the problems
associated with severe corrosion caused by the high-temperature molten salts and
metals.
The material employed for the melt largely determines the characteristics of each
particular process. Slag acts mainly as a heat transfer medium, but can also sometimes
exert a catalytic effect. Iron is used, because of its strong affinity for sulfur and
because any iron oxide present in the melt wilI donate oxygen. Finally, molten salts,
such as sodium carbonate or sulfate, are generally less corrosive, have lower melting
points than metals and can strongly catalyse the coal-steam reaction.

5. PROCESSES IN COMMERCIAL OPERATION

Since the introduction of a producer gas generator, as early as 1860, four gasifiers have
been commercialised. These are (I) Lurgi, (2) Wellman-Galusha, (3) Winkler and (4)
Koppers-Totzek. The first two are fixed-bed gasifiers, with Lurgi operating at about
3.5 MPa and Wellman-Galusha at atmospheric pressure. Winkler is a fluidized-bed
gasifier, while Koppers-Totzek is an entrained-bed gasifier and both operate at
atmospheric pressure. AlI four commercial gasifiers have smalI capacity, below
1100 tid.

5.1. The Lurgi Process (Fixed-Bed)

The Lurgi gasifier, the principal features of which are illustrated diagrammatically in
Figure 7, was developed by Lurgi Kohle GmbH of Frankfurt, in 1936[231. The unit
consists of a vertical water-cooled pressure vessel to which coal, typicalIy sized from
'Tasification of Coal 527

5 to 5Omm, is intermittently charged from above through a lock-hopper. The coal

movement is controlled by a distributor, or a stirrer and a rotating grate. Steam and
oxygen (or air) are injected through a rotary bottom grate, which at the same time is
used to extract the residual dry-ash into another lock-hopper.

Q)Crushed Coal

Coal
Lock Hopper
V Recycle Tar

Distributor
Drive T~r Liquor
,
Distflbutor

~Gasto
Grate - 1 ' t - -_ _ WHB

Grate'_ _
Drive
-tl~~~~~~

@
Steam &
Oxygen ~ ~:;;. Hoppe

L.-_ _ ~ Ash

Figure 7. Dry-ash Lurgi ga~ifierI221.

The dry-ash Lurgi gasifier requires a large quantity of steam to reduce the
combustion zone temperature below the ash fusion temperature. The temperatures are
very non-uniform, because of the countercurrent flow. Near the bottom, in the
combustion zone, the temperatures are around IIOO'C, while near the top, after
leaving the devolatilization and drying zone, the temperatures are around 500'C. For
a high-moisture coal, such as a lignite, the exit gas temperature may be as low as
300'C1 241. Because of the low temperature and the lack of oxygen in the
devolatilization zone, the product gas shows high content of hydrocarbon liquids,
which are separated by cooling. The low- or medium-heating value gas produced, after
being processed for acid gas removal, is available as a fuel or synthesis gas. Typical
performance data of the Lurgi gasifier, using low-rank coals, are summarised in
Table I.
A standard Lurgi unit is 4m in diameter and has a nominal dry gas capacity of
55000 m 3/h, which is equivalent to approximately 600 tid of moisture-ash-free coal. A
larger unit is 5m in diameter and has a nominal dry gas capacity of 85000 m 3/h, which
is equivalent to approximately 1000 tid of moisture-ash-free coa11241.
528 Gasification of Coal

Table 1.
Typical operation results for oxygen-blown Lurgi gasifiers using various coals l2OI.

Peat Lignite Subbituminous Bituminous Anthracite

(in): Origin Ireland Germany North Rio Sasol, Westfield, Dorsten, Vietnam
Dakota Turbio South Scotland West
Africa Germany
Size 0.6-1.6 0.04-0.4 0.16-1.20 0.2-1.2 0.2-1.2 0.2-1.2 0.2-1.2 0.2-1.2

