Madison Roberts

March 19th, 2021

Marine Biology Methods & Analysis
Sub-term A

Coral Reefs and the Loss of Biodiversity

Introduction

Coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet and yet they only take

up about one percent of our planet (NOAA, 2021). These coral reefs provide habitat for many

species as well as provide humans with many goods. Coral reefs are being alerted due to

anthropogenic and natural stressors. These stressors consist of temperature stress, diseases,

disease, and much more. The result of these stressors is coral bleaching. There are many reasons

as to why the loss of coral reefs is a problem, but the biggest problem is the loss of biodiversity.

Before discussing the many stressors that coral reefs are facing, we first need to know

what coral reefs are as well as what species rely on these coral reefs. Coral reefs are formed

when the coral larvae that are floating in the water attach to a hard surface alongside edges of

islands or continents. Coral reefs form three different types of structures: fringing, barrier, or

atoll (NOAA, 2021). Fringing reefs are formed right offshore of the island or continent and

surround the area. Barrier reefs have a large lagoon separating them from the island. Atolls are

formed when a fringing reef is formed around an island the sinks below sea level creating a large

circular lagoon in the middle of the reef.

While the formation of corals is an important component to know about corals, it is also

important to know how these corals survive in the ocean. Corals, even though they look stony

and rock like, are living organisms that still need food to survive. They can do this in multiple

ways. One way is through the coral polyps. Coral polyps are surrounded by tentacles that are
used to capture food and bring that food into the mouth of the polyp. These tentacles that are

found on the polyps, have stinging cells called nematocysts (NOAA, 2021). The nematocysts are

able to sting their prey making it easier to catch them. Another way coral receive food is through

symbiosis with zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae is a photosynthetic dinoflagellate that live inside

corals. The zooxanthellae will provide energy and nutrients such as sugars and amino acids,

while the corals provide the zooxanthellae with shelter as well as ammonia and phosphate

(Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). This symbiotic relationship as well as the coral polyps allow these

corals to grow and provide homes and breeding grounds to many species.

While coral reefs are one of the main organisms in a coral reef ecosystem, there are many

other species that are present that allow coral reefs to be some of the most biodiverse ecosystems

on the planet. According to Lough, 2007, the great barrier reefs harbor more than 1,500 fish

species, 23 species of marine mammals, 6 marine turtle species, 4,000 species of mollusks, and

the list continues. The Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, relies on corals for both

feeding and nesting. The hawksbill turtle is a coral-reef-scrounging omnivore which is one of its

main food sources (Hendrickson, 1980). The hawksbill turtle is just one example of a species

that relies on coral reef ecosystems.

As well as providing breeding, homes, and spawning grounds for many different species,

coral reefs are also very important for commercial reasons. Coral reefs are used by fisheries as

well as for tourism. According to NOAA, the National Marine Fisheries Services estimated that

US fisheries from coral reefs provide over 100 million dollars in commercial value. Coral reefs

are used as a tourist attraction on many different islands for diving tours, snorkeling, fishing

trips, as well as for the hotels and restaurants on these islands.

 Not only are coral reefs important for commercial value they are also important at

protecting the islands or continents that we live on. Coral reef structures act as a buffer against

the energy of waves, storms, and floods. Many islands have development near the cost and the

result of the loss of coral reefs could be detrimental to these homes. The loss of corals can also

cause a greater amount of erosion to occur on our shorelines.

As stated above coral reefs are very important for many different reasons ranging from

biodiversity, to commercial value. Coral reefs are being alerted due to anthropogenic and natural

stressors. These stressors consist of temperature stress, diseases, and much more. The result of

these stressors is coral bleaching. There are many reasons as to why the loss of coral reefs is a

problem, but the biggest problem is the loss of biodiversity.

How are Coral Reefs being Altered?

