Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Groundwater in Central

Region of Somalia
Nasreldin1, 2,* H. A., Ahmednor1 A. H., Mohamed3 A. B
1
Gurmad for Sustainable Aid (GSA), Somalia; Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals, Sudan
3
Faculty of Science, Geology Department, Banadir University, Somalia
* Corresponding author e-mail: nasrgsa@gmail.com

1. Abstract
Groundwater is an important water resource in Central Somalia. The purpose of this paper is
to evaluate the groundwater quality in the area based on geological, hydrogeological, and
hydrochemical investigations. The study area covered by varying thickness of red Sand,
Gypsum, caliche and limestone overlay limestone, marl, gypsiferous interbedded with clays,
and sand of Tertiary age, unconformably overlying the Cretaceous limestone, gypsiferous
limestone, gypsum, sand and sandstone deposited under continental, lagunal, and shallow
marine environments proceeding from the border with Ethiopia toward the coast. The general
groundwater flow direction in the study area is from west south west to east north east toward
the coastal plain. The aquifer system of the study area consists of two aquifers and the two of
them seems to have inherited its physic-chemical properties from the hosting sedimentary
formations. Natural minerals dissolution, ion exchanges and evaporation play a prominent
role in the ion enrichment of groundwater. The results of the water samples chemical
analyses are “Total” rather than “Dissolved” concentrations, and the samples are dominated
by metals (cations), not carbonates (anions). The total dissolved solids, electrical
conductivity, total hardness, and sodium-adsorption ratio values tend to increase towards the
central zone. The groundwater type is Ca2+- Mg2+-Cl--SO42- and Na+-Mg2+-CL- water types
and close to coastline groundwater is chloride- sodium type, reflecting the effect of marine
intrusion. The results also showed that groundwater quality in the study area in relation to
WHO water quality standards is unsuitable for drinking purposes. Extraction from only the
lower aquifer with sealing of the upper one is recommended within the saline zone.

Key Words: Groundwater; Hydrogeochemistry; Suitability; Central Somalia

2. Introduction
Groundwater is a significant and crucial resource in many rural and urban communities in
central part of Somalia and it plays a key role as a water supply for domestic, agricultural,
and industrial purposes. It represents a vital resource in the central region of Somalia due to
the unavailability of other sources. In this area water needs are dramatically increasing,
demanded by a rapidly growing population, increased urbanization and poor groundwater
productivity of wells due to the climate change (Awale, 2007; USAID, 2014; Nasreldin,
2016). A 2011 Global Water Stress Index, which includes the relationship between water
supply and demand, categorized Somalia as a ‘high risk’ country (Maplecroft, 2011).

1
Despite importance of groundwater in the study area, there is neither a hydrogeological map
nor a sound policy for groundwater management and exploration in the area. The last study of
this type carried out for all central Somalia in 1986 by C. Faillace and E. R. Faillace, and that
study was limited to some areas. The state of knowledge about hydrogeology, quality and
quantity of groundwater resources is very poor. Therefore, it becomes imperative to study the
hydrogeological regime and groundwater chemistry of the study area to obtain the first hand
information about the possible geological as well as anthropogenic influence on the
groundwater in the study area.

The chemical composition of groundwater is controlled by many factors that include

composition of precipitation, geological structure and mineralogy of the watersheds and
aquifers, and geochemical processes within the aquifer (Mathess 1982; Kumar et al, 2006;
Nareldin et al, 2015). The interaction of all factors leads to various water types (Domenico,
1972; Schuh et al, 1997; Hassan, 2004).

3. Study Area
The study area is located in central Somalia, It is bordered to the east by the Indian Ocean,
west by Ethiopia and it extends between longitudes 45.538º E – 49.155º E and latitudes
6.599º N – 3.477º N covers an area of approximately146000 km2 (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Location and DEM map of the study in central part of Somalia

2
The area is characterized by an arid climate with hot conditions prevail year-round with
average daily temperature ranges from 25 to 40°C. Rainfall is considerably variable from one
season to another and irregular yearly distribution. There are two rainy seasons, GU main
season from April to May which is characterized by intense, short rainstorms and Deyr
season from October to November with average annual rainfall ranges between 200 mm to
400 mm moving from north to south and evapo-transpiration rate ranges from about 129.6
mm/year in winter to about 204.6 mm/year (SWALIM, 2016). The availability of water
governs the population distribution and settlement, where most of them are pastoralists and
agro-pastoralists with constantly mobile nature, due to lack of dependable year-round water
sources. Geomorphologically, the study area is a vast; nearly featureless, gently undulating
area which stretches from the Ethiopian border and sloping gently towards the Indian Ocean.
Some ancestral drainage system is clearly distinguished from the satellite images, covered by
limestone gypsiferous-clay soils. The floodplain is formed by a tectonic depression, and
probably bounded by faults. The area is characterized by scattered short grass and acacia
trees with an increasing density pattern at the termination of the drainage systems.