Proximate analysis(wt%)
Volatile matter 57.3 36.8 29.1 30.5 19.7 28.9 29.1 5.7
Fixed Carbon 25.2 32.6 30.4 38.7 38.3 43.0 47.6 87.3
Moisture 15..~ 26.5 34.3 16.5 5.4 15.7 5.1 2.0
Ash 2.0 4.1 6.2 14.3 36.3 12.4 18.2 5.0
HHV (Btu/lb. mat) 9380 11250 12010 13400 12940 13810 14330 15440
Fischer assay tar
(Wl%. mat) 15.0 11.6 8.3 14.3 4.3 11.1 13.5 0
Sulfur (wt%) 0.1 0.4 1.1 1.0 0.6 2.1 2.0 0.5
Ash fusion point (T') 2200 2280 2600 2590 2550 2520 2730
Operating Conditions
Presssure (psia) 295 365 440 440 415 355 325 415
Steam oxygen
(molar ratio) 8.7 8.7 9.3 6.7 6.8 5.6 5.3 6.8
Products
Crude gas composition (vol %)
CO 17.0 19.1 15.9 20.2 21.4 24.2 24.8 20.3
H2 34.1 37.2 39.2 38.9 38.4 39.7 38.3 45.3
CH 4 13.6 11.8 10.8 11.7 9.6 9.4 9.3 4.7
CnHm 0.6 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.3
H2S 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.5 0.1
CO 2 33.8 30.7 32.2 28.1 28.9 24.4 25.8 27.5
N2 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.3
HHV (Btu/scf) 311.7 307.2 306.2 315.3 297.8 317.0 307.0 264.0
Specific data
Consumption
Oxygen
scf/lb of coal (mat) 2.31 2.91 4.05 4.45 4.95 5.33 6.51 9.50
scf/10 6 Btu gas 322 326 392 422 446 458 554 720
Steam
lb/lb of coal (mat) 0.96 1.20 1.79 1.42 1.61 1.42 1.65 3.09
Ib/I ()6 Btu gas 134 134 173 135 145 122 140 234
Production
Grude gas
scf/lb of coal (mat) 23.05 29.08 33.73 33.44 37.23 36.72 38.30 50.01
106 Btu/ton (mat) 16.09 20.01 23.14 23.62 24.84 26.07 26.34 29.57
Tar and naphtha (wt %, mat)

Over 16 Lurgi plants have been built around the world. The most important are the
three SASOL plants in South AfricaI23.251. These plants have a total of more than 90
Lurgi gasifiers, consume about 90000 tid of subbituminous coal and produce nearly
90% of the total world production of gas from coal. The synthesis gas is used primarily
to produce liquid transportation fuel for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. However, a
broad product slate includes gasoline, distillate fuel oil, light olefins, light alcohols,
waxes, phenols, tars and town-gas. Another important plant is the Great Plains Coal
Gasification of Coal 529

Gasification project, near Beulah, North Dakota. This plant has 14 gasifiers and is
designed to produce 162000 m3/h of pipeline quality synthetic natural gas (SNG) from
12000 tid of lignite l261.

Coal lock hopper

Coal distributor

____ Gas outlet

Gasifier

--------- Steam/oxygen
Water jacket ---~~,<::~:1- inlet

Refractory lining
Slag tap hole

Slag quench vessel

Figure 8. Britih Gas Corporation/Lurgi slagging gasifier l241.

In order to overcome the limitation of operating at low temperatures to prevent ash

melting and agglomeration, a slagging Lurgi gasifier has been developed by British
Gas Corporation and Lurgi (BG/Lurgi). This unit, shown in Figure 8, is an oxygen-
blown, pressurised, fixed-bed gasifier, which operates at elevated temperatures, so that
fly ash melts and forms liquid slag. The slag is intermittently withdrawn from a tap
hole at the bottom of the bed, below which it is water-quenched and removed through
a slag lock hopper. The product gas passes through a water-quench scrubber into a
waste heat boiler. The particulates and the condensed tars are recycled to the top of the
gasifier, or reinjected through the tuyeres. Coal fines can also be fed through the
tuyeres. The cleaned and cooled product gas is then desulfurized in a sulfur removal
systemI24.271. This gas has a higher heating value than that of the dry-ash unit, due to
its higher concentration in synthesis gas (CO+H 2)128/. Slagging operation significantly
reduces the amount of steam that must be generated for operation. In tum, this reduces
the volume of gas liquor and increases the concentration of dissolved by-products in
this stream. Slagging operation also offers significant improvements in the rate of gas
production per unit cross-section area of the gasifier.
Low-rank coals, as non-caking, may be used in either version of the Lurgi gasifier,
530 Gasification of Coal

