IPS ACADEMY INDORE

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & SCIENCE

(An UGC AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE, AFFILIATED TO RGPV, BHOPAL)

LAB MANUAL
Session: 2020-21

Engineering Physics
(BSC-102)
Student’s Name: Aayush Vishnoi

1st Year 1st Semester

Serial no: 05 Section: CSE-1

Enrolment no: 0808CS201005

 CONTENTS

1. Vision Mission of the Institute

2. Vision Mission of the Department
3. PEOs
4. POs
5. COs
6. Laboratory Regulations and Safety Rules
7. Index
8. Experiments.
 Vision of the Institute

To be the fountainhead of novel ideas & innovations in science &

technology & persist to be a foundation of pride for all Indians.

Mission of the Institute

• To provide value based broad Engineering, Technology and Science
where education in students is urged to develop their professional
skills.
• To inculcate dedication, hard work, sincerity, integrity and ethics in
building up overall professional personality of our student and faculty.
• To inculcate a spirit of entrepreneurship and innovation in passing out
students.
• To instigate sponsored research and provide consultancy services in
technical, educational and industrial areas.
 Vision of the Department

The vision of Engineering Physics is to prepare students to compete globally in

their profession, in order to reach the highest level of intellectual attainment and
making significant contribution to society.

Mission of the Department

1. To become an internationally Engineering Physics department for higher
learning and be self-reliant.
2. To build upon the culture and values of universal science and contemporary
education through understanding of Engineering Physics.
3. To be a centre of research and education generating knowledge and
technologies, this play groundwork in shaping the future in the fields of
Engineering Physics.
4. To develop partnership with industrial, R&D and government agencies and
actively participate in conferences, technical and community activities.
 Program Education Outcomes(PEOS)
• Educate students to think and participate deeply, creatively and analytically
in emerging areas of engineering technology.
• Educate students in the basics of instrumentation, design of laboratory
techniques, measurement, data acquisition, interpretation, and analysis.
• Educate students in the methodology of research.
• Provide and facilitate teamwork and multidisciplinary experiences
throughout the curriculum.
• Foster the development of effective oral and written communication skills.
• Expose students to environmental, ethical and contemporary world.
• An ability to function on multidisciplinary teams.
• A sound knowledge of the fundamental principles of engineering and
physics, together with an appropriate mathematical background for these
subjects.
• An understanding of the role of the engineers and scientist.

Program Outcomes (POS)

Physics is the fundamental force which govern the nature. Since the laws of
physics govern the behaviour of the all matter and energy, they influence all the
other scientific fields. Physics has developed into one of the most complex and
mystifying disciplines. It is being used to probe questions regarding the origin of
the universe, the fundamental building blocks of existence, the behaviour of the
celestial bodies and the existence of the other dimensions.
Engineering is the application of the insights from physics to solve real-
world conundrums. It is where the rubber of science meets the road of problem
solving. Engineering can best be thought of as a discipline, a pattern of behaviour,
rather than a distinct scientific field in its own right. There are many
specializations within the broader field of engineering – chemical, civil, electrical
and mechanical to name a few.
 Laboratory Regulations and Safety Rules
• Mobile phones are strictly prohibited in the lab.
• Doing experiments in the lab without supervision is prohibited. The performance of
unauthorized experiments and the use of any equipment in an unauthorised or unsafe
manner are strictly forbidden.
• Examine all apparatus for defects before performing any experiments.
• Please exercise caution when dealing with electrical devices.
• Do not remove apparatus from cabinets without the permission of the instructor.
• Coats, bags and other personal items should be stored in the proper aeras, not on the
bench tops or in the aisle ways.
• All personal accidents, injuries and illness, however slight, occurring in the lab must be
reported immediately to the instructor.
• Visitors, including children, are not permitted to enter the lab.
• Do not take lab equipment outside the lab without the permission of the instructor.
• When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before
making adjustments in the circuits.
• Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire.
Such a wire will become dangerously hot.
• Return all equipment, clean and in good condition, to the designated location at the end
of the lab period.
• If a thermometer breaks inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either broken
glass or the mercury with your bare skin.
• Leave your lab area cleaner than you found it.
• Eating and drinking are not permitted in the lab. If you have medical condition
requiring an exception to that rule, notify your instructor.
• Student who does not follow the physics lab safety rules will be expelled from the lab.
I have read and understood the safety rules and I’m aware of the consequences of
failing to observe them.
Signature: Course: CSE

Name: Aayush Vishnoi Date:

 Certificate

This is to certify that the Physics Manual submitted by Aayush Vishnoi as a

practical fulfilment of the Syllabus of BTech First Physics (BSC-102) subject of
RAJIV GANDHI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, academic year 2020-21 has
been declared as a benefited work in the physics laboratory of IPS ACADEMY,
INDORE. The practicals are up to the standard in respect of its content for the
examination.

Student Signature Faculty Signature

 Contents

Serial Date Experiment Page Signature and

no. No Submission
1 To determine the divergence of He-Ne 9
Laser.
2 To determine the radius of curvature of 11
given plan-o-convex lens with the help of
a plane Newton’s ring experiment.
3 To determine the wavelength of main 15
spectral lines of given mercury light with
help of a transmission grating.
4 To determine refractive index and 20
dispersive power of the material of given
prism using spectrometer.
5 To plot forward and reverse 26
characteristics curve of P-N junction
diode.
6 To determine wavelength of given laser 36
light source.