4. Geological and Hydrogeological Setting

Geologically, the central part of Somalia is covered by sediment dating from Cretaceous to
Recent (Fig. 2). The area has been described by Kozerenko (1972) and Pozzi, et al (1983),
and several geological maps by Florence University (1973). Faillace and Faillace
Hydrogeology and Water Quality Reports (1986) were based on the above mentioned works
(Basnyat D, 2007, Balint Z, 2011).

Figure 2: General geological map of South Central Somali and Groundwater samples
locations, (after Abbate et al., 1994)

3
The central part of Somalia covered by varying thickness of Cenozoic sediments and
limestone inter-bedded with clays, evaporites intercalated with clay and sand of Tertiary age,
unconformably overlying the Cretaceous limestone, gypsiferous limestone, caliche, sandstone
and sandy shales (Table. 1).

Table 1: Summarizes the Stratigraphic column of the study area as follows:

No Type of Rock Age

1. Superficial deposits consist of alluvial, colluvial, sand-dunes and Coral Quaternary
limestone.
2. Consists of Limestone, evaporitic rocks and thick extensive series of Tertiary
sedimentary rocks.
Karkar Formation (Limestone and Marls)
Undifferentiated sediment
Tertiary Basalt
3. Limestone, Gypsum, Sandstone and Marls. Cretaceous
Main Gypsum Formation
Mustaxiil Formation
Beled Weyne Formation
Fer Fer Formation
Yasooman Formation

The lithological characteristics of the Cretaceous formations indicate a shallow sea with
extensive lagunal environments where evaporates were deposited (Pozzi et al, 1983; Faillace,
et al, 1986; Abbate E et al, 1994). Continental, lagunal, and marine sediments are therefore
present proceeding from the Ogaden towards the cost. During the Oligocene the deep
fractures that occurred in the Ethiopian produced extensive basalt lava flows which covered
large areas in the central parts of Mudug and Galgaduud regions (Faillace, et al, 1986).
According to Faillace, et al. 1986, the subsequent uplifting accompanied by the withdrawal of
the Cretaceous sea from the western part of the study area created a dominant regressive
facies with the deposition of the Yasooman formation composed of conglomerates,
sandstones, sandy mudstones and mudstones. Yasooman formation is covered by dense
karstified limestone, covered by red sand and crusts of Caliche. This formation is considered
as the most important and major water-bearing formation in the area. The quaternary aquifer
in the study area is represented by wadi sediments and alluvial plains.

The architecture of the sedimentary basins in central Somalia is poorly known, but it is
considered to have formed during the Mesozoic break-up of Gondwana, similar to NW-
trending Mesozoic rifts that exist throughout Northern and Eastern Africa (Binks, et al.,
1994). The geophysical surveys of the oil exploration in Somalia have identified three main
faults: a major fault (or fault system), running approximately parallel to the coast, separates
the coastal Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments from the Oligocene-Miocene sediments; a less
important fault from Galtardo to Matabaan affects the Yasooman Formation; a fault
complementary to the costal fault passes close to the Ceel Buur and affects mainly Tertiary
sediments. The hydrogeological significance of these faults is not well known (Pozzi et al,
1983; Faillace et al, 1986). These faults surely have some effect on the groundwater
movement of the deep aquifers and contribute, together with the impervious, large and thick

4
basalt intercalation, to create semi-confined and confined conditions for the underlying water
bearing formations in western and southwestern part of the study area. Clayey intercalations
in the lower Yasoomman sediments and the fault extending from Gal Tardo to Matabaan may
also create favorable structural conditions by sealing off the western side of the artesian
basin. The sub surface lava flow acts as an aquiclude for the underlying water bearing
limestone and sands, creating confining condition with a strong hydrostatic head (Faillace et
al, 1986).

From a hydrogeological point of view and using geophysical methods, two groundwater
aquifers systems are existence in the study area; upper aquifer composed mainly of alluvial
sediments and shallow carbonate rocks is found at depths ranging between 20-30m, with
medium to high permeability and high infiltration capacity, while the lower aquifer is
predominantly Tertiary and Cretaceous limestone and sandstone found at depths below 90m.
Groundwater mainly occurs under unconfined conditions. However, the presences of basalt
and clay lenses within the sandstone sequences impose a local confinement. Groundwater
movement within the aquifers shows different flow directions. Recharge takes place from the
occasional rainfalls.