without any mechanical stirring devices. However, since they are very reactive, they
are best suited for dry-ash gasifiers.
The oxygen-blown Lurgi gasifiers have by now shown quite clearly their suitability
for operation on lignite. The non-caking nature of lignites makes their transit through
the gasifier easier than for caking coals and their high reactivity allows for a high
throughput rate with virtually complete carbon conversion. In addition, the steam
generated in the water jacket of the gasifier can be used in the process, thus ultimately
capturing 95% of the energy potential of the lignite in the product gas; and low gas
temperatures (230-31 YC) at the gasifier exit eliminate carryover of alkalis J29 l. A
comparison of the results from a slagging pilot-scale unit with three other gasifiers is
Table 2.
Comparison of slagging fixed-bed gasification of lignite with other fixed-bed
gasification processes'F''
Location Grand Forks Morwe II" Westfield b Solihull''
Type of operation Siagging Dry Ash Dry Ash Siagging
02/steam molar ratio 0.9 0.11
Operating pressure, MPa 2.8 2.8 2.4 2.1
Hearth area, m 2 0.14 4.9 5.9 0.66
Fuel
Rank Lignite Brown coal hvB hvB
Size, mm 19x1O 60x55x36d 32xl0 38x25
Ash, 0/0 6.9 1.7 14.6 4.9
Moisture, 0/0 22.7 15.3 15.6 13.8
Calorific value, MJ/kg 20.2 22.2 22.4 25.4
Gas composition (N 2, free)
CO 2 5.9 34.4 24.9 2.7
lIluminants 0.5 0.3 1.1 0.5
°2 0.4 0.2 0 0.1
H2 29.0 36.6 40.3 28.1
CO 58.7 14.6 24.9 60.9
C 2H6 0.3 0.6 e e
CH 4 5.2 13.3 8.8 7.7
Gas calorific value, MJ/m 3 13.1 11.6 11.7 14.0
Fuel rate, t (maf)/m 2 hearth area·h 4.3 1.2 1.2 7.0
Gas rate, m 3/m 2 hearth area·h 7960 5280 2760 13000
Oxygen consumption
m 3/Mm3 gas 192 120 155 205
m 3/GJ of product gas 14.6 10.3 13.2 14.7
m 3/Mm3 (CO+H 2) 223 235 238 230
m3/kg mal' fuel 0.30 0.19 0.29 0.32
Steam consumption
kg/Mm ' gas 193 956 697 187
kg/GJ of product gas 12.3 69.7 49.9 11.3
kg/Mm ' (CO+H 2) 224 1890 1070 210
kg/kg mal' fuel 0.30 1.51 1.31 0.29
Fuel consumption, mal'
kg/Mm ' gas 640 642 530 642
kg/GJ gas produced 41.0 46.3 38.1 38.6
kg/Mm ' (CO+H 2) 743 1255 813 722
MJ fuel/Mm ' gas produced 1.56 1.44 1.45 1.38
MJ fuel/MJ gas produced 1.18 1.24 1.24 1.21
Cold gas efficiency, 0/0 84.4 80.7 80.5 82.7
Operational efficiency, % 94.2 86.9 88.0 90.0

Notes: "Victoria, Australia. "Scotland. 'England. dThis fuel was in briquette form. "Not available.
Gasification of Coal 531

provided in Table 2. The major differences between slagging and non-slagging

operation shown in this table can be attributed to the lower steam consumption of the
former and the consequent higher capacity per unit hearth area. Fuel consumption and
gas production rates are higher by factors of 3 to 6 for slagging gasifiers, relative to
non-slagging units.

5.2. The Wellman-Galusha Process (Fixed-Bed)

The Wellman-Galusha gasifier was first used commercially in 1941 in Germany and
it was licensed by the McPowell-Wellman Engineering Company in Ohio and the
Wellmen-Galusha Company in England 15.311. It is an atmospheric pressure reactor,
that can be operated with a steam/air or steam/oxygen gasifying medium.
It consists of a 1.8 to 3.6m diameter. double-walled, water-cooled steel vessel, to
which coal of above 6mm size is continuously charged from a hopper, through a rotary
drum feeder (Figure 9). The fuel bed can be unstirred or stirred. Agitation is a
necessary requirement with caking coals, but capacity increases of up to 35% can also
be realised with the stirred bed. Steam and air are admitted through tuyers in a
revolving base grate, through which ash is simultaneously withdrawn into a bottom
dump. The ash must be kept in dry form, by adjusting the rate of steam injection.
Product gas, leaving the top of the vessel is at about 480-650T and can be used
directly as a fuel gas. after removing particulates.

Chimney

Upper Gas Off -Take

Fire Zone

Ash ..;:I\""Tf1!,o..- Ash Pan

Figure 9, Schematic of a two-stage Wellman gasifierlV!