7 To find numerical aperture of a given 41

optic fibre and hence to find its
acceptance angle.
8 To verify Brewster’s law using polarizer. 48

9 To determine the Hall voltage and 53

charge carrier density, in semiconductor
using Hall effect experiment.
10 To plot forward and reverse 59
characteristics curve of Zener diode.

11 To Determine Energy Band Gap of 66

Semiconductor
 EXPERIMENT - 1
Aim:

To determine the wavelength of He-Ne laser by a transmission grating. (15000 LPI)

Apparatus used:

He-Ne laser, Transmission grating, measuring tape, Screen, Grating mount, Base for screen.

Formula used: Wavelength of laser  = e Sinθ / n = ex/nD

e = 2.54/N (cm) = Grating element

N = Number of lines per inch on grating

θ = Angle of diffraction

n = Order of spectrum

 = wave length of light falling on the grating

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Mount the grating on the grating holder.

2. Illuminate the grating almost at the centre by placing it about 20-25 cm away from the laser. The laser should be
mounted in such a way. So that its beam falls almost horizontally on the centre of the grating.

3. The beam on passing through the grating produces several spots due to diffraction. The separation between the
spots is large, if you are using the grating with larger number of lines. The separation is small when you use the grating
having smaller number of lines.

4. The spectrum can be seen on the wall at a distance of about 30cm to 50cm. Screen can be used only for small
distances for grating. For very accurate results observations are made at distances 30 to 50cm away from grating.
5. In the spectrum there is one bright spot called central maxima. On both sides of central maxima there are several
spots of diminishing intensity. First spot adjacent to central maxima is due to 1st order spectrum, second spot from
central maxima is due to second order spectrum and so on.

6. Now measure the separation between the central maxima and first spot, say it is x cm. Also measure the distance of
central spot from the grating, say it is r cm. Then θ = x/r rad.

7. Convert it into degree by multiplying 180/.

Observations:
 EXPERIMENT-2
Aim:

To revise the concept of interference of light waves in general and thin-film interference in particular.

1. To set up and observe Newton’s rings.

2. Find the refractive index of given liquid.

Thin film interference:

A film is said to be thin when its thickness is about the order of one wavelength of visible light which is taken to be 550
nm. When light is incident on such a film, a small portion gets reflected from the upper surface and a major portion is
transmitted into the film. Again, a small part of the transmitted component is reflected back into the film by the lower
surface and the rest of it emerges out of the film. These reflected beams reunite to produce interference. Also the
transmitted beams too interfere. This type of interference that takes place in thin films is called interference by
division of amplitude.

Θ1 angle of incidence at medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.

Θ2 angle of refraction at medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.
Θ3 angle of refraction at medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
r12 reflected light from medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.
r23 reflected light from medium 2 to medium 1 boundary.
r21 reflected light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
t21 transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 1 boundary.
t23 transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
d thickness of the film.

In the above figure the rays r12 and t21 interfere and results in a constructive or destructive interference depending on
their path differences, given as,

constructive interference

destructive interference

Where, refractive index of the medium 2 and the order of interference.

The transmitted light from t23 can also interfere and result in constructive or destructive interference.
To find the refractive index of liquid:

The experiment is performed when there is an air film between the plano-convex lens and the optically plane glass
plate. The diameter of the mth and the (m+p)th dark rings are determined with the help of a travelling microscope

For air

As shown in figure arrange the lens with glass plate. Pour one or two drops of liquid whose refractive index is to be
determined without disturbing the arrangement. Now the air film between the lens and glass plate is replaced by the
liquid. The diameters of m+pth and mth rings are determined.

For liquids,

, for
dark
rings

For normal incidence cosr =1, so

But

Rearranging the above equation, we get

We have

for liquids,

From these two equations the refractive index of the given liquids is given by
Procedure:

After experimental arrangement, the glass plate is inclined at an angle 45° to the horizontal. One or two drops of the
given liquid is placed between the glass plate and lens. This glass plate reflects light from the source vertically
downloads and falls normally on the convex lens. Newton's rings are seen using a long focus microscope, focussed on
the air fil. The cross-wire of the microscope is made tangential to the 20th ring on the left side of the centre. The
readings of the main scale and vernier scale of the microscope are noted. The cross wire is adjusted to be tangential to
the 18th, 16th, 14th, etc on the left and 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc on the right and readings are taken each time. From this the
diameter of the ring is found out which is the difference between the readings on the left and right sides. The square
of the diameter and hence Dn2 and D2n+m are found out.

Observations:
Calculations:

Result:

Wavelength of light from the given source is = 5.5 angstrom.

 EXPERIMENT-3
Aim:

1. To determine the number of lines per millimeter of the grating using the green line of the mercury spectrum.
2. To calculate the wavelength of the other prominent lines of mercury by normal incidence method.

Apparatus:

Spectrometer, diffraction grating element and mercury vapor lamp.

Theory:

When a wave train strikes an obstacle, the light ray will bend at the corners and edges of it, which causes the
spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle. This phenomenon is termed as diffraction.

Single slit diffraction:

When waves pass through a gap, which is about as wide as the wavelength they spread out into the region beyond the
gap. Huygens considered each point along a wave front to be the source of a secondary disturbance that forms a semi-
circular wavelet. Diffraction is due to the superposition of such secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets spread
out and overlap each other interfering with each other to form a pattern of maximum and minimum intensity. The
pattern formed on a screen consists of a broad central band of light with dark bands on either side. The dark bands are
caused when the light from the top half of the slit destructively interferes with the light from the bottom half.