5. Methodology
The study is carried out with the help of two major components: input data from remote
sensing, topographic sheets, geological maps, and data collected during the field work. The
geological succession of the area (Kozerenko, 1972; Pozzi et al, 1983; Faillace et al, 1986
and Abbate E et al, 1994) and field data have been used as a reference for the drawing of the
geology and lineaments (faults) map as well as the main geomorphologic features of the
study area.

During field work, a total of 50 groundwater samples have been collected from different
boreholes and shallow wells in the survey areas using 500mL plastic bottles, each bottle was
rinsed with the targeted water 3-4 times before filling. Names and locations of these water
points are provided in table 2. On-site physicochemical parameters such as Electrical
conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), temperature and pH of the samples were
measured (Table. 2) using Hanna portable water analysis kit. Field work also included the
study of the geological and geo-morphological features.

Laboratory work included chemical analysis of the collected water samples for cations,
anions as well as for trace elements, followed by data analyses using AquaChem v.2012.1.
The concentrations of cations were measured using Atom Adsorption Spectrometry, selected
trace metals (Fe, Pb, Ar, Cr, Zn, Cu) were determined. For anion determination, ion
chromatography (Dionex DX 120) has been used. These measurements were done at
Spectralab in Nairobi. All the concentrations were expressed in mg/l and µg/l except for pH
which is expressed in dimensionless number. The quality assessment was made through the
estimation of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, CL-, SO42-, HCO-3, total hardness as CaCO3, TDS, EC
and pH. Based on these analyses, parameters like sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and Total
Hardness were calculated.

5
Table 2: Physico-chemical data of the wells in the study area

Source Name Lat Long Depth Water EC PH TDS TH SAR

m Level µS/cm mg/L mg/L epm
m
Abdul BH-2 6.75067 47.4280 225 77.7 4040 7.5 2020 4388.08 6.71
Saxqurun BH 6.81098 47.1756 165 94.2 3760 7.5 1880 5132.57 13.66
Gowlalo BH 6.6188 47.0720 180 89 4000 7.7 2001 1873.72 37.88
Tawakal BH 6.48343 46.9370 180 90 3000 7.1 1500 1888.98 18.94
Docol BH 6.43266 47.492 190 40 3510 7.8 1760 6921.14 5.92
Qarqora BH 6.7404 47.7011 250 76 4810 7.5 2400 11779.7 10.07
Dawaf SH 6.52653 47.6794 16 13.6 3330 7.7 1650 3675.04 1.85
Roobda’ay BH 6.16748 46.6329 200 23 3940 7.7 1980 1909.08 36.93
Carmooley BH 5.89498 46.9232 250 53 5700 8.1 2850 5907.99 37.44
Iidoole BH 6.17098 46.8493 175 85 3480 7.4 1780 1171.53 47.56
Gaduudshe BH 6.30748 46.5798 185 70 3930 7.7 1960 1834.58 33.45
Baxdo Gab BH 6.18722 47.1097 216 5.1 3500 7.3 1750 2210.15 21.11
Barwaaqo BH 6.42554 46.7011 196 120 3220 7.6 1610 1658.60 35.54
Dowagaab BH 6.12309 47.4202 170 52 4340 7.6 2180 2533.93 21.91
Kaxindho SH 5.9876 47.1285 20 4 1280 7.2 2570 1436.22 0.71
Hilmo SH 6.28813 47.2780 35 18 3240 7.4 1620 4891.41 1.58
Roobda’y BH 5.92677 46.3648 150 38 3220 7.6 1600 1383.99 35.25
Huurshe BH 6.12385 46.3173 100 70 3850 7.5 1940 5162.56 21.93
Sacuudi BH 6.24083 46.2272 140 70 3440 7.5 1720 2776.83 27.85
Inagibile BH-2 6.05997 45.8356 120 80 2500 8.4 1250 8627.18 9.81
Olol BH 5.91489 46.2319 108 32 3540 7.6 1770 2174.29 33.70
Sheikh SH 5.95817 46.0121 80 64. 2730 7.7 1365 1402.79 19.27
Qardhi SH 6.00978 46.6141 18 8 1370 7.5 670 2241.22 1.15
Qorah BH 4.96442 45.9398 170 54 3730 8.1 1860 8617.75 15.06
Gadoon BH 5.69516 46.6729 240 161 4440 8.0 2230 2434.45 38.65
Bulshokaab BH 5.53755 46.3977 176 1 2820 7.6 1390 1750.25 39.65
Durdur BH 5.87429 46.6312 242 14 4400 7.3 2200 5368.52 25.21
Marsamage BH 5.6271 47.3951 200 20 5860 7.6 2940 583.46 107.4
Lasxadow BH 5.68909 46.2348 167 50 7520 7.5 3760 7369.69 38.41
Ceelbaraf SH 5.23592 45.8228 100 88.8 3150 7.5 1550 1568.41 31.49
Nation SH 5.30833 45.8861 90 45 3900 7.3 1960 10549.9 3.79
Xinlbi BH 5.41373 47.6502 250 15 20000 7.1 10000 18347.3 76.76
Serjimale BH 6.84724 47.8632 225 68.8 6450 7.1 3240 11302.9 18.33
Bitale BH-1 6.70531 47.8378 240 60 3660 7.2 1830 6233.71 7.08
Xingid BH-2 6.26072 48.4385 180 56 14300 7.9 7000 7960.56 71.43
Gawaan BH 5.31137 48.325 136 100 2520 8.4 1260 2158.21 37.71
Wisil BH-1 5.44548 48.1366 100 41.4 3920 7.7 1960 1085.57 71.45
Qaidaro BH 5.79628 47.4883 150 14.4 4900 8.1 2450 2170.04 49.47
Galbrwaqo BH 6.12309 47.6768 204 79 4640 7.3 2320 6179.67 22.26
Budbud SH 6.1812 48.6873 8 5 3170 7.7 1600 1751.96 25.46
Ceeldibir SH-2 5.89203 48.3478 7 2 7000 7.5 3500 7153.68 35.60