Like the Lurgi gasifiers, the Wellman-Gallusha gasifiers are unable to accept -6.3 mm
coal. Also, they require coals with ash fusion temperatures above I200°C and residence
532 Gasification of Coal

times of approximately four hours, which limits the throughput of these reactors.
Gasifiers available in single or two-stages produce up to 233 x103 m 3/d of clean gas
from 73 tid of coal, with a heating value between 4.56 and 6.07 MJ/m3 if air is used, or
10 and 25 MJ/m3, if oxygen is used I33]. Over 25 plants have been built to date.

5.3. The Winkler Process (Fluidized-Bed)

The Winkler gasifier, shown in Figure 10, was originally used in a commercial
installation in 1926 in Leuna, Germany. It is an atmospheric pressure, fluidized-bed
system for the production of synthesis gas from coal. The generator is a cylindrical,
refractory-lined vessel. Coal, crushed to less than 9.5mm size, is fed into the bed
through variable speed screws, which are located in the lower-portion of the gasifier
and serve as seals to prevent back flow of gases. Steam and oxygen (or air) are
charged through nozzles, located at several levels in the fluid bed. The fluidized-bed
occupies around 1/3 of the gasifier volume, while the remainder is a freeboard zone.
Secondary steam and oxygen injection is provided above the bed level to gasify
unconverted fly carbon leaving the bed. Above this level, a radiant heat boiler is
installed to recover heat from the gases, before they leave the gasifier and to condense
any molten or vaporised ash species, which may have been carried out of the bed. Ash
not leaving with this stream is withdrawn, through the base of the reactor, by means
of a rotating scraper. (The ash content of coal appears to offer no obstacle for this
process).

Superheater
11":~~3~[;::steam

Steam ~
fg)Coal
Steam

Figure 10. Winkler gasifier l321.

Gasification of Coat 533

The coal bed temperature is kept between 800 and II OO°C, to avoid ash fusion in
the gasifier. At these temperatures, the coal is converted primarily to carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide and small amounts of methane. No tars or
other heavy hydrocarbons are present. These relatively low temperatures restrict the
Winkler gasifier to more reactive lignites and subbituminous coals. Carbon
conversions of 90% are realisable with such fuels, at residence times of 20 to
30min 1351•
A typical commercial Winkler gasifier is 5.5m in diameter and 23m in height. It can
gasify approximately 1100 tid of coal at atmospheric pressure and 1800 tid of coal at
0.4MPa I25,341. Table 3 summarises some operating data for both air and oxygen blown
modes of the Winkler gasifier, with lignite and subbituminous coals as feeds.

Table 3.
Winkler gasifier typical operating data l 361.
Low BTU Medium BTU
Gas Gas
Ga~ Composition. Volume %:
Hydrogen 14 35
Carbon Monoxide 22 48
Methane I 2
Nitrogen 56 I
Carbon Dioxide 7 14
Other

Total 100 100

Gas Higher Heating Value.

BTU/SCF (Dry Basis) 126 288
Feed Requirement. Ib/lb coal:
Air 2.5
Oxygen 0.5
Steam 0.2 0.4-0.7
Operating Conditions:
Gas Outlet Temperature, of 1450 1150
Pressure atm. atm.
Coal Residence Time. Minutes 20-30 min. 20-30 min.
Turndown Capability 4:\ 4:1
Coal Feed:
Type Subbituminous Lignite
Sizes. Inches <0.38 <0.3
Free Swelling Index <2.5 <2.5
Ash Fusion Temperature. of
Feed Rate, tons/day 1100
Thermal Efficiency. %:
Hot Raw Gas 81.8
Cold Clean Gas 72 74.9

Gasification of low-rank coals in a Winkler gasifier is subject to a number of

considerations, most of which are advantages for lignites compared to other coals.
Coals having a high, or fluctuating, ash content can be used without upsetting
performance of the unit (successful commercial operation has been obtained on low-
534 Gasification of Coal