Consider a slit of width ‘a’. Let at an angle θ, the path difference between the top and bottom of the slit is a
wavelength. This causes destructive interference to occur because the path difference between the top and the
middle of the slit is half of the wavelength. At this angle all the light from the top half of the slit will get cancelled
with the light from the bottom half to produce a dark band.

---------------- (1)
Intensity minima will occur if this path length difference is an integer number of wavelengths.

-----------------(2)

Where,

is the order of each minimum

is the wavelength

is the distance between the slits

is the angle at which destructive interference occurs.

Intensity is given by,

---------------(3)

where is the total phase angle, it can be related to the deviation angle,

---------------(4)

I0 is the maximum intensity λ is the wavelength of the light and a is the slit width.

Diffraction grating is an optical component having a periodic structure which can split and diffract light t several
beams travelling in different directions. This depends on the spacing of the grating and the wavelength of the
incident light.

At normal incidence,

---------------(5)

were,
 N is the number of lines per unit length of the grating

n is the order of the spectrum

is the wavelength of light.

θ is the diffraction angle.

Procedure:

The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The grating is set for normal incidence. The slit is
illuminated by mercury vapor vamp. The telescope is brought in a line with the collimator and the direct image of
the slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire. The readings of one vernier are noted. The vernier table is
firmly clamped. Now, the telescope is rotated exactly through 90° and is fixed in this position. The grating is
mounted vertically on the prism table with its ruled surface facing the collimator. The vernier table is released and
is slowly rotated till the reflected image coincides with the vertical cross wire. The leveling screws are adjusted so
that the image is at the center of the field of view of the telescope. The prism table is fixed and after making fine
adjustments with the tangential screw, the readings of the vernier are noted. Now, the angle of incidence is 45°.
The vernier table is then released and rotated exactly through 45° in the proper direction so that the surface of the
grating becomes normal to the incident light. The vernier table is firmly clamped in this position.

The telescope is then released and is brought to observe the direct image. On the either side of the direct image,
the diffraction spectra are seen. The telescope is turned slowly towards the left so that the vertical cross wire
 coincides with the violet lines of the first order. The readings of the vernier are taken. The vertical cross wire is
then made to coincide with the other lines on the left and the vernier readings are taken in each case. The
telescope is then moved to the right and the reading of different lines is similarly taken. The difference between
the readings on the left and right on the same vernier is determined for each line. The mean value of this
difference gives 2θ-twice the angle of diffraction. Thus, the angle of diffraction θ for each spectral line is
determined. The wavelength of the green line is 546.1 x10-9m. The number of lines per meter (N) of the grating is
calculated. Using this value of N, the wavelengths of the other prominent lines in this spectrum are calculated.

Components:

Spectrometer, Grating and Mercury Vapor Lamp.

Variable Region:

1. Telescope Calibrate Slider: This slider helps the user to change the focus of telescope.

2. Start Button: Helps the user to start the experiment after setting the focus of telescope. The Start Button can
be activated only if the focus of the telescope is proper.

3. Light Toggle Button: Helps the user to switch the lamp ON or OFF.

4. Grating Toggle Button: Helps the user to place or remove the grating.

5. Telescope Angle Slider: This slider helps the user to change the angle of telescope.

6. Vernier Angle Slider: This slider helps the user to change the angle of the Vernier.

7. Telescope Angle Slider: Helps make minute changes of the telescope angle.

8. Calibrating Telescope Button: Helps the user to calibrate the telescope after starting the experiment, if
needed.

To calculate the wavelength of different lines:

• Obtain the direct image.

• Telescope is moved to make the cross-wire coincide with each line of the spectrum.

• Note the readings on the verniers and calculate the diffraction angle.

• Then calculate the wavelength of each color.

Observations:

Results:

The wavelength of Yellow = 554.13nm

The wavelength of Green = 546 nm

The wavelength of Violet = 401.5 nm

 EXPERIMENT-4
Aim:

To determine the dispersive power of prism.

Apparatus:

Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, mercury vapour lamp, lens.

Principle:

When a beam of light strikes on the surface of transparent material (Glass, water, quartz crystal, etc.), the portion of
the light is transmitted and another portion is reflected. The transmitted light ray has small deviation of the path from
the incident angle. This is called refraction.

Refraction is due to the change in speed of light while passing through the medium. It is given by Snell's Law.

-------------------(1)

Where is the angle of incident and is the angle of refraction. And is the refractive index of the first face and is
the refractive index of the second face.

And the speed of light on each face is related to the equation -------------------(2)

is the velocity of wave in first face and is the velocity of wave in second face.
The above figure illustrates the change in refracted angle with respect to the refractive index.

Consider a prism of angle A and refractive index n2.

Let i1 and r1 are the incident and refracted ray
from face AB, and i2 and r2 are the incident and
emerged ray from the second face AC.
Dispersive power of prism:

The refractive index of the material of the prism can be calculated by the equation.

-------------------(3)

Where, D is the angle of minimum deviation, here D is different for different colour.

Consider two colour green and violet, corresponding minimum deviation is DG and DV , corresponding refractive index
is.

, -------------------(4)

There for dispersive power is.

-------------------(5)

Where

-------------------(6)

Controls:

Switches

Switch On/Off Light: Used to switch on/off the light.