6
Hobyo SH 5.35044 48.5297 4 2 4020 8.0 2010 2825.99 13.43
Camara SH 5.26879 47.9113 24 6 2600 8.0 1370 1254.25 30.39
Taranbi BH 4.44239 46.4612 147 33 1670 7.7 3350 1361.61 35.15
Jacar BH 4.41737 46.8834 105 69 2990 7.6 5990 3144.39 56.64
Caraweyne BH 4.34040 46.5426 215 3 1710 8 3410 7574.10 12.20
Cosweyne BH 4.12397 46.9168 190 85 1340 7.8 2680 1315.49 49.91
Bargaan BH 4.36568 47.0475 150 20 1530 7.7 3060 1183.71 39.98
Celgula BH 6.01319 47.8572 201 50 8090 7.8 4050 8990.55 37.20
Galhareeri BH 4.53098 47.1461 183 60 1800 7.4 3600 1214.87 73.89

6. Results and Discussion

The physico-chemical and chemical data as well as SAR, TH and SI of all the investigated
groundwater are summarized in tables 2. Physical and chemical changes occurred on
groundwater samples, and this due to the long time was taken between the collection of the
samples and the laboratory analysis, add also the samples were not filtered in the field prior
to acidification in the lab which leads to dissolution of carbonates and metals precipitation,
and gives a high results of cations concentrations rather than anions. In this case the ion
balance will not be occurring. Therefore the results of analyses are “Total” rather than
“Dissolved” concentrations, and the samples are dominated by metals (cations), not
carbonates (anions). The physic-chemical composition of the groundwater varies over a wide
range, and this indicates that the groundwater in the study area is not uniform but differs
considerably, both in salinity and ionic composition due to dissolution, precipitation,
evaporation and ion exchange processes which are actively taking place within the
groundwater system.

The observed temperatures at the different groundwater samples were within a range of 27º
and 34ºC, which is slightly higher than the recommendation limit of the World Health
Organization (WHO, 2008). The examined groundwater samples were slightly, to moderately
alkaline water where the pH value ranges between 7.1 and 8.4.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) measurements denote the various types of minerals present in
water in the dissolved form. Generally TDS varies from 640 to 10000µS/cm and has an
average of 2487.97µS/cm in the study area. Based on total dissolved solids, the majority of
the samples (97.30%) from the study area fall above the permissible limit for drinking
purposes (WHO, 2008). The higher TDS of the water is result of ion exchange, solubilization
in the aquifer system, seawater intrusion and low hydraulic gradient in some areas with high
evaporation and evapotranspiration rates. This appears to be especially the case in eastern
part of the study area (Hobyo, Xarardheer, and eastern part of Ceel Dheer districts) (Fig. 3).