rank coals in the 9xOmm size range with high sulfur contents and up to 50% ash I371) .
The upper limit on coal moisture for satisfactory operation appears to be about 18%,
which would require some drying for lignites. Coals of high reactivity are preferred,
because a higher reaction rate reduces carbon carryover with the product gas. Non-
caking behaviour is preferred as an aid to gas-solid contacting and maintaining proper
particle size distribution in the bed. The preferred feed size is -9mm. The ability to
tolerate fines allows the gasification of friable coals. The temperature in the bed must
be maintained 20-28°C below the ash softening temperaturel P" .
Currently, the largest installations, which produce synthesis gas for ammonia
production, are located at Gorzade Yugoslavia, Kutahya Turkey and Madras India.
Some of the plants, which have as many as seven gasifiers, have been in operation
since 1950. The plant in Kutahya has successfully used Winkler gasifiers for over 20
years. The design capacity is 24000m 3/h, though the plant has operated at 130% of
design capacity with 73.7% carbon Turkish lignites containing up to 50% ash 1371.
Recently, a German firm, Rheinische Braunkohlenwerke AG (Rheinbraun), has
developed the High Temperature Winkler process (HTW), designed to operate at
higher temperatures and pressures. The use of elevated temperatures raises the
gasification rate and improves the quality of the gas. By addition of limestone the
fusion point of the ash is raised, so that crumbled ash is formed in the fluidized bed of
the reactor. The use of elevated pressures also increases the gasification rate.
permitting units with higher capacities, while the costs, for providing the oxidising
agent under pressure, are more than compensated by savings in product gas
compression I39.401. For a time period of more than 30000 operation hours, the HTW
process has proven its commercial-scale maturity and availability in the I MPa, nOt/d
demonstration plant, in Berrenrath, for synthesis gas production 14 11.

Dried ltgntle ---.1

Super- Waste- Hot Gas Wet

Heater Heal· Filter Scrubbmg
Coal Boiler System
Loci<
Hopper
System

j-uct Gas

Gasihcalion Agent

Lock Hoppers

DuS!
Residue

Figure 11. HTW pressurized plant flow diagrarn'"!'.

Gasification of Coaf 535

In order to further optimise the HTW technique for power station application,
Rheinbraun commissioned an HTW pilot plant at Wesseling in 1989 (Figure II),
operating at an elevated pressure of 2.5MPa. This plant is designed to convert up to
6.5t/h dried brown coal to fuel gas, using oxygen/steam or air as a gasification agent.
During more than 8000 operating hours, gasification tests were completed, achieving
target figures for specific gasification performance, specific gasification agent
consumption and raw gas composition. Table 4 shows some typical performance data
of the pressurised HTW gasification at 2.5MPa, as compared with the HTW at I MPa.
Rheinbraun, together with the Rheinisch Westfalische Elekrizitatswerk AG(RWE),
have planned to build a demonstration plant of 320 MWe for a HTW-based combined
cycle power plant. The actual work for this plant began in 1993, after evaluating the
results of the HTW pilot plant I4 1-4 31.

Table 4.
HTW pressurized gasification - Comparison with other HTW -plantsl'i!'.
Pilot Plant Demonstration Pressurized HTW
Plant Gasification
since 1989
1978- since 1986 Operating Calculated
1985 Data Data

Pressure bar 10 10 25 25
Inside Diameter m 0.6 2.75 0.6 0.6
Coal Mass Flow t/m 2h 4.5 4.5 24.3 24.3
Oxygen-Consumption m](STP' 401 390 370 390
/tCoal/mar

C-Conversion Efficiency % 89 95.3 90.5 95.2

Cold Gas Efficiency (LHV) % 73 85.1 77.3 81.3
Spec. Fuel Gas Flow (LHV) MW/m 2 18.3 23.3 100.5 105.8
Cyclone Efficiency % 94 85 92

5.4. The Koppers-Totzek Process (Entrained-Bed)

The Koppers-Totzek process was developed by Heinrich Koppers GmbH (Germany)
and Friedrich Totzek of Essen and Koppers Company Inc. (USA) and was first
commercialized in Finland in 1952110.441. The gasifier, shown in Figure 12, is an
atmospheric pressure, entrained-flow reactor. The coal to be gasified is pulverised to
-75mm and dried, depending on rank, to moisture contents of 2 to 8%. The dried
pulverised coal is fed through screw feeders to two or four tangentially disposed
"burner heads", where it contacts a premixed stream of oxygen and steam. The
mixture is injected into the gasifier at velocities high enough to prevent flashback. The
multiple headed design provides turbulence in the reaction zone, improving product
gas composition and providing increased safety through continuous ignition.
The coal is oxidised in the gasifier, producing a temperature of approximately
1930T, with reaction completion in one second. Endothermic reactions occurring
within the gasifier and heat losses to the refractory-lined and steam-jacketed walls
reduce the effluent to approximately 1490T. At this temperature the coal is converted
primarily to carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide, while much of the ash is
536 Gasification of Coal

converted to molten slag. Nearly 50% of the ash leaves as slag, quenched and
granulated in water at the boiler of the reactor, and 50% leaves as fly ash and is
removed in gas cleanup, usually by wet scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators. The
scrubbed and cooled product gas is processed in a sulfur removal system, resulting in
a medium-heating value gas.

Raw Product Gas

Figure 12. Schematic of two burner Koppers Totzek ga~ifierI32J.