Place Prism/Remove Prism: This switch used to place the prism on the prism table or remove prism from the prism
table.

Slider:

Slit focus: This slider used to focus the slit while looking through telescope.

Slit width: Using this slider, width of the slit can be adjusted.
Telescope: Using this slider one can move the telescope from its position.

Vernier Table: Vernier table can be rotate using this slider.

Fine Angle adjustment:

Telescope: This is used to fine adjust the telescope.

Vernier Table: Using this slider, we can rotate fine angle.

Preliminary adjustments:

Procedure:

1. Turn the telescope towards the white wall or screen and looking through eye-piece, adjust its position till the
cross wires are clearly seen.

2. Turn the telescope towards window, focus the telescope to a long distant object.

3. Place the telescope parallel to collimator.

4. Place the collimator directed towards sodium vapor lamb. Switch on the lamp.

5. Focus collimator slit using collimator focusing adjustment.

6. Adjust the collimator slit width.

7. Place prism table, note that the surface of the table is just below the level of telescope and collimator.

8. Place spirit level on prism table. Adjust the base levelling screw till the bubble come at the centre of spirit
level.

9. Clamp the prism holder.

10. Clamp the prism in which the sharp edge is facing towards the collimator, and base of the prism is at the
clamp.

Least Count (L.C) of Spectrometer:

One main scale division (N) =................minute

Number of divisions on vernier (v) = ................

L.C = = .......................minute
To determine the Angle of minimum deviation:

Procedure:

1. Rotate the prism table so that the light from the collimator falling on one of the faces of the prism and
emerges through the other face.

2. The telescope is turned to view the refracted image of the slit on the other face.

3. The vernier table is slowly turned in such a direction that the image of slit is move directed towards the
directed ray; i.e., in the direction of decreasing angle of deviation.

4. It will be found that at a certain position, the image is stationary for some moment. Vernier table is fixed at the
position where the image remains stationary.

5. Note the readings on main scale and vernier scale.

6. Carefully remove the prism from the prism table.

7. Turn the telescope parallel to collimator, and note the direct ray readings.

8. Find the difference between the direct ray readings and deviated readings. This angle is called angle of
minimum deviation (D).

To determine the Dispersive power of prism:

1. Rotate the vernier table so as to fall the light from the

collimator to one face of the prism and emerged through
another face. (refer the given figure).

2. Turn the telescope to make the slit coincide with telescope

cross wire.

3. The emerged ray has different colours.

4. Slowly rotate the vernier table by using vernier fine adjusting slider.

5. Note the position where the coloured slits are stationary for some moment.

6. Turn the telescope to each colour, and note the readings for different colours.

7. Remove the prism, hence note direct ray reading.

8. Find the angle of minimum deviation for different colour. (Say, violet, blue, green, yellow).

9. Find the refractive index for these colours. Using equation (3).

10. Dispersive power for yellow and blue

 ,

Where and are the refractive index of blue and yellow, and

Observations:

Calculations:

Result:

Angle of prism = 60

Refractive index of blue line, n1 = 1.532

Refractive index of yellow line, n2 = 1.535

 EXPERIMENT - 5
AIM:

To determine the v-I character of a diode.

APPARATUS USED:

Silicon and germanium diodes, variable dc voltage, connecting wires, known resistances, ammeter, voltmeter.

THEORY:

1. Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode

2. Explain the function of a P-N junction diode

3. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

4. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

Structure of p-n junction diode:

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead connected to the
p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the
cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Figurer:1

Figurer:2

Function of a p-n junction diode in forward bias:

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected to
the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward
the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type
material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change
in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the
depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion
across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n
junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral
region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

Figurer:3

Function of a p-n junction diode in reverse bias:

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected
to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks down.

Figurer:4

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected
to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind
charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is
connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This
increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric
current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an
insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field
intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow,
usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-
destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the
semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
Forward and reverse bias characteristics if a silicon diode:

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease
the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should
be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph,
you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode).
This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figurer:5

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing
leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the
barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse bias character of germanium diode:

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease
the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should
be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium diode. From
the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts
(for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figurer:6

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing
leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the
barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Diode equation:

In forward biased and reverse biased regions, the current(I), voltage(v), of semiconductor diode are related by the
diode equation:

Where,

“Is” is reverse saturation current or leakage current,

“If” is current through the diode (forward current)
“Vf” is potential difference across the diode terminals (forward voltage)
“VT” is thermal voltage, given by

And

K is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10^-23 j/kelvin,

Q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10^-19 coulombs,

T is the absolute temperature in kelvin (k=273+celcius),

At room temperature the thermal voltage is 25.7 mV,

N is the empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, is a number that can vary according to voltage and current levels. It depends on electron drift,
diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. among the quantities affecting values of n are the diode
manufacture, levels of dropping and purity of materials

Note:

1. Ideal Diode Model: Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open (non-conducting).
Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when voltage is applied in the forward direction,
and an open circuit, like an open switch, when the voltage is applied in the reverse direction.

2. Offset Voltage Model: The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model. When the
diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source equal
to the barrier potential (0.6 V for Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive side towards the anode. When
the diode is reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model.

3. Complete diode Model: It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode model of a diode
consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance and the ideal diode. The resistor
approximates the semiconductor resistance under forward bias. This diode model most accurately represents
the true operating characteristics of the real diode.