Coral reefs are being altered in many different ways. There are two main categories that

the alterations can fall under: anthropogenic stressors and natural stressors. Anthropogenic

stressors are a result of human activity and can consist of sedimentation, temperature stress, and

overfishing. Natural stressors are the stressors that occur naturally and can consist of temperature

stress and coral eating starfish. The result of these stressors is coral bleaching as well as the

degradation of corals. Coral bleaching is the loss of the symbiotic zooxanthellae due to

environmental stressors. The result of the loss of these zooxanthellae is the calcium carbonate

skeleton becomes visible (Lough, 2007). The frequencies of these coral bleaching’s used to be on

a small scale, but now with warming temperatures and water, these bleaching’s are occurring

more frequently and on a larger scale than before (Lough, 2007).

Anthropogenic Stressors

Of the anthropogenic and natural stressors, the anthropogenic stressors are more of a

problem for corals. One anthropogenic stressor is sedimentation. Sedimentation occurs when

materials are settling on the sea floor or on the corals. Although sedimentation could be seen as a

natural issue due to wave action cause sediments to be mixed up, corals are found farther

offshore where wave action is not a big factor. Sedimentation is a result of dredging on the sea

floor. Dredging removes sediments and debris from the bottom of the ocean which then churns

up the sediments causing them to have to resettle on any surfaces. Sedimentation is said to be

one of the most well studied stressors that is affecting corals (Richmond, 1993). According to

Richmond (1993), sedimentation can affect coral reefs in three different ways:

photosynthetically, physically, and chemically.

The first way that corals can be affected through sedimentation is photosynthetically.

Because most coral reefs obtain most of their nutrients through the zooxanthellae, a reduction in

light can cause major problems for corals. It has been reported that one of the main reasons for

increased sedimentation is due to dredging, which mixes up sand and other particles on the sea

floor (Richmond, 1993). This sedimentation can reduce the amount of light that the symbiotic

zooxanthellae is able to receive which can then affect the growth as well as the depth that corals

are able to grow (Richmond, 1993). A study was completed that found that the coral Stylophora

pistillata, is most reliant on the photosynthetic zooxanthellae for planula production (Richmond,

1993). This proves that photosynthesis is needed for reproduction which leads to the conclusion

that sedimentation can result in problems with coral reproduction.

Sedimentation not only effects corals photosynthetically, but it also affects them

physically. Sediments that are in the water column are being settled onto the corals. These
sediments can interfere with corals by coating the feeding surfaces of coral (Richmond, 1993).

Corals are able to clean themselves through mucus secretion and ciliary action, but if there is a

high abundance of sedimentation on the corals, there can be a high energy cost for the corals

(Richmond, 1993). Sedimentation can also interfere with the recruitment of coral larvae. Coral

larvae require a solid substratum to settle on, a study was completed that showed newly settled

and calcifying coral colonies would bail out on their benthic exoskeleton due to an increase in

sedimentation (Richmond, 1993).

Both physical and photosynthetic sedimentation are more well studied compared to the

chemical effects of sedimentation. In some sediments there can be many different heavy metals

found mixed in them such as copper, tin, and zinc. A study was completed that showed low

levels of nickel cause mortality rates as well as showed a reduction in the settlement of larvae

(Richmond, 1993). With respects to this study, a low level of nickel was considered to be 1 ppm

to 9 ppm. Research concerning the chemical effects on sedimentation is still not well known but

there are still some problems that may occur. A study was conducted that found organophosphate

pesticide, Dursban when passed through soil and then carried into seawater was very toxic to

corals (Richmond, 1993). This study was used to show how these fertilizers, which are being

used in golf course construction can be carried into our waters and affect our coral reefs in ways

that we still are unsure of.

Some sediments are entering our water bodies through runoff from the land, but

sediments aren’t the only stressor that is coming from runoff. Chemicals and other pollutants are

also coming into our waters through runoff. Changes in salinity can affect corals through a

decrease in fertilization. Corals participate in spawning events where they release gametes and

embryos directly into the water column. These coral spawning events usually occur when during
the rainy season. This is a problem because the rainy season is the time when the surface waters

are most likely to be contaminated through runoff (Richmond, 1993). An experiment was

performed in Guam and Okinawa during the time of coral spawning which was also during the

rainy season. The results of the study found that in the stream mouth in Okinawa, runoff caused

an initial 53% drop in the fertilization rate as well as a 51% drop in the number of embryos that

develop to the planula larvae stage (Richmond, 1993). Corals only spawn once a year during the

rainy season so a juristic drop like the one stated above can have a serious effect on coral

populations. Richmond (1993) state, that not only can this decrease in water quality through run

off affect the mass spawning’s, it could also affect the chemical cues that allow corals to

synchronize their spawning’s.