Groundwaters from the western part of the study area in border with Ethiopia are noted to be
dominated by sodium and sulphate with total dissolved solids concentrations in excess of
1500 mg/l. Furthermore, Cretaceous sedimentary aquifer (Shallow Aquifer) is characterized
by low salinity, although concentration of more than 500 mg/l in some areas. This is endorsed

7
to vertical seepage from the overlying aquifer zones elaborating partially hydraulic
interconnection of the aquifers system.

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of Total Dissolved Solid in the study area

Total Hardness (TH) and Sodium: Water hardness is caused primarily by the presence of
cations such as calcium, magnesium for total hardness and anions such as carbonate,
bicarbonate for carbonate hardness. Hard water is not a health hazard, but it may be
unsuitable for domestic use especially laundry.

Total Hardness (TH) was calculated in mg/L by the following equation (1):

TH= 2.497Ca+2 + 4.115Mg+2 … (Eq. 1)

In the study area, TH varies between 583.4 to 18347.3 mg/L (Fig. 4) which reflects the higher
contents of calcium and magnesium in water due to limestone, dolomites, gypsum and
anhydrite dissolution in the circulating waters (Garrels 1976). The calcium and magnesium
ions can also be derived from cation exchange process (Eq. 2).

(Ca, Mg)CO3+CO2+H2O=2HCO-3+Ca+2 + Mg+2…. (Eq. 2)

According to Sawyer and McCarty’s (1967) classification, most of the samples fall under
very hard class (>300 mg/L). The highest water hardness detected in coastal areas e.g.
Hobyo, Xarardheer and Ceel Dheer districts.

8
Excess sodium in water produces undesirable effects of changing soil properties and reducing
soil permeability. High sodium depositing waters are generally not suitable for irrigating
crops, as higher deposition of sodium may deteriorate the soil characteristics. The Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR) value in the study area ranges from 0.708 to 107.44 with mean value
of 30.88 and the salinity hazard increases gradually towards the coastal zone. Based on the
classification by the US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) the TDS and SAR exceed the
standard limits for irrigation water recommended by Todd (1970).

Figure 4: Spatial distribution of Total Hardness in the study area

Chloride and Sulphate: Generally, greater mineralization of groundwater within the study
area is associated with higher Chloride and Sulphate concentrations ranges from 36.70 mg/l
to 3043.34 mg/l and 12.43 to 1548 mg/l with an average value of 657.5 mg/l and 301.29 mg/l
respectively. The highest concentrations were detected in some boreholes in Hobyo,
Galkacyo and Ceel Buur areas (Fig. 5a and b) which might be due to gypsum, anhydrite, salt
dissolution in the circulating waters and sea water intrusion (Lusczynski and Swarzenski,
1996; Elango et al, 2003; Jeevanandam et al, 2006).

9
Figure 5a: Spatial distribution of Chloride in the study area

Figure 5b: Spatial distribution of Sulphate in the study area

10
Carbonate and Bicarbonate: The carbonate and bicarbonate concentration in groundwater is
derived from dissolution and weathering of carbonate bearing minerals and carbonic acid in
the aquifers (Jeevanandam et al, 2006; Kumar et al, 2009: Eq. 3).

CaCO3+CO2+H2O= Ca+2 + 2HCO-3 and CO2 + H2O=H++HCO-3 … (Eq. 3)

Bicarbonates in the study area range from 50.84 mg/l to 325.33 mg/l with a mean value of
150.07 mg/l (Fig. 6). Bicarbonate is the dominant anion among the anions of the groundwater
of the study area. The increase in the bicarbonate may be attributed to availability of the
carbonate minerals in the recharge area (Elango et al, 2003).

Figure 6: Spatial distribution of the Bicarbonate in the study area

Fluoride: Concentrations of Fluoride greater than the WHO guideline value of 1.5 mg/l have
been found in groundwater of the most of boreholes and shallow wells in the study area, but
are recognized to be highest in Hobyo, Xarardheer and Ceel Dheer district. Concentrations
often greater than 6 mg/l are found in waters from Xigod, Xinlabe and Ceelgula boreholes in
Hobyo district (Fig. 7). As a result of the long-term use of high-fluoride drinking water, both
dental and skeletal fluorosis is known to occur in populations from central areas. Several
wells with temperatures of 35ºC or more had relatively high fluoride concentrations, in the
range 3.5–8 mg/l. High sodium (Na greater than around 200 mg/l) and high chloride (linked
with low calcium) were also, as elsewhere, linked with the increased fluoride in the
groundwater (Fetter, 1994).