4. When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This current can be effectively
ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not exceeded. At potentials greater than the
reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled through the p-n junction by the strong electric fields in the device
and large reverse current flows. This usually destroys the device. There are special diodes that are designed to
operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called Zener diodes and used as voltage regulators.

When is each model used?

Ideal Diode Model: This is primarily used in troubleshooting. Is the diode working or not? The greatest utility of the
ideal diode model is in determining which diodes are on and which are off in a multi-diode circuit.

Offset Voltage Model: This is used when a more accurate determination of load current or voltage is required.

Complete Diode Model: This is use during the actual design of circuits using diodes.

Procedure

1. Forward Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Select the diode.

3. Set the resistor.

4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.

5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to the N side(cathode) of
the diode.
 6. Now vary the voltage up to 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC voltage.

7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.

8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI

10. Therefore, from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figure:1

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode:

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2V.

2. Select the diode.

3. Set the resistor.

4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.

5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.

6. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.

7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
 8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Figure:2

3. Forward Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.

3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.

4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of battery
is connected to the N side(cathode) of the diode.

5. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC
voltage.

6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode and Ammeter reading.

7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

8. Therefore, from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figure:1

4. Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.

3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.

4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.

5. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.

6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.

7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Figure:2

Observation:

Silicon
Germanium:
 EXPERIMENT-6
Aim:

To calculate the beam divergence and spot size of the given laser beam.

Laser:

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a mechanism for
emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of stimulated emission. The laser was the first device capable of
amplifying light waves themselves. The emitted laser light is a spatially coherent, narrow low-divergence beam. When
the waves (or photons) of a beam of light have the same frequency, phase and direction, it is said to be coherent.
There are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. According
to the encyclopaedia of laser physics and technology, beam divergence of a laser beam is a measure for how fast the
beam expands far from the beam waist. A laser beam with a narrow beam divergence is greatly used to make laser
pointer devices. Generally, the beam divergence of laser beam is measured using beam profiler.

Lasers usually emit beams with a Gaussian profile. A Gaussian beam is a beam of electromagnetic radiation whose
transverse electric field and intensity (irradiance) distributions are described by Gaussian functions.

For a Gaussian beam, the amplitude of the complex electric field is given by

were,

r - radial distance from the centre axis of the beam

z - axial distance from the beam's narrowest point

i - imaginary unit (for which i2 = − 1)

k - wave number (in radians per meter).

w(z) - radius at which the field amplitude drops to 1/e and field intensity to 1/e2 of their axial values, respectively.

w (0) - waist size.

E0 = |E (0,0) |

R(z) - radius of curvature of the beam's wavefronts

ζ(z) - Gouy phase shift. It is an extra contribution to the phase that is seen in beams which obey Gaussian profiles.

The corresponding time-averaged intensity (or irradiance) distribution is

where I0 = I(0,0) is the intensity at the centre of the beam at its waist. The constant  is defined as the characteristic
impedance of the medium through which the beam is propagating.

For vacuum,

Beam parameters:

Beam parameters govern the behaviour and geometry of a Gaussian beam. The important beam parameters are
described below.

Beam divergence:

The light emitted by a laser is confined to a rather narrow cone. But, when the beam propagates outward, it slowly
diverges or fans out. For an electromagnetic beam, beam divergence is the angular measure of the increase in the
radius or diameter with distance from the optical aperture as the beam emerges.

The divergence of a laser beam can be calculated if the beam diameter d1 and d2 at two separate distances are
known. Let z1and z2 are the distances along the laser axis, from the end of the laser to points “1” and “2”.

Usually, divergence angle is taken as the full angle of opening of the beam. Then,

Half of the divergence angle can be calculated as

where w1 and w2 are the radii of the beam at z1 and z2.

Like all electromagnetic beams, lasers are subject to divergence, which is measured in milliradians (mrad) or
degrees. For many applications, a lower-divergence beam is preferable.

Spot size:

Spot size is nothing but the radius of the beam itself. The irradiance of the beam decreases gradually at the edges.

The distance across the centre of the beam for which the irradiance (intensity) equals 1/e2 of the maximum irradiance
(1/e2 = 0.135) is defined as the beam diameter. The spot size (w) of the beam is defined as the radial distance (radius)
from the centre point of maximum irradiance to the 1/e2 point.

Gaussian laser beams are said to be diffraction limited when their radial beam divergence is close to the minimum
possible value, which is given by

where λ is the wavelength of the given laser and w0 is the radius of the beam at the narrowest point, which is termed
as the beam waist.

Procedure:

• Arrange the laser and detector in an optical bench arrangement.

 • The laser is switched on and is made to incident on the photodiode.

• Fix the distance, z between the detector and the laser source.

• By adjusting the micrometre of the detector, move the spot in the horizontal direction, from left to right.

• Note the output current for each distance, x from the measuring device.

• Then the beam profile is plotted with the micrometre distance along the X-axis and intensity of current along
Y-axis. We will get a gaussian curve.

beam profile of Laser beam divergence.

• The experiment is repeated for different detector distances.

• Note the points in the graph where the intensity equals 1/e2 of the maximum intensity.

• Find the micrometre distance across the beam corresponding to these points (B-A from the Fig.1) for a pair of
detector distances z1 and z2. Half of this distance is noted as w1and w2.

• Then the divergence and spot size of the laser beam can be calculated from the equations.