Although chemical runoff has a major impact on coral reefs, another impact on corals is

temperature stress. Temperature stress can be both natural and anthropogenic depending on the

reasoning for the temperature increase. Anthropogenically an increase in temperatures can be

due to discharge from cooling systems as well as an increase in carbon emissions. In many

factories they are using seawater to pump and absorb heat. This heated sweater is then being

pumped back into our oceans at a higher temperature than before. A study completed in Hawaii,

showed a large mortality rate of corals that was associated with the discharge of the heated water

from the cooling power plants (Richmond, 1993). The mortality of these corals resulted in a

separation between the symbiotic zooxanthellae and then coral host. The thermal stressors that

are a result from anthropogenic sources tend to be of greater impact. Anthropogenic temperature

stress takes removing the problem. For example, the cooling plant in Hawaii, had to be

redesigned in order for the corals to be able to recover from these stressors (Richmond, 1993).
 The alteration of coral reefs through temperature stress results in the loss of the symbiotic

zooxanthellae which can lead to coral bleaching. While this is a huge problem for many coral

reefs, another problem is overfishing. Overfishing occurs when fisherman or fisherman boats

catch a large number of fish at one time. Overfishing is also the use of fish traps that are made to

last in the oceans for long periods of times. These fish traps may catch pre-productive juveniles

which can then lower the future populations of the fish species (Richmond, 1993). Not only are

they catching juveniles, in some cases the traps are coming dislodged in storms causing fish to

die from starvation the traps. The result of overfishing on coral reefs could result in the depletion

of fish species that are necessary for coral reef ecosystems. For example, grazers play a very

important role for coral reefs by consuming algae off of the corals, if grazers where to be

depleted, this could lead to an overgrowth of algae on corals (Richmond, 1993). In some

countries, fishing is a way of living from many fishermen because they rely on these fish to feed

their family as well as to make money which is why overfishing is still so prevalent in countries

where poverty is common.

In some cases, the fishing practices do not have to be considered overfishing. Fishing in

general leads to the reduction or the loss of predatory species. Fishing can lead to the loss of

keystone species, the loss of top predator species, as well as the reduction of diversity. There are

many different species of fish that are considered to be a keystone species in the coral reef

ecosystems. The fish play an important role in consuming prey that could in turn damage coral

reefs. For example, triggerfish (Balistes vetula) and pufferfish are predators of sea urchins

(Roberts, 1995). Triggerfish are a favored food in the Caribbean, and they are also vulnerable to

trapping and spear fishing. The pufferfish are removed from oceans due to tourist trade. The

decline of these two species results in an abundance of their pray which is the sea urchin
(Diadema antillarum). When sea urchins are at high densities on coral reefs, they reduce the

algal cover to low levels and they also exert a strong erosive effect on the reef framework

(Roberts 1995).

Natural Stressors

While there are many more anthropogenic stressors leading to the destruction of corals

there are also natural stressors. Natural stressors are impacts that occur natural in the

environment. These natural impacts consist of temperature stress as well as storms, and the

crown-of-thorns Starfish (Acanthaster plancii). When heavy storms come to the islands, in most

cases coral reefs can act as a barrier blocking the high wave action to these islands. Larger

storms usually result in larger wave action; therefore, the corals are able to slow down these

waves and protect the islands. These waves have the capability of breaking down corals. In the

past these big storms did not occur as often, therefore this was not a huge threat to coral reefs.

Due to climate change storm frequency and intensity has started to rise which can start to pose a

threat to coral reefs.