11
 Figure 7: Spatial distribution of Fluoride in the study area

The links between high fluoride and both high sodium, chloride (Na and CL) and increased
temperature are quite strong in the groundwater of the area. These parameters can therefore
be used as potential indicators of groundwater-fluoride problems in areas of exploration for
new groundwater sources.

Trace Elements: Trace metals may present a serious threat to water quality due to their
toxicity. They occur in dissolved form in water, as precipitates, or sorbed onto aquifer
materials. Their concentrations in water depend on a number of chemical parameters,
including pH, ionic strength, alkalinity, and the presence of organic ligands, inorganic anions
and other metal ions (Hem, 1991; Fathy et.al, 2012). Trace metals above the detection limit in
the study area include zinc, lead and copper with maximum concentrations 6980 (Xinalbe
BH), 11.2280 (Carmonley BH) and 2328 µg/L (Hilmo SH) all in Hobyo district, respectively.

The geological formations present for the most part do not signal obvious problems with
other trace inorganic constituents, although occasional exceed of some trace elements (e.g.
lead, chromium) above WHO guideline values may occur to some extent. Some areas
affected by saline groundwater from the evaporite-bearing sediments have increased
concentrations of boron in groundwater. The WHO guideline value for boron in drinking
water is 0.3 mg/l. This exceeded in some of the boreholes with saline waters.

12
 6.1. Main Hydrochemical Facies:

The hydrochemical regime of a study area can be easily known by plotting the analytical
values obtained from the groundwater on Piper trilinear diagram (Piper, 1944), which is
extensively used to understand the geochemical evolution of groundwater, where
concentration is assigned in % meq/l (Fig. 8). Based on the major cation and anion, various
water types were found in the study area.

Figure 8: Piper diagram of the groundwater of the study area

This diagram clearly shows that the groundwater samples have a dominance of Ca-Mg-Cl-
SO4 and Na-Mg-CL water types. The dominant anion of the groundwater changes from
bicarbonate to sulphate to chloride with a corresponding increase in the TDS. This may be
attributed to low hydraulic gradient and groundwater flow paths. Ca (HCO) type waters occur
near recharge areas, are primarily a result of dissolution of carbonate minerals during
infiltration of water to the aquifers. Samples taken in wells close to the Indian Ocean are of
chloride-sodium type, whatever the aquifer, reflecting the effect of marine intrusion.

Pearson’s correlation matrix (Swan et al, 1995) was used to find relationships between the
elements pairwise. The correlation matrix is shown in Table 4. TDS is strongly correlated
with calcium (R = 0.77), magnesium (R = 0.53.), Potassium (R = 0.75.), sodium (R = 0.89)

13
and chloride (R = 0.69). These relationships clearly identify the main elements contributing
to the groundwater salinity and their tendency to follow a similar trend (e.g. due to
concentration by evaporation). These elements concentration tend to increase as the salinity
of the groundwater increases. The salinization of the groundwater would be expected to result
from the ionic concentrations increasing due as well to evaporation of recharge water, to
seawater intrusion as to the effects of interactions between the groundwater and the
geological formations.

The strongest correlations between elements of opposite sign combine Cl−and Na+ (R = 0.76).
The Na+ vs. Cl− relationship suggests dissolution of halite or seawater intrusion. The
dissolution of halite in water releases equal concentrations of sodium and chloride into the
solution. The strong relationships Cl−- Mg2+ and Cl−- Ca2+ suggest that cation exchange can
also significantly affect groundwater composition. The positive and significant correlations
between sulfate and calcium (R = 0.51) may indicate the contributions of evaporitic salts.
Agricultural activity may also contribute to these elements.

Table 4: Correlation matrix between chemical variables significant correlation coefficients

are in bold

TDS Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ Cl - Br - SO42- HCO3-

TDS 1.00 0.48 0.53 0.89 0.75 0.69 0.14 0.31 -0.14
Ca2+ 1.00 0.52 0.37 0.53 0.39 0.25 0.51 -0.48
Mg2+ 1.00 0.47 0.51 0.48 -0.07 0.27 -0.18
Na+ 1.00 0.72 0.67 0.12 0.23 0.001
K+ 1.00 0.32 0.04 0.01 -0.11
Cl - 1.00 0.22 0.42 -0.06
Br - 1.00 0.41 -0.27
SO42- 1.00 -0.54
HCO3- 1.00

6.2. Groundwater Potability Assessment:

The groundwater potability of the study area was assessed according to international
standards (WHO, 2008). The contents of the main elements of samples were compared with
WHO standard, which is show that no water sample fully meets the WHO criteria for
potability. The TDS and SAR limit value is exceeded in all samples except in 8% of the
samples and the salinity hazard increases gradually towards the coastal zone. These results
show that the groundwater in the study area is of poor to bad quality for drinking purpose.