Coals of any rank and a wide range of ash and moisture contents may be handled
in the Koppers-Totzek gasifier. Steam consumption is low and zero in the case of
lignite feeds, whilst wastewater treating facilities are simplified, due to the absence of
tars, oils and hydrocarbons in the raw effluent. Carbon conversion is generally higher
than in fluid-bed units, ranging from 92 to 95% for bituminous coals and nearly 100%
for lignitesll''l. In view of the high capacity and the modest cost of the Koppers-Totzek
generator, its above average oxygen consumption, generally, is not a serious
disadvantage. But some disincentives arise from the loss of sensible heat, when the
raw gas is cooled to ambient temperature for cleaning and from the need to compress
the clean gas for downstream chemical synthesis.
Most of the Koppers-Totzek gasifiers are with two burner heads. They have an
internal diameter of up to 3.5m, they are about 7.5m high and their internal volume is
approximately 28m 3. Their nominal dry gas capacity is 17000 m 3/h at standard
conditions, which is equivalent to about 21Ot/d of moisture-ash-free coal. The four
burner-head models have a volume of approximately 56m 3. Their nominal dry gas
capacity is 35000 m 3/h at standard conditions, which is equivalent to about 430t/d of
moisture-ash-free coaI 12 1.24,34 J. A six-burner gasifier is being developed, that is
expected to have twice the capacity of a four-burner version. Typical operating and
performance data for the Koppers-Totzek gasifier are given in Table 5. Over fifty
gasifiers of this type have been built for more than 14 installations around the world.
The largest plants are in India and S.Africa, producing a hydrogen-rich gas for
ammonia, or methanol synthesis I2J,44 1.
Gasification of Coaf 537

Table 5.
Koppers-Totzek gasifier typical operating data l361.
Medium BTU Gas
Gas Production, MM SCF/hr 1-1.7
Gas Composition, Volume %:
Hydrogen 36
Carbon Monoxide 52
Methane
Nitrogen 1
Carbon Dioxide 10
Other I

Total 100
Gas Higher Heating Value.
BTU/SCF (Dry Basis) 290
Feed Requirements, lb/lb coal: (as fed to gasifier)
Air
Oxygen 0.9
Steam 0-0.4
Operating Conditions:
Gas Outlet Temperature. OF 2700
Pressure atm.
Residence Time, Minutes <I
Turndown Capability 2:1
Coal Feed:
Type
Size. Inches any
Free Swelling Index 70% <200mesh
Ash Fusion Temperature. OF no limit
Feed Rate. tons/day 600
Thermal Efficiency, %:
Hot Raw Gas
Cold Clean Gas 75
By-Product Rate. Ibllb coal:
Tar o
Oil o

6. PROCESSES UNDER DEVELOPMENT

Although commercialised gasification processes are perfectly capable of furnishing
syngas suitable for conversion to substitute natural gas (SNG) and other
petrochemicals, massive efforts have been devoted to the development of so-called
"second generation" reactors. This work is mainly directed toward creation of
improved technology for very large-scale SNG production, for which available
methods are held to be inadequate and centers, therefore, on gasifiers that could be: (a)
sized for daily throughputs as high as 5000-10000 tons of coal and (b) operated at, or
near conventional pipeline pressure (-6.7MPa)132J.
Pursuit of these objectives, which would result in significantly lower SNG costs
and make for greater technical reliability of large-scale gasification, has also led to the
emergence of some important novel design and processing concepts, such as the
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (lGCC) process.
The IGCC process basically has the following four steps: (I) a fuel gas is generated
by coal reacting with high-temperature steam and an oxidant (oxygen of air) in a
538 Gasification of Coal

reducing atmosphere, (2) the gas is cooled, producing steam, and then purified to
further remove particulates and sulfur and nitrogen compounds, (3) the clean fuel gas
is combusted in a gas turbine generator to produce electricity and (4) the residual heat
in the hot exhaust gas from the turbine is recovered in a heat recovery steam generator
and the steam is used to produce additional electricity in a steam turbine gener ator
(Figure 13).

Gasif ication Combin ed Cycle

so,
Rf DUCTlOOO
NO, EfflCEJilCT t_"'-~:t<;"'OC""
CO$T r UST
, ..
1m....,.
11.100-' '00
Pt:UW
4>\0
...l$1<WH
'_'./00
Pt:R ICW

Figure 13. The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (/GC C) process conceplP 51.