Natural temperature stress on coral reefs is associated with the el Niño. The el Niño is a

climate pattern that affect the weather worldwide. El Niño results in trade winds weakening

causing warm water to be pushed back east toward the west coast. This then causes the Pacific

Jet stream to move south resulting in the northern US and Canada being dryer and warmer and

then the golf coast and southeast being wetter than usual (NOAA, 2021). During the El Nino,

upwelling slows down or in some cases stops. Upwelling brings cold nutrient rich waters from

deeper in the ocean to the surface. The results of one study in the Pacific Ocean found a

widespread mortality of corals associated with the El Nino that occurred in 1982-1983

(Richmond, 1993). The results of this El Nino event resulted in breakdown of the symbiotic
zooxanthellae from the coral host which resulted in coral bleaching. The El Nino is a natural

occurrence and therefore it ends naturally, and corals have a high probability of recovering after

it is over.

While the El Nino is considered a natural stressor to corals m the crown-of-thorns starfish

is a natural occurring species but there may be anthropogenic reasons as to why they are

occurring more often. The crown-of-thorns starfish is a coral earing starfish. While these starfish

are naturally occurring, there has been some debate on whether or not the larger occurrences of

these starfish are a natural occurrence or if it is a result of anthropogenic impacts. There have

been major outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish occurring back to 10,000 years ago, but

new studies have shown that these outbreaks may be due to man’s activities. A recent study

showed a relationship between nutrients input and the success of the crown-of-thorns larvae

(Richmond, 1993). The reason for this success in reproduction is because when there as increase

in runoff there is also an increase in nutrients in the water which results in an increase in

phytoplankton. The success of the crown-of-thorns larvae is dependent on the availability of

phytoplankton (Richmond, 1993). Due to increases in the populations, hundreds of coral reefs

have been devastated. It is still underdetermined weather the occurrences of these species us an

anthropogenic or natural occurrence, but it is known that these species do occur naturally, but

their increasing numbers maybe a product of anthropogenic nutrient input.

Why is the loss of Coral Reefs a Problem?

There are many different problems associated with the loss of coral reefs. Some of these

problems consist of a loss or tourism, coastal protection, as well as the loss of biodiversity. Each

of these will have an effect on humans as well as species living in the ecosystem.
 One of the problems associated with the loss of coral reefs is the loss of tourism on

islands. Tourism related to coral reefs consists of but is not limited to diving, snorkeling, and

glass bottom boats. Being able to see coral reefs with your own eyes is a factor that draws many

tourists to these tropical islands. Coral reefs are also a huge part in creating clear calm waters at

resorts, fresh seafood, and fine sand beaches (Spalding, 2017). Spalding (2017) also describes

how in some cases tourists are not drawn to a location because of their coral reefs but they are

drawn there because of the beaches. The article argues that because these coral reefs were

formed due to the corals, that this can also be considered coral reef related tourism. Tourism is a

very large industry for the US, Brazil, China, Australia, and many other countries. A study came

to the conclusion that coral reef tourism generates about 35.8 billion US dollars annually as well

as that 70% of the world’s coral reefs have no value to tourism (Spalding, 2017). This means that

of the 30% of the reefs that are being used for tourism, they are producing 35.8 billion US dollars

a year. Tourism is clear a very large industry for coral reefs as well as for many islands who rely

on these tourists. Without coral reefs it can be assumed that the annual amount of tourism related

income would decrease with the loss of coral reef ecosystems.

Not only do coral reefs provide income for islands such as tourism, they also provide

flood protection for the coasts of islands. Coral reefs are a natural barrier that provides flood

reduction through wave breaking (Beck, 2018). Through this wave reduction, these coral reefs a

reducing the annual flood damage on islands. It was estimated that coral reefs reduce the annual

damage from storm by more than 4 billion dollars and without these coral reefs, the flood

damage would double (Beck, 2018). This wave reduction and flood prevention is very important

for smaller islands that would not be able to handle more intense flooding. The result of flood

damaging doubling would affect more than 81% of people as well as it would increase the land
flooding by 69% (Beck, 2018). This problem is more so prevalent now with global climate

change. The result of global climate change is a rise in sea level as well as greater storm

intensity. Coral reefs play a very important role in preventing flood damage on beaches as well

as protecting people and their homes from flood damage. Without coral reefs we would see a

very significant change in the amount of flooding happening especially in the coming years when

climate change continues to rise.