7. Summary and Conclusions

Understanding groundwater hydrochemistry and quality is vital to preserve this resource so
that it can meet the present and future water needs in many countries. In the central region of
Somalia, groundwater resources play a vital role in supplying water for drinking and
domestic purposes. However, there is a lack of knowledge of the groundwater mineralization

14
processes and a lack of rational management. This study adds to our understanding of the
chemical properties of groundwater in this area in Somalia. This study adds to our
understanding the hydrogeological synthesis of the aquifer system and the chemical
properties of groundwater in this part of Somalia.

The aquifer system of the study area consists of two aquifers. The upper aquifer includes
mainly the Quaternary deposits and the lower aquifer is developed mainly in the Karkar
Formation, Main Gypsum Formation and Yasooman Formation. The general groundwater
flow direction is from west south west to east north east toward the coastal plain. The results
of the water samples chemical analyses are “Total” rather than “Dissolved” concentrations,
and the samples are dominated by metals (cations), not carbonates (anions). The
hydrogeochemical study of the groundwater was conducted using several methods.

The study revealed that groundwater from the shallow and deep wells reflect the saline water
category; according to WHO water quality standards is unsuitable for drinking purposes. The
groundwater type is Ca2+- Mg2+-Cl--SO42- and Na+-Mg2+-CL- water types and close to
coastline groundwater is Cl-- Na+ type, reflecting the effect of sea water intrusion. The results
showed that the groundwater chemical characteristics are controlled by multiple natural
geochemical processes and contamination from surface activities.

The presence of clay and marl intercalation within the fissured and cavernous limestone
aquifer promotes the ion ex-change reactions and dissolution processes which play a
prominent role influence the hydrogeochemical characteristic of the groundwater.
Evaporation due to the dry condition and high temperatures plays a decisive role in
controlling the chemistry of groundwater. This is consistent with the significantly elevated
values recorded in some boreholes and shallow wells in coastal area e.g. Hobyo, Xarardheer
and Ceel Dheer district compared to other districts. In the study area, the majority of
chemical elements analyzed exceed the standards set by WHO. The groundwater is
accordingly not perfectly appropriate for human consumption.

Therefore, extraction from only the lower aquifer with sealing of the upper one is
recommended within the saline zone. The exploitation of groundwater in the coastal area
should be done carefully to avoid induction of salt water intrusion due to over pumping.
Adoption of water development techniques, such as applications of artificial recharge
methods, construction of sub-surface dams and oriented pumping, can help in reducing the
risk of salt water intrusion in coastal aquifers.

8. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Somali Water and Land Information System SWALIM
unit under FAO for data, General Service Agency and Yme Foundation for their technical
support. Also we wish to thank Prof. Traugott Scheytt from the geochemical laboratory of TU
Berlin, Josephine Gakobofor from CropNuts laboratory in Nairobi, Peter Dumble, Chris Print
and Joanne McCallum from hydrogeochem Canada for their valuable comments on the data.