Observations:

One pitch scale division (n) = 0.5 mm

Number of divisions on head scale (m) = 50

Least count = n/m = 0.01

Calculations:

Results:

Divergence angle(Θ) = (d2-d1)/(z2-z1) = 0.5 mrad

 EXPERIMENT-7
Aim:

To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fibre and hence to find its acceptance angle.

Theory:

Optical fibres are fine transparent glass or

plastic fibres which can propagate light.
They work under the principle of total
internal reflection from diametrically
opposite walls. In this way light can be
taken anywhere because fibres have
enough flexibility. This property makes
them suitable for data communication,
design of fine endoscopes, micro sized
microscopes etc. An optic fibre consists of
a core that is surrounded by a cladding
which are normally made of silica glass or
plastic. The core transmits an optical signal
while the cladding guides the light within
the core. Since light is guided through the
fibre it is sometimes called an optical wave
guide. The basic construction of an optic
fibre is shown in figure (1).

In order to understand the propagation of

light through an optical fibre, consider the figure (2).
Consider a light ray (i) entering the core at a point A,
travelling through the core until it reaches the core
cladding boundary at point B. As long as the light ray
intersects the core-cladding boundary at a small angle, the
ray will be reflected back in to the core to travel on to point
C where the process of reflection is repeated., total internal
reflection takes place. Total internal reflection occurs only
when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. If a ray enters an optic fibre at a steep angle(ii), when
this ray intersects the core-cladding boundary, the angle of intersection is too large. So, reflection back in to the core
does not take place and the light ray is lost in the cladding. This means that to be guided through an optic fibre, a light
ray must enter the core with an angle less than a particular angle called the acceptance angle of the fibre. A ray which
enters the fibre with an angle greater than the acceptance angle will be lost in the cladding.

Consider an optical fibre having a core of refractive index n1 and cladding of refractive index n2. let the incident light
makes an angle i with the core axis as shown in figure (3). Then the light gets refracted at an angle θ and fall on the
core-cladding interface at an angle where,
 ---------------------- (1)

By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the

optical fibre we get,

-------------------- (2)

Where n0 is refractive index of medium outside the

fibre. For air n0 =1.

When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium and so it may be totally reflected back
to the core medium if θ' exceeds the critical angle θ'c. The critical angle is that angle of incidence in denser medium
(n1) for which angle of refraction become 90°. Using Snell’s laws at core cladding interface,

or

----------------------- (3)

Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fibre as guided wave, the angle of incidence at core-
cladding interface should be greater than θ'c. As i increases, θ increases and so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is
maximum value of angle of incidence beyond which, it does not propagate rather it is refracted in to cladding medium
(fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say im is called maximum angle of acceptance and n0 sin im is termed as the
numerical aperture (NA).

From equation (2),

From equation (2)

Therefore,

The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle im only propagate through the fibre. The
higher the value of im or NA more is the light collected for propagation in the fibre. Numerical aperture is thus
considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.

Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fibre’s light acceptance cone. i.e., NA= Sin θa where θa,
is called acceptance cone angle.

Let the spot size of the beam at a distance d (distance between the fibre end and detector) as the radius of the spot(r).
Then,

------------------------ (4)

To perform the experiment:

• Set the detector distance Z (say 4mm). We referred the distance as “d” in our calculation.

• Vary the detector distance X by an order of 0.5mm, using the screw gauge (use up and down arrow on the
screw gauge to rotate it).

• Measure the detector reading from output unit and tabulate it.
 • Plot the graph between X in x-axis and output reading in y-axis. See figure 5.

• Find the radius of the spot r, which is corresponding to Imax/2.71 (See the figure 5).

Fig (5)

• Then find the numerical aperture of the optic fibre using the equation (4).
Observations:
Calculations:
Result:

Acceptance aperture of optic fibre = 0.513

 EXPERIMENT-8
AIM:

To study the polarization of light by simple reflection that is to study Brewster’s law.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A rectangular metallic box with diode laser fitted on one side and photon detector is mounted on an arm which may
be rotated co axially with respect to rotation of a turn table with index line to read angle of rotation with respect to
graduated disc fitted at the middle of the top plate of rectangular box. A pile of glass plates is fixed on top of turn
table. Glass plates Digital meter reading Diode laser Photon detector

THEORY BEHIND EXPERIMENT:

E.L Malus French Engineer discovered in 1808 polarization of light by reflection. He Noticed that when natural light is
incident on a smooth surface at a certain angle the Reflected beam is plane polarized. The extent to which polarization
occurs is dependent Upon the angle at which the light is incident on surface is made of metallic surfaces Reflected light
with variety of vibrational directions, such reflected light is unpolarized. However, light that is secularly reflected from
dielectric surfaces such as asphalt road Ways, water etc, as linearly polarized.
 Let us consider a light wave that is electromagnetic wave made up of mutually perpendicular, fluctuating electric
and magnetic fields. The polarization of electromagnetic wave is taken as the direction of direction electric field vector.
So, the light wave can be described by the electric field vector. When a light waves the unpolarized light is incident on
a boundary between two dielectric materials (glass & air). there always be a reflected ray and refracted ray.

 The electric vector of the ray can be resolved into two components. One is perpendicular to plane and the other is
parallel to plane of incidence.

 The perpendicular components are represented by dots “.” is called s-component. the parallel components are
represented by arrows “”is called p-polarization.