Of all the reasons why the loss of coral reef is a problem the most important reason is that

the loss of coral reefs will result in a loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity is important because the

higher the diversity there is a higher probability of a continual functioning ecosystem. In the

oceans there many different species that can play different roles to keep the ecosystem going.

But if we start to lose more and more of those species, we will start to lose our diversity. Coral

reefs harbor many different species. The species diversity on coral reefs is very difficult for

scientists to qualify because there are so many species that use them (Reaka-Kudla, 1997). If we

lose these coral reefs then these species will have to find new places to feed, breed, and graze.

Some species may not be able to find a new place to do these which could result in a die off of

that species. A study was completed that showed that when there was a loss of corals there was

also a decline in the fish abundance (Pratchett, 2011). This study showed that 60% of the

observations from this study resulted in the loss of fish abundance when there was a loss in coral

cover (Pratchett, 2011). There is estimated to be around 93,000 coral reef species globally

(Reaka-Kudla, 1997). Although the biodiversity in coral is very hard to quantify, this

biodiversity is very important to ensure continuous ecosystem function (Pratchett, 2011). Coral

reefs are being used to develop many new drugs as well as cures for cancer, arthritis, and disease.
If coral bleaching continues and coral diversity continues to decline, we may not be able to

continue to develop these new drugs and medicines.

Conclusion

Coral reefs are being altered in many ways such as rises in temperature due to global

climate change, sedimentation, overfishing and much more. These alterations result in less

tourism, coastal protection, fishing practices, and loss of biodiversity. Although all of these are

big problems, the biggest problem is the loss of biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity is such a big

problem because when we have a high diversity in an ecosystem, it ensures a continuing

functioning of the ecosystem. Biodiversity is also important for humans because coral reefs are

being used to develop many new drugs and cures for cancer, arthritis, and other diseases. While

there are many different reasons as to why the loss of coral reefs is a problem the most important

problem is the loss of biodiversity. To fix this problem we need to start to take steps to slowing

down global climate change as well as stopping runoff from entering our oceans.
Sources

Hendrickson, J.R. (1980) The Ecological Strategies of Sea Turtles. Amer. Zool, 20, 597-608.

Reaka-Kudla, M.J., Wilson, D.E., and Wilson, E.O. (1997) Biodiversity II: Understanding and

Protecting our Biological Resources. National Academy of Science.

Roberts, C.M. (1995). Effects of fishing on the Ecosystem Structure of Coral Reefs.

Conservation Biology. 9, 988-995.

Beck, M.W., Loasada, J.I., Menendez, P., Reguero, B.G., Diaz-Simal, P., and Felipe, F. (2018).

The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs. Nature Communication. 9, 1-

9.

Lough, J.M. (2007). 10th Anniversary Review: A changing climate for coral reefs. The Royal

Society of Chemistry, 10, 21-29.

Spalding, M., Burke, L., Spencer, W.A., Joscelyne, A., Hutchison, J., and Ermgassen, P.Z.

(2017). Mapping the global value and tourism distribution of coral reef tourism. Marine

Policy. 82, 104-113.

Richmond, R.H. (1993). Coral Reefs: Present Problems and Future Concerns Resulting from

Anthropogenic Disturbance. Amer. Zool. 33, 524-536.

NOAA. (2021). What are El Nino and La Nina?. National Ocean Service website.

NOAA. (2021). Corals Tutorial. National Ocean Service website.

Pratchett, M.S., Hoey, A.S., Wilson, S.K., Messmer, V., and Graham, N.A.J. (2011). Changes in

Biodiversity and Functioning of Reef Fish Assemblages following Coral Bleaching and

Coral Loss. Diversity. 3, 424-452.