15
9. References

1. Abbate E., Sagri M. & Sassi F.P. (with the collaboration of Aden I.H., Arush M.A.,
Yusuf O.S.)., 1994: The geological map of Somalia 1:1.500.000. University of
Florence, SELCA, Florence
2. Awale, A.I., 2007: Climate change stole our mist. Retrieved from:
http://candlelightsomal.org/index.../21-climate-change-stole-our-mist-pdf?
3. Balint Z., 2011: Concept Note - Hydrogeological survey of selected areas in
Somalia. FAO/SWALIM, Nairobi
4. Basnyat D. B., 2007: Water resources of Somalia. Technical Report No W-11, FAO-
SWALIM, Nairobi
5. Binks, R.M., Fairhead J.D., 1992: A plate tectonic setting of Mesozoic rifts of West
and Central Africa. Tectonophysics 213: 141–151.
6. Elango L., Kannan R., Kumar S., 2003: Major ion chemistry and identification of
hydrogeochemical processes of groundwater in a part of Kancheepuram District,
Tamil Nadu, India. J Env Geosci 10(4): 157–166.
7. Elsayed, K.A., Elsheikh, A.E.M., Nasreldin, H. A., 2012: Assessment of
groundwater potentiality of northwest Butana Area, Central Sudan. Nile Basin Water
Science & Engineering Journal, Vol.5, Issue 2, 2012.
8. Domenico P.A., 1972: Concepts and models in groundwater hydrology. McGraw-
Hill, New York
9. Faillace C., Faillace E.R., 1986: Water quality data book of Somalia. Hydrogeology
and water quality of south central Somalia, Vol 1
10. Fathy A, Traugott S., 2012: J. Earth Syst. Sci. 121 , No. 1, February 2012, pp. 109–
124
11. Fetter C.W., 1994: Applied Hydrogeology, 3d edition. Merrill Publisher Company.
A Bell and Howell Information Company-USA
12. Garrels R.M., 1976: A Survey of Low Tempera-ture Water Mineral Relations, in
Interpretation of Environmental Isotope and Hydrogeochemical Data in
Groundwater Hydrology: Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency pp. 65–84
13. Hem J.D., 1991: Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural
water, (3rd Ed.) Book 2254: Scientific Publ. Jodhpur, India
14. Hussein M.T., 2004: Hydrochemical evaluation of groundwater in the Blue Nile
Basin, eastern Sudan, using conventional and multi-variate techniques. Hydr J 12:
144–158. doi: 10.1007/s10040-003-0265-5
15. Jeevanandam M., Kannan R., Srinivasalu S., Rammohan V., 2006:
Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality assessment of lower part of the
Ponnaiyar River Basin, Cuddalore district, South India. Env Monit Assess 132(1):
263–274. doi: 10.1007/s10661-006-9532-y
16. Kumar M., Ramanathan A.L., Rao M.S., Kumar B., 2006: Identification and
evaluation of hydrogeochemical process in the groundwater environment of Delhi,
India. Env Geol 50: 1025–1039

16
17. Kumar S.K., Rammohan V., Sahayam J.D., Jeevanandam M., 2009: Assessment of
groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry of Manimuktha River basin, Tamil
Nadu, India. Env Monit Assess 159: 341–351
18. Lusczynski N.J., Swarzenski W.V., 1996: Saltwater Encroachment in Southern
Nassu and SE Queen Countries, Long Island, New York. USGS Paper, 1613-F
19. Maplecroft Verisk., 2011: Maplecroft Global Risks Atlas 2011 rates security
20. Mathess G., 1982: The properties of ground water (1st Ed.). New York: Wiley
21. Nasreldin, H. A., 2016: Technical Studies at the Watershed and Sub-Watershed
Level and Detail Design of Climate Change Adaptation Schemes in South central
Somalia, Technical Report - UNDP, Nairobi
22. Nasreldin, H. A., Nuha E.M., 2015: Aquifer Hydraulic Parameters Estimation from
Surface Geoelectrical Measurements in Wadi Al Hawad Basin, Sudan. International
Journal of Engineering Technology and Computer Research (IJETCR), Vol.3, Issue
5
23. Piper A.M., 1944: A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water
analysis; Am. Geophys. UnionTrans. 25914–923
24. Pozzi R., Benvenuti G., Getti G., Ibrahim M.F., 1983: Water supply and agriculture
use; A proposal for the adoption of subsurface dams in Somalia, Quaderni di
Geologia della Somalia, Vol. 7, Mogadiscio
25. Sawyer G.N and McCarthy D.L., 1967: Chemistry of sanitary engineers; (2nd edn)
McGraw Hill, New York, p. 518
26. Schuh W.M., Klinekebiel D.L., Gardner J.C., Meyar R.F., 1997: Tracer and nitrate
movements to groundwater in the Norruem Great Plains. J Environ Quality 26:
1335–1347
27. SWALIM., 2016: Water sources inventory for Galmudug State of Somalia,
Technical Report, Nairobi
28. Swan A.R. and Sandilands, M., 1995: Introduction to Geological Data Analysis
Blackwell, Oxford
29. Todd O.K., 1970: The Water Encyclopedia. Port Washing-ton, Water Information
Center, 559 pp
30. USAID., 2014: Environmental and Natural Resource Management Assessment,
Technical Report No: AID-RAN-I-00-09-00016, Nairobi
31. US Salinity Laboratory Staff., 1954: Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali
soils. USD apartment of AgricuLture Handbook 60, 160 pp
32. World Health Organization (WHO)., 2008: Guidelines for drinking water quality
(3rd edn) incorporating the first and second Addenda, Volume 1, Geneva.

17