In case of completely un polarized light the components are of equal magnitude. From electromagnetic waves we
know that it contains mutually perpendicular electric & magnetic fields. By considering the components of the fields let
us derive an expression. we will assume that electric vector to lie in the plane of incidence & magnetic vectors are
along y-axis. Clearly z-components of electric fields represent a tangential component which should be continuous
across the surface.

E1z + E3z = E2z

-E1cosθ1 + E3cosѲ1 = -E2cosѲ2---------------->(1)

Once again, since this condition has to be Satisfied at all points in space X=0

(E1-E3) cosѲ1 = E2cosѲ2------------------->(2)

Further, the normal component of D must also Be continuous and since D= εE we must have,

ε1E1x + ε1E3x = ε2E2x------------------>(3)

ε1(E1+E3) sinѲ1 = ε2E2sinѲ2--------------->(4)

Substituting E2 from equation (3) we get

ε1(E1+E3) sinѲ1 = ε2sinѲ2 (E1-E3)/cosѲ2 cosѲ2

(E2sinѲ2cosѲ1 + E1sinѲ1cosѲ2) E3 = (ε2sinѲ2cosѲ1-ε1sinѲ1cosѲ2)E1

Thus, rll = E3/E1 = ε2sinѲ2cosѲ1-ε1sinѲ1cosѲ2/ε2sinѲ2cosѲ1+ε1sinѲ1cosѲ2-------------->(5)

Where r denotes the amplitude reflection co efficient and subscript ‘ll’ represents parallel polarization.

And the expression for amplitude reflection co efficient simplifies to

rll = n2 2 sinѲ2cosѲ1-n 2 1 sinѲ1cosѲ2/n2 2 sinѲ1cosѲ2

From Snell’s law we know that sinѲ1/sinѲ2 = n2/n1

We get,

rll = n2cosѲ1-n1cosѲ2/n2cosѲ1+n1cosѲ2

again, by using Snell’s law

rll = sinѲ1cosѲ1-sinѲ2cosѲ2/sinѲ1cosѲ1+sinѲ2cosѲ2

rll = tan(Ѳ1-Ѳ2)/ tan ( Ѳ1 +Ѳ2) ---------------->(7)

 Now by considering a special case Ѳ1+Ѳ2 = 90°. The denominator of equation (7) becomes infinitely large so rll = 0

 That is there is no reflected beam. Thus, if an un polarized beam is incident at an angle such that Ѳ1+Ѳ2 =90°. Then
the parallel component of the E-vector will not be reflected and reflected light will be polarized with its E-vector
perpendicular to plane of incidence. We can say that reflected light is plane polarized.

From Snell’s law, sinѲ1/sinѲ2 =n2/n1

sinѲ1/cosѲ1 =n2/n1 (Ѳ1+Ѳ2=90 °)

tanѲ1 = n2/n1

Ѳ1 = tan -1 (n2/n1)

 This is known as Brewster’s angle. BREWSTERS LAW – tangent of the angle at which polarization is obtained by
reflection is numerically equal to refractive index of the medium.
 Thus, when the angle of incidence is equal to tan-1 (n2/n1) then the reflected beam is plane polarized. Pile of Glass
plates Digital meter reading Diode laser Photon detector r.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

 Diode laser light is allowed to incident on the glass plate and the reflected light is received by the photon detector.
Note the reading in the digital meter which is provided on the front panel.

 Now rotate the turn table (manually) with the increment of 5° and so on and take the readings of the reflected light
received by the detector. It is evident that the angle of incidence (Ѳ) the reflected light received at 2Ѳ. At an angle of
57° the plane of vibration of beam is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Hence intensity received by photo
detector is zero near zero.

 Graph is plotted between angle of incidence and amount of light received by detector to prove Brewster’s law.

Observations:

Angle of incidence (i)degree Digital meter reading

5 1.76

10 1.14

15 0.83

20 0.68

25 0.61

30 0.55

35 0.49

40 0.34

45 0.23

50 0.20

55 0.08

60 0.19

65 0.44

70 0.51
 EXPERIMENT-9
Aim:

1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.

2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.

Apparatus:

Two solenoids, Constant current supply, four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of
Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

Theory:

If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will generate in the
conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid
state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in X-direction using
Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is
the thickness. There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say electrons) toward
the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse
electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this
effect is called Hall Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top and bottom is
measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0, the voltage difference will be zero.

We know that a current flow in response to an applied electric field with its direction as conventional and it is either
due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the

application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the
charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an
electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical electric field can
be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.

In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can express it as

(2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field and 'v' is the drift
velocity of charge carriers.

And the current 'I' can be expressed as,

(3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l, breadth 'w' and thickness 't'.

Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

(4)

by rearranging eq (4) we get

(5)
Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

RH=1/ne (6)

Procedure:

Controls:

Combo box

Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.

1) Magnetic field Vs Current.

2) Hall effect setup.

Select Material: This slider activates only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to select the material for
finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.

Button

Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the solenoid.

Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to display the Hall voltage/
current in the digital meter.

Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

Slider

Current: This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.

Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current

Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.
Repeat the experiment with different magnetic field.
Procedure:

Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.

• Four probes are connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.

• Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.

• Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note the corresponding
Gauss meter readings.

• Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant current source
towards minimum current.

• Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current Generator and connect red
wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus

• Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of the two solenoids.

• Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.

• Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH. Repeat this step for
different magnetic field B.

• Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.

• Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH using the equation 5.

• Then calculate the carrier concentration n. using equation 6.