Gasification combined-cycle systems are among the cleanest and most efficient of
the emerging clean coal technologies and have become favourite for the next
generation of low-rank coal-fired power plants l461. They are chara cterised by very low
pollutant emi ssions (sulfur and NO x reduction s of over 99 % and 90%, respectivel y.
have been demonstrated), reduced CO 2 emis sions compared to pulveri sed-coal-fired
plants, fewer solid waste problem s, high thermal efficiency and enhanced economics.
The product gases must be cleaned to a high level, not only to achieve low emissions,
but to protect downstream comp onents, such as the gas turbine from erosion and
corro sion. If a hot-gas cleanup system is used, then efficiencies of 45 to 50% are
conceivable for inlet turbine temperatures around 1200·C.
In re-powering with IGCC, a gasifier, gas stream cleanup unit, gas turbine and
waste heat recovery boiler are added. In most cases, these replace the existing coal
boiler. The remaining equipment, including the coal-handling equipment, the steam
turbine and electrical generator, is left in place . The result is an extension of plant life
to essentially that of a new plant, an increase in efficiency from a nominal 35% to over
40 % and an increase in overall plant output of 50- I50% with significantly reduced
overall emissions. Also, the incremental costs of the additional capacity are low,
compared to the cost of a new conventional pulveri sed coal plant l471.
Gasification of Coaf 539

In the sections to follow, representatives of the very many advanced gasification

processes, which are close to commercialisation or are under development, will be
briefly discussed. These processes will be presented under the general categories of
fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, entrained-bed and molten bath.

6.1. Fixed-Bed Gasification Processes

Fixed-bed gasification technologies are being developed in the United States and
Europe. The important technologies in various phases of demonstration and
development include: Energy and Environmental Research Center, University of
North Dakota; General Electric (GEGAS); Allis-Chalmers (KILNGAS rotary Kiln);
Kohlegas Nordhein (KGN), Germany; Morgantown Energy Technology Center,
Department of Energy (METC) and Ruhrgas/Ruhrkohle/Steag (RUHR 100),
Germany. The fixed-bed gasification technologies being developed and demonstrated
under the Clean Coal Technologies Demonstration Program are presented in Table 6.

Table 6.
Clean Coal Demonstration Projectsl''"!
Project and Sponsor Status
Combustion Engineering Completed 5193 CCT-II
IGCC Repowering Project
(ABB Combustion Engineering. lnc.)
ENCOAL Completed 51/92 CCT-I1I
Mild Coal Gasification Project
(ENCOAL Corporation)
Tampa Electric Projected 6/94 CCT-I1I
Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Project
(Tampa Electric Company)
Pinon Pine Projected 10/94 CCT-IV
IGCC Power Project
(Sierra Pacific Power Company)
Toms Creek Projected 4/94 CCT-IV
IGCC Demonstration Project
(TAMCO Power Partners)
Wabash River Completed 7/93 CCT-IV
Coal Gasification Repowering Project
(Wabash River
Coal Gasification Rcpowering Project
Joint Venture)

I. The GEGAS Process{20.35/

The General Electric Company's GEGAS process is designed to process all types of
coal, including fines, with reduced steam requirements. Most work has been directed
toward an air-blown gasifier producing a low-heating value gas, primarily for use in
combined-cycle power plants. The pilot gasifier (Figure 14) is capable of operating at
pressures up to 2MPa. The main features are a screw-feed system, a stirrer-agitator and
a novel grate design.
A coal bed of proper thickness is maintained by a horizontal feed auger or screw-
type feeder, which draws coal from a lock hopper. A three-bladed, water-cooled
stirrer, which can travel from the top of the bed to the vicinity of the grate, rotates to
540 Gasification of Coal

break up caking coal and remove deposits from dome and gas off-take areas. The grate
is equipped with a similar rotating stirrer or agitator paddle, that breaks up weakly
fused clinker and discharges the ash. Preheated air and steam enter through the centre
and over the edges of the grate. The agitation of the bed reduces steam consumption
to about 30% of that normally required.
The GEGAS process has been operated for periods of up to 40 hours, at a design
rate of I t/h, with Pittsburgh No . 8 and Illinois No . 6 coals. General Electric has
patented and tested an alternative system of handling caking and swelling coals 1491.

cool lock tcocer .•

__ ::;, l lf r f' l

Auge r tee oe-

.___ 9 r a tp.

- stea m and air

I
as h

Figure 14. The GEGAS-D ga~ifierI4XI.

II. The KILnCAS Process

This process uses a rotary Kiln, which is basically an inclined cylindrical chamber
with injection ports l50I. It operates as a descending gasifier, although some
reviewers'v'J have classified it as a "tumbling bed". The kiln operates at about O.7MPa
and is refractory-lined, to withstand the high operating temperatures of about 1090'C.
Strongly caking coals with up to 40% fines can be used. Coal is introduced at the
high end and tumbles its way down the kiln, which is rotating about its axes. Along
the way, coal gets dried and preheated by the countercurrent flow of hot gases. Air and
steam are then introduced through the ports under the tumbling bed of solids, to
devolatilize and gasify the coal. Most of the ash is entrained with the exit gas, but
some overflows the lower end of the kiln. The product gas is cycloned to remove the
ash, scrubbed and quenched to remove moisture and liquid hydrocarbons. The average
heating value of this gas is about 5600kJ/m 3.
Allis-Chalmers and a group of electrical utilities have built a demonstration plant
processing 800ld of coal and producing fuel for an existing 50MW generating unit l351.
Gasification of Coal 541

III. The MORGAS Processl20J

The Morgas process, initially developed on the pilot scale the Morgantown, West
Virginia, Research Center, employs a fixed-bed, single stage gasifier operating on air
at 1-4 MPa.
The pilot gasifier, which is I m in diameter and has a throughput of 20 tid, is
illustrated in Figure IS. Its main features are the agitator, which both rotates and
reciprocates within the fuel bed, and the twin coal lock hoppers. Otherwise the gasifier
is conventional in that the fuel bed is supported on a rotating grate, through which ash
is withdrawn and superheated steam and air are supplied. The product gas has a
heating value of about 5600kJ/m3• Strongly caking and non caking coals have been
successfully gasified.

coal rcooer coal hopper

1...._ j.- grale

Figure IS. The MORGAS gas producer!"!',

IV. The Tampa Electric Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Project

The objectives of this Clean Coal Technology process are to demonstrate an air-
blown, fixed-bed, integrated gasification combined-cycle technology and to assess
reliability, availability and maintainability at commercial scale.
The coal is gasified in a pressurised, air-blown, fixed-bed gasifier (Figure 16). The
low heating value gas leaves the gasifier at approximately 540'C and goes to a hot gas
cleanup system. The removal of sulfur compounds is accompli-shed in a moving bed
of solid sorbent. About 1.27t/d of high sulfur coal is converted to a low-heating value
gas. The cleaned gas is used in a combined-cycle system, to 120MW of electricity.
The Pilot Plant is located at Tampa Electric Company's Polk Power Station in
Lakeland, Florida. The co-operative agreement was awarded at the beginning of
19911471•
542 Gasification of Coal

HoI
gas
cleanup
!-- - . Sul lur
bY-Pf odu CI

~... ---
Waste oisposal

Figure 16. Air-blown/integrated gas ification combined- cycl e proje cl l ~ 7 1.

V. The ENCOAL Mild Coal Gasification Project

Th is is another Clean Coal Technolo gy project. the objecti ve of which is to
dem onstrate the production of two higher value fuel forms, liqu id and solid. throu gh
m ild gas ification of low-sulfur subbituminous coal , in staged, rotary fixed beds .
The site for this plant , which proce .ses about 1000 tid of coa l, is Triton Coal
Company' s Buckskin Mine, located near Gillette. Wyomin g. Construction and pre-
operational testing were completed by mid-1992 1471.

6.2. Fluidized-Bed Gasification Processes

Fluidized-bed gasification technologies are being developed in the United States, Europe
and Japan. Some of the imponant technologies in demonstration or development are:
Coal Mining Research Center , Japan; Institute of Gas and Technology (U-GAS);
Kellog/Rost/Westinghouse (KRW ); HYGAS ; EXXON and CO 2 ACCEPTOR. The
fluidized-bed gasification technol ogies being developed and demonstrated under the
Clean Coal Technologies Demonstration Program are presented in Table 6. Some of
these technologies applicable to low-rank coals will be discussed in this section.

I. The V-GAS Process f I 0 .25.52j

The U-Ga s process was devel oped by the Institute of Gas Techn ology, under the
sponsorship of the American Gas Association and the Office of Coal Research. Initial
opera tion of a 1.2m d iameter unit was in 1974.
The process employs a single-stage fluidi zed-bed, operat ed at about I050"C and
2MPa to produce low-he ating value fuel gas from coal (Figure 17). Coal is crushed to
below 6mm and dr ied before being fed to the gasifier, which can accept up to 10%
fines less than 0.07mm. Cakin g coals are pre-o xidised in a fluidized-bed operating at
gas ifier pressure and - 430' C and the off-gases, after passing through a cyclone are