Calculations:

Result:

Hall coefficient of the material = 0.10105

 EXPERIMENT-10
Aim:

1. Explain the function of a Zener diode

2. Explain Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode:

A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also
allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above the breakdown voltage or ‘Zener’ voltage.
Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts.

Figure:1

Figure:2
Function of Zener Diode:

1. Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction.

2. Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value.
This breakdown voltage is known as the Zener voltage. In a standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the
diode is permanently damaged if a reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it.

3. In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the breakdown voltage is
reached. When this occurs, there is a sharp increase in reverse current. Varying amount of reverse current can
pass through the diode without damaging it. The breakdown voltage or Zener voltage (VZ) across the diode
remains relatively constant.

Zener Diode as A Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of the load current,
temperature and AC line voltage variations. A Zener diode of break down voltage VZ is reverse connected to an input
voltage source VI across a load resistance RLRL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the Zener will remain steady
at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of Zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down
region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0=VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input voltage remains within a
minimum and maximum voltage. Basically, there are two type of regulations such as:
Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input voltage is
changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a minimum value.
Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output volt remains
same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

Line Regulation

Figure:3
In Line Regulation, Load resistance is constant and input voltage varies. VI must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener
Diode ON.

VL=VZ=(VImin×RL)/(RS+RL)

So, the minimum turn-on voltage VImin is:

VImin=VZ×(RS+RL)/RL

The maximum value of VI is limited by the maximum Zener current IZmax

IRmax=IZmax+IL

IL is fixed at:

VZ/RL Since,VL=VZ

So maximum VI is

VImax=(VRmax+VZ)VImax

or,

VImax= IRmax×(R+VZ)
For VI<VZ,

VO=VI

For VI>VZ,

VO= VI−IS×RS

Load Regulation:

Figure:4

In Load Regulation, input voltage is constant and Load resistance varies. Too small a Load Resistance RL, will result
in VTh<VZ and Zener Diode will be OFF.

VL=VZ=(VImin×RL)/(RS+RL)

So the minimum load resistance RL

RLmin =(VZ×RS)/(VI−VZ)

Any load resistance greater than RLmin will make Zener Diode ON

IS=IL+IZ

RLmin will establish maximum IL as

ILmax=VL/RLmin=VL/RLmin Since, VL=VZ

VS is the voltage drop across RS

VS= VImin−VZ

IS=(VImin−VZ)/RS

For RL<RLmin,

VO=VI
For RL > RLmin,

VO=VI−IS×RS

Procedure:

Experiment:

1. Zener Diode - Line Regulation

1. Set the Zener Voltage (VZ)

2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.

3. Set the Load Resistance (RL) value.

4. Vary DC voltage.

5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series resistor.

6. Choose appropriate DC voltage such that Zener diode is 'on'.

7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various DC voltage.

8. Note the Load current (IL), Zener current (IZ), Output voltage (VO)

9. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Figure:1
 2. Zener Diode - Load Regulation

1. Set DC voltage.

2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.

3. 1W D0-41 Glass Zener Diode 1N4740A, Zener voltage is 10 V.

4. Vary the Load Resistance (RL).

5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series resistor.

6. Choose Load Resistance in such a manner, such that the Zener diode is 'on'.

7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various Load Resistance.

8. Increase the load resistance (RL).

9. Note the Load current (IL), Zener current (IZ), Output voltage (VO)

10. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Figure:2

3. Zener Characteristics

1. Select the diode

2. Set the rheostat Rh=1 Ω

3. By adjusting the rheostat, voltmeter reading is increased from 0 and in each time note the
corresponding reading in milliammeter.

4. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Zener diode and Ammeter reading.
 5. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Figure:3

Observations:
 EXPERIMENT-11
Aim:

To Determine Energy Band Gap of Semiconductor

Theory:

About the Experiment:

In the case of insulators, the region between highest level of completely filled valence band and the lowest level of
allowed conduction band is very wide. This is called energy gap, denoted by Eg and is about 3 eV to 7 eV in case of
insulators. In case of semiconductors, this energy gap is quite small. For example, in case of germanium, Eg =0.7 eV and
in case of silicon Eg =1.1 eV. In semiconductors at low temperatures, there are few charges carriers to move so
conductivity is quite low. At higher temperatures, the donor or acceptor levels come in to action and provide charge
carriers and hence the conduction increases. In addition to the dependence of the electrical conductivity on the
number of free charges, it also depends on their mobility. However, mobility of the charge carriers somewhat
decreases with increasing temperature but on the average the conductivity of the semiconductors rises with increasing
temperature. To determine the energy gap of a semi-conducting material, we study the variation of its conductance
with temperature. In reverse bias, the currents flowing through the junction are quite small and internal heating of the
junction does not take place.

In the reverse bias, the saturated value of the reverse current for a PN junction diode is given by,

Is =A.T3/2 e -Eg/KT _ _ _ _ _(1)

Where,

A= constant term

Is = saturation current in micro ampere

T = temperature of junction diode in Kelvin

Eg = band gap in eV

K = Boltzmann constant in eV per Kelvin

For small changes in temperature where log T can be treated as constant relation (1) can be written as

log10Is = constant – 5.04 Eg. 103 /T_ _ _ _ (2)

Graph between 103 /T as abscissa and log10Is as ordinate will be a straight line having a slope = 5.04Eg

Hence band gap

Eg = slope of the line / 5.04

Observations: