IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.

IPS ACADEMY
Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)
(A UGC Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to RGPV)

LAB MANUAL
Optics and Modern Physics

Name …………………………………………….

Year ……………Semester …………………….

Class Roll No. …… .Enrollment No. ……………..

IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

CONTENTS

1. Vision Mission of the Institute

2. Vision Mission of the Department

3. PEOs

4. POs

5. Laboratory Regulations and Safety Rules

6. Index

7. Experiments
IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

Vision of the Institute

To be t he fo unt ainhead of no ve l ideas & inno vat io ns in sc ience &
t echno lo gy & per sist t o be a fo undat io n o f pr ide fo r all I nd ia ns.

Mission of the Institute

 To provide value based broad Engineering, Technology and Science where education in

students are urged to develop their professional skills.

 To inculcate dedication, hard work, sincerity, integrity and ethics in building up overall

professional personality of our student and faculty.

 To inculcate a spirit of entrepreneurship and innovation in passing out students.

 To instigate sponsored research and provide consultancy services in technical, educational

and industrial areas.

IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

Vision of the Department

Attaining global recognition in computer science and engineering education, research and
training to meet the growing needs of the industry and society.

Mission of the Department

Provide quality undergraduate and postgraduate education, in both the theoretical and applied
foundations of computer science, and train students to effectively apply this education to solve
real-world problems, thus amplifying their potential for lifelong high-quality careers.

Program Education Objectives (PEOs)

1. To prepare students for successful careers in software industry that meet the needs of
Indian and multinational companies.

2. To develop the skills among students to analyze real world problem & implement with
computer engineering solution and in multidisciplinary projects.

3. To provide students with solid foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering

fundamentals to solve engineering problems and required to pursue higher studies.

4. To develop the ability to work with the core competence of computer science &
engineering i.e. software engineering, hardware structure & networking concepts so that
one can find feasible solution to real world problems.

5. To inseminate in students professional and ethical attitude, effective communication

skills, team work skills, multidisciplinary approach, and an ability to relate engineering
issues to broader social context.

6. To motivate students perseverance for lifelong learning and to introduce them to

professional ethics and codes of professional practice.
IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

Program Outcomes (POs)

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of,
and need for sustainable development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.

PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

1. Apply Concepts in core areas of computer science -Data Structures, Database
Management System, Operating System, Computer Networks and Software Engineering
to solve technical issues.

2. Apply Software Engineering principal and practices to provide software solutions.

3. Ability to work in team and apply the knowledge acquired to develop new real life
system and able to adapt societal need of future.
IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

Course Outcomes (CO’s)

Course Name & Code: Optics and Modern Physics BSC-102 Year of Study:
Branch:
Students will be able:

Course Statement of CO Blooms Taxonomy

Code with Level
CO nos.
BSC-102.1 To explain fundamentals of quantum mechanics, and apply to BT – 2, BT-3
phase velocity, group velocity, and particle in one dimensional
box.

BSC-102.2 To analyze the intensity variation of light due to polarization, BT – 4, BT-3

interference and diffraction, and derive intensity expression in
single slit, N-slit diffraction grating. Calculate radius of
curvature of lens in using Newton’s ring experiment.

BSC-102.3 To explain theory of semiconductors and superconductors and BT – 2, BT-3

apply to solar cells, photo diode, Hall Effect and Meissner
effect.

BSC-102.4 BT – 2,,BT-3
To drive relation between Einstein’s A’s and B’s coefficients,
and explain working principle of different types of lasers.

BSC-102.5 To state the principle of optical fiber and calculate acceptance BT-1, BT-3

angle, numerical aperture, V-number, No. of modes, apply to

Fiber optic communication system.
IPS ACADEMY, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore (M.P.)

LABORATORY REGULATIONS AND SAFETY RULES

 Mobile phones are strictly prohibited in the lab.
 Doing experiments in the laboratory without supervision is prohibited. The performance
of unauthorized experiments and use of any equipments and the use of any equipment in
an unauthorized or unsafe manner are strictly forbidden.
 Examine all apparatus for defects before performing any experiments.
 Please exercise caution when dealing with electrical devices.
 Do not remove apparatus from cabinets without the permission of the instructor.
 Coats bags, and other personal items should be stored in the proper areas, not on the
bench tops or in the aisle ways.
 All personal accidents, injuries and all illness, however slight, occurring in the
laboratories.
 Do not take laboratory equipment outside the lab without the permission of the instructor.
 When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before making
adjustment in the circuit.
 Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire. Such
a wire will become dangerously hot.
 Return all equipments, clean and in good condition. To the designated location at the end
of the lab period.
 If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either the
broken glass or the mercury with your bare skin.
 Leave your lab area cleaner than you found it.
 Eating and drinking are not permitted in the laboratory. If you have medical condition
requiring an exception to that rule, notify your instructor.
 Student who does not follow the physics lab safety rules will be expelled from the lab.
I have read and understand the safety rules and I aware of the consequences of failing to
observe them.
Signature:-
Name:-
Course and section:
Date:
 Certificate

This is to certify that the Physics Practical Manual Submitted by……………………….. As a practical

fulfillment of the syllabus of B.Tech First Year Optics and Modern Physics (BSC-102), academic year

………. has been successfully performed in the physics laboratory of IPS ACADEMY. The

practical’s are up to the standard in respect of its content for the examination.

Student Signature Faculty Signature

1
 Content
S. Date Experiment Page Signature
No. No. and
Submission
1 To determine wavelength of given laser light source.
2 To determine the radius of curvature of given plano
convex lens with the help of a plane Newton’s ring
experiment.
3 To determine the wavelength of main spectral lines
of given mercury light with help of a transmission
grating.
4 To determine refractive index and dispersive power
of the material of given prism using spectrometer.
5 To plot forward and reverse characteristics curve of
P-N junction diode.
6 To determine the divergence of He-Ne Laser.
7 To find numerical aperture of a given optic fibre and
hence to find its acceptance angle.
8 To verify Brewster’s law using polarizer.
9 To determine the Hall voltage and charge carrier
density, in semiconductor using Hall effect
experiment.
10 To plot forward and reverse characteristics curve of
zener diode.

2
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 1
OBJECT:-
To determine Wavelength of given laser light source.

APPARATUS USED: -
Laser light Source, grating, optical bench two vertical Stands, Screen.

FORMULA USED: -

We know that condition to obtain maxima in case of n slit diffraction is

e sinθ=nλ
where, e is the width of each slit known
as grating element

But for small diffraction angle θ, sinθ ≈ tanθ and let n=1 then

λ = e tanθ

X
λ= e
D

Where: - X = distance of first order maxima from

the central maxima

D = Distance of screen from the grating

λ = Wavelength
FIGURE:-

3
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

a) For X/D:

Distance of screen from the Distance of first order maxima X

grating from the central maxima D
S.No. X= X1+X2 (in cm)
D(in cm) 2

Mean X/D=……………

b) N=……..lines per inch on grating

c) e= 2.54/N=………cm

CALCULATION:-

X
Wave length of given laser is, λ= e =………cm
D

=……… Å

4
RESULT: -

Wave length of given laser is: λ=…………….Å

PRECAUTIONS :-
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________

5
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. :- 2

OBJECT :-
To determine the Radius of curvature of given plano convex lens with the help of Newton's
ring Experiment.

APPARATUS USED :-
Newton's ring apparatus, sodium lamp and Travelling microscope

FORMULA USED :-
The Radius of planoconvex lens by Newton’s Ring method is given by

R= D2n+p - D2n cm
4p λ
Where, p  Ring no.
R  radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens

FIGURE :-

M
C

PLANO CONVEX
LENS

6
PROCEDURE:-
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OBSERVATION TABLE :-

1. OBSERVATION TABLE for determination of D2n+ρ - D2n and p

MICROSCOPE READING
NO LEFT HAND SIDE RIGHT HAND SIDE DIAMET
DIAMETER2 D2n+p -
OF MS ER
VSR (L - R) 2 D2n p
RIN MSR TOTAL R VSR TOTAL (L – R)
(mm (mm2) (mm2)
GS (mm) (mm) (m (mm) (mm) (mm)
)
m)

10

11

12

13

14

Mean value of D2n+ρ - D2n = _____ mm2 =--------cm2

7
 2. Value of given wavelenth of light λ = …………=……..cm

CALCULATION :-
R = D2n+p - D2n
4pλ
=………… cm

RESULT:

Radius of curvature of given plano convex lens is ……………..

STANDARD VALUE:

Radius of curvature of plano convex lens is = ……………………

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

Standard value ~ experimental value

% Error= X 100
Standard value

=………………………

PRECAUTIONS
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

8
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. :- 3
OBJECT :-

To determine the wavelengths of main spectral lines of given Mercury light with the help of a
plane transmission grating.

APPARATUS USED :-

Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, mercury lamp, hand lens.

FORMULA USED :-

esin θ = n λ
=>λ = esin θ / n

where, n  order of spectrum

e  grating element
λ  wavelength of light
θ  diffraction angle

FIGURE :-

WHITE LIGHT

R2 R2
n=2
V2 n=2
====
R1 R1 =222
V1 V1 2
n=1 n =1
n =0 111

PROCEDURE:
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OBSERVATION TABLE :-
1. OBSERVATION TABLE for diffraction angle (θ)

Least count of spectrometer = _____

On the left side of On the right side of
Order Colors of direct image direct image 2θ˚ Mea
Vern
Spectral TOTA θ˚ n
-ier TOTAL
Lines MSR VSR L MSR VSR x~y θ˚
(y)
(x)
V1 θV=
VOILET
V2

V1 θY=
n=1 YELLOW
V2
θR=
V1
RED
V2

2. Grating element (Distance between two successive slits in grating)

e = 2.54/N cm=…………………… Where, N=total no: of lines in grating per inch

Calculation :-
1. λV = esin θv / n=…………………………….
2. λR = esin θR / n=…………………………….
3. λY = esin θY / n=…………………………….

RESULT:-

1. Wavelenth of Violet colour λ V = …………………………….

2. Wavelenth of Red colour λR = …………………………….
3. Wavelenth of Yellow colour λY = …………………………….

10
STANDARD VALUE:

1. Wavelenth of Violet colour, λV = 4047 Å

2. Wavelenth of Red colour, λR = 6234 Å
3. Wavelenth of Yellow colour, λY = 5890 Å

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

Standard value ~ experimental value

% Error= X 100
Standard value

1. λV = ………..
2. λR = ………...
3. λY = …………

PRECAUTIONS:-
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

11
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. :- 4
OBJECT :-

To determine refractive index and dispersive power of the material of given prism using a
spectrometer.

APPARATUS USED :-

A spectrometer, mercury lamp, a prism, rading lens, lamp

FORMULA USED :-

The refractive index of the material of prism is given by:-

μ = sin [(A + δm)/2]
sin(A / 2)
and the dispersive power of prism is given by:-
w = μ V - μR
μY - 1
where, A  angle of prism
δm  angle of minimum deviation
μV  refractive index for voilet colour
μR  refractive index for red colour
μY  refractive index for yellow colour
FIGURE :-

A
M
O N2
N1 Q
δ 2
i1 e
Q R
r r Q
2 1
P S

B C

12
 COLLIMATOR COLLIMATOR

B F
A i
g
A
A
.
A
C
.
:
C - CA
δ A
δm S
e
t TELESCOPE
TELESCOPE
t
i
n
g
PROCEDURE:
f
…………………………………………………………………………
o
…………………………………………………………………………
r
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
t
…………………………………………………………………………
h
…………………………………………………………………………
e
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
a
…………………………………………………………………………
n
g
l
e

o
f
m 13
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

1. The angle of prism A=…………

2. OBSERVATION TABLE for measurement of the angle of minimum deviation δm:-

FOR DISPERSED DIFFERENCE OF THE

FOR DIRECT IMAGE MEAN
IMAGE TWO READINGS OF
COLOUR VERNIER VALUE
THE SAME VERNIER
δm=(a~b) δm
MSR VSR TOTAL(a) MSR VSR TOTAL(b)

V1 δmV=
VOILET
V2
V1 δmy=
YELLOW
V2
V1 δmr=
RED
V2

CALCULATION:-

The refractive index of the material of prism is given by:-

For Violet colour μ V = sin [(A + δmV)/2]

sin(A / 2)

=…………………

For yellow colour μ Y = sin [(A + δmy)/2]

sin(A / 2)

=………………….

For Red colour μR = sin [(A + δR)/2]

sin(A / 2 )

=…………………..

and the dispersive power of prism is given by:-

14
  = μV - μR =……………..
μY - 1

RESULT:-

Acoording to experiment results are as follows:

1. Refractive index for Violet colour, μ V = ………

2. Refractive index for Red colour, μ Y = ………
3. Refractive index for Yellow colour, μR = ………
4. Dispersive power of given prism material, ………

STANDARD VALUE:-

1. Refractive index for Violet colour, μ V = ………

2. Refractive index for Red colour, μ Y = ………
3. Refractive index for Yellow colour, μR = ………
4. Dispersive power of given prism material, ………

PERCENTAGE ERROR:-

Standard value ~ experimental value

% Error= X 100
Standard value

μ V = ………
μ Y = ………
μR = ………
………

PRECAUTIONS:-
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

15
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 5

OBJECT:-

To plot forward and reverse characteristics curve of P-N junction diode.

APPARATUS USED:-

Voltmeter, Ammeter, Semiconductor diodes, Power supply (0-10V), connection wires.

DIAGRAM:-

P N

V
- + -
mA

+ -

Figure 1: circuit diagram to plot forward characteristics

N P

V
- + -
µA

+ + -

Figure 2: circuit diagram to plot reverse characteristics

THEORY:-
Semiconductor diode – A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes
called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials. A
semiconductor should work like a switch. When its anode made positive w.r.t. its cathode
should act like a closed switch and when its anode made negative w.r.t. cathode the diode
should act like an open switch.

16
 Characteristics Curve:
The Charateristic Curve of semiconductor diode is defined as the graph plotted between
voltage (V) applied to the diode and current (I) flowing in the circuit. These characteristics
curves in case of diodes can be biased in two ways:

Forward biased characterstics – If the positive terminal of the supply is connected to

p-region (anode) and negative terminal is connected to n- region (cathode) and graph
plotted between voltage and current then obtained graph is said to be forward baised
charateristics curve. The anode current increase rapidly as the forward potential
difference across the diode is increased the diode starts conducting only after a certain
forward voltage known as threshold voltage is applied across it.

 Reversed biased characteristics – A reverse biased diode characteristics is obtained

by reversing the connection here the leakage current flown in the circuit. This current
is known as reverse saturation current. An increase in the operating temp. of the diode
results in increased generation of e - holes pair in the function region and with this
leakage current increase.

Silicon and germanium diode: when a layer of p-type crystal is joined to alayer of n-type
crystal in such a way that the atoms in n-types combine , across the surface of contact with the
atoms in p- type and get a pn-junction diode. Silicon and germanium both are pn–junction
diode. Symbol of this Si and Ge diode is shown as:
P n

In forward bais characteritics of silicon diode, the built-in potential (threshold voltage) is
approximately equals to 0.6 V and after it value of current increases with the appplication of
small amount of voltage but for Ge diode threshold voltage is nearly equals to 0.3V
In reverse baised charcteristics of such diode very small
amount of current is flow in reverse direction due to minority charge carriers and breakdown
occurs known as Avalanche breakdown

PROCEDURE:-
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17
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

1. Observations for Silicon diode

S.no. In Forward baised In Reverse baised

Voltage (in volt) Current(in mA) Voltage (in volt) Current(in µA)
LC=…..V LC=…..mA LC=…..V LC=…..µA

2. Observations for Germanium diode

S.no. In Forward baised In Reverse baised

Voltage (in volt) Current(in mA) Voltage (in volt) Current(in µA)
LC=…..V LC=…..mA LC=…..V LC=…..µA

18
GRAPHS:-

1. For Silicon diode:

2. For Germanium diode:

19
RESULT:- Characteristics curves of semiconductor diodes are plotted and their variations
are observed.

PRECAUTIONS:-
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________

20
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 6

OBJECT:-
To determine the divergence of He-Ne Laser..

APPARATUS USED:-
LASER power source, optical bench, measuring scale, and screen.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a
mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of stimulated emission. The laser
was the first device capable of amplifying light waves themselves. The emitted laser light is a
spatially coherent, narrow low-divergence beam. When the waves(or photons) of a beam of light have
the same frequency, phase and direction, it is said to be coherent . There are lasers that emit a broad
spectrum of light, or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. According to the
encyclopedia of laser physics and technology, beam divergence of a laser beam is a measure for how
fast the beam expands far from the beam waist. A laser beam with a narrow beam divergence is
greatly used to make laser pointer devices. Generally, the beam divergence of laser beam is measured
using beam profiler.

Lasers usually emit beams with a Gaussian profile. A Gaussian beam is a beam of electromagnetic
radiation whose transverse electric field and intensity (irradiance) distributions are described by
Gaussian functions.

Beam parameters govern the behavior and geometry of a Gaussian beam. The important beam
parameters are described below.
Beam divergence:
The light emitted by a laser is confined to a rather narrow cone. But, when the beam propagates
outward, it slowly diverges or fans out. For an electromagnetic beam, beam divergence is the angular
measure of the increase in the radius or diameter with distance from the optical aperture as the beam
emerges.
The divergence of a laser beam can be calculated if the beam diameter d1 and d2 at two separate
distances are known. Let z1and z2 are the distances along the laser axis, from the end of the laser to
points “1” and “2”.
Usually, divergence angle is taken as the full angle of opening of the beam. Then,

ɵ = (d2 – d1)/(Z2 – Z1)

Half of the divergence angle can be calculated as
ɵ=(w2-w1) )/(Z2 – Z1)

21
Spot size:
Spot size is nothing but the radius of the beam itself. The irradiance of the beam decreases gradually
at the edges.
The distance across the center of the beam for which the irradiance (intensity) equals 1/e2 of the
maximum irradiance (1/e2 = 0.135) is defined as the beam diameter. The spot size (w) of the beam is
defined as the radial distance (radius) from the center point of maximum irradiance to the 1/e
Gaussian laser beams are said to be diffraction limited when their radial beam divergence is close to
the minimum possible value, which is given by
ɵ = λ /πw0

PROCEDURE:-

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22
OBSERVATIONS:-
To find the Least Count of Screw gauge
One pitch scale division ( n) = .............. mm
Number of divisions on head scale (m) = ...............
Least Count (L.C) = n/m = ......................
z1 = ....................... cm z2 = ................ cm
Distance x in mm Current in Distance x in mm Current in
(ma) (ma)
PSR HSR TOTAL PSR HSR TOTAL

CALCULATION:

1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................ mA

Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie, d1=..................mm

1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................ mA

Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie, d2=..................mm

Divergence angle(Θ) = (d2-d1)/(z2-z1) = ........................ mrad

23
RESULT:

Divergence angle(Θ) is =……………..

PRECAUTIONS:

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

24
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 7

OBJECT:-
To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fibre and hence to find its acceptance angle.

APPARATUS USED:-
Several terminated glass or plastic fiber optics cable, 1 Optical power source and screen.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:-

Consider an optical fibre having a core of refractive index n1 and cladding of refractive index
n2. let the incident light makes an angle i with the core axis as shown in figure (3). Then the
light gets refracted at an angle θ and fall on the core-cladding interface at an angle where,

ϴ’=90- ϴ ………………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,

no sin i = n1 sin ϴ …………………………………………………………………………. (2)

Where n0 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air n0 =1.

When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium and so it may
be totally reflected back to the core medium if θ' exceeds the critical angle θ'c. The critical
angle is that angle of incidence in denser medium (n1) for which angle of refraction become
90°. Using Snell’s laws at core cladding interface,
n1 sin ϴ’c = n1 sin 90
sin ϴ’c = n2/n1

25
 Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided wave, the angle
of incidence at core-cladding interface should be greater than θ'c. As i increases, θ increases
and so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is maximum value of angle of incidence beyond which, it
does not propagate rather it is refracted in to cladding medium ( fig: 3(b)). This maximum
value of i say im is called maximum angle of acceptance and n0 sin im is termed as the
numerical aperture (NA).From equation(2),

NA = no sin im = n1 sin ϴ

= n1 sin(90- ϴ’c)

NA = n1 cos ϴ’c

= n1 Sqrt(1-sin2 ϴ’c)

sin ϴ’c = n2/n1

NA = n1 Sqrt(1-n22/n12)

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle i m only
propagate through the fibre. The higher the value of im or NA more is the light collected for
propagation in the fibre. Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering capacity of
an optical fibre.

Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fibre’s light acceptance
cone. i.e. NA= Sin(2im), where 2im, is called acceptance cone angle.

Let the spot size of the beam at a distance d (distance between fibre ends and Screen) as the
radius of the spot(r). Then,
𝑟
NA = Sin (2im) = √𝑟 2+𝑑2

and
𝑟
im=1/2[sin-1 ]
√𝑟 2+𝑑2

PROCEDURE:

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

26
 …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
OBSERVATIONS:

S.no distance between fibre ends and radius of the spot(r)

Screen (d) =diameter/2

Mean=……………..

CALCULATION:

Numerical Aperture, NA = Sin (2im) = =…………………

and

Acceptance Angle is im=1/2[sin-1 ] =………………

RESULT:

Numerical Aperture is=……………..

Acceptance Angle is=………………

27
PRECAUTIONS:

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

28
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 8

OBJECT:-
To verify Brewster’s law using polarizer.

APPARATUS USED:
Spectrometer, prism, polarizer with scale, analyzer, reading lens torch etc.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:

An ordinary light source consists of a very large number of randomly oriented atomic emitters. They
radiate polarized wavetrains for roughly 10-8 s. These wave trains combine to form a single resultant
polarized wave which persists for a short time, not more than 10-8 s. Since natural light composes of
a large number of rapidly varying succession of the different polarization states it is said to be an
unpolarised or randomly polarized light.

The natural light can be expressed in terms of two arbitrary, incoherent, orthogonal, linearly polarized
waves of equal amplitude. Figure (a) shows randomly polarized natural light and figure (b) shows the
splitting at 50% horizontal and 50% vertical states.

A light is said to be a plane polarised light, if all the vibrations are confined to a single plane.
Consider an unpolarised light incidents on transparent surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to a
particular angle of incidence, the reflected light produced will be completely plane polarized. This
particular angle is called the Brewster’s angle or the polarizing angle B.

Sir David Brewster, in 1892, found that the maximum polarization of the reflected ray occurs when
the reflected ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray. This is called the Brewster’s law.

r=90- ϴB
Brewster’s equation:
tan ϴB = n2/n1
Where, μ2 is the refractive index of the reflecting surface and μ1 is the refractive index of the
surrounding medium. The refracted ray so produced will be partially polarized. As the refractive
index changes the polarizing angle differs but it is independent of the wavelength of light used.
FIGURE

29
PROCEDURE:

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
OBSERVATIONS:-

S.no Angle ‘𝜽′ ( o ) Current ‘I’ (𝝁 𝒂𝒎𝒑)

CALCULATION:

µ = taniP

30
RESULT:-

1. The graph plotted is in good agreement with the predicted values.

2. Brewster’s angle for the material is ….

3. The refractive index of material of glass is ….

PRECAUTIONS:-

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

31
Date of Performance:…………………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 9

OBJECT:-
To determine the Hall voltage and charge carrier density, in semiconductor using Hall effect
experiment.

APPARATUS USED:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus
(which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:

If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will
generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This
phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to
characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and density
of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in X-

direction using Constant Current Generator(CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If w is
the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say
electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top edge of the
sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a potential difference
along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.

32
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top and
bottom is measured using a volt meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0, the voltage difference
will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as conventional
and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement of electrons
backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic
Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the
material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an electric field
which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical electric field
can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can
express it as

eE = evB (2)

Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,
VH = RHIB/t (3)

Or RH = VHt/IB (4)

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

RH = 1/ne (5)

PROCEDURE:

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………

33
OBSERVATIONS:-

1) To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid

Trial.no Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

1
2
3
4
5

2) Repeat the experiment with different magnetic field.

Trial.no Magnetic field (in Thickness(t) Hall Hall RH
Tesla) current(mA) voltage(v)
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION:-

RESULT:-

Hall coefficient of the material = .........................

Carrier concentration of the material =.......................... m-3

PRECAUTIONS:-

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

34
Date of Performance:……………………………
EXPERIMENT NO. : 10
OBJECT:-

To plot forward and reverse characteristics curve of zener diode.

APPARATUS USED:-
Zener diode, Milliammeter, Voltmeter, 6 volt battery, Rheostat, Microammeter and
connection wires.

DIAGRAM:-

Symbol of zener diode

Forward bias circuit

Reverse bias circuit

35
THEORY:-

If a battery is connected at the terminals of Zener diode such that the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to P and the negative terminal to N, it is said to be in the forward bias. The holes of P
region are repelled by the positive electrode and move towards the junction and similarly the
electrons of N region are repelled by the negative electrode and move towards the junction. Thus
electric conduction takes place at the junction. As the potential difference across the diode increases,
the current in circuit also increases. But if positive terminal of the battery is connected to N and
negative terminal to P, it is said to be in the reverse bias. The holes of P region move away from the
junction. Thus no current flows in the reverse bias due to the majority charge carriers. But the
minority charge carriers i.e. electrons of P region and holes of N region move towards the junction
due to which a very feeble current flows. On increasing the reverse voltage, a stage is reached when
the current suddenly increases. This potential is called the breakdown voltage. The reason is that
when the reverse electric field at the junction increases, the covalent bonds break and a large number
of charge carriers are produced. This breakdown is called the Zener breakdown.

PROCEDURE:-
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................

36
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.no. In Forward baised In Reverse baised

Voltage (in volt) Current(in mA) Voltage (in volt) Current(in mA)
LC=…..V LC=…..mA LC=…..V LC=…..mA

GRAPHS:-

For Zener Diode:

RESULT:- Characteristics curves of Zener diode are plotted and their variations are
observed.

PRECAUTIONS:-
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

37
 VIVA QUESTIONS
Grating / Laser
Q.1 What do you mean by diffraction of light?

Q.2 Differentiate between the interference and diffraction?

Q.3 What are the requirements of a good grating?

Q.4 What do you mean by the grating element? How do you determine its value?

Q.5 Do you get spectrum in zero order also?

Q.6 What do you mean by order of spectrum?

Q.7 What are the main differences in the grating spectrum and prism spectrum?

Prism

Q.13 What is a prism?

Q.14 If a rectangular glass block is taken in place of prism, will there be

deviation?

Q.15 What do you mean by the angle of minimum deviation?

Q.16 If the prism is immersed in water. How is the angle of deviation affected?

Q.17 What do you understand by the term dispersive power?

Q.18 For which material of prism the dispersive power will be more – prism of crown glass or
prism of flint glass.

Q.19 The dispersive power of a prism is more. What do you understand by this statement?

Q.20 How does the angle of deviation change with wavelength?

Q.21 How do you adjust the spectrometer?

Q.22 What is the use of collimator?

Q.23 Why are the lines and circle drawn on the prism table?

Q.24 What do you understand by monochromatic light source?

38
 Newton’s Ring

Q.25 Why your experiment is called Newton’s ring exp.?

Q.26 How do you focus the rings in microscope?

Q.27 What is the use of glass plate inclined at 45o in your experiment?

Q.28 When you move away from the centre the rings become more and more
closer. Explain the reason?

Q.29 What is the use of neon gas in sodium lamp?

Q.30 Why is the centre of rings in your experiment dark?

Q.31 What will happen if in your experiment the sodium lamp is replaced by a
white light source.
Zener diode / Semiconductor

Q.32 What do you mean by resistivity?

Q.33 What is semiconductor?

Q.34 What is extrinsic semi conductor?

Q.35 What is the main use of a Zener diode?

Q.36 What do you mean by forward basis in a P – N Junction diode?

Q.37 What is the meaning of forbidden energy gap?

Q.38 What is depletion layer?

Q.39 What is p – type semiconductor?

Q.40 What do you mean by conductors semi conductor and Insulators?

Q.41 Name two materials commonly used as semiconductor.

Q.42 How does the Zener diode differ from ordinary diode?

Q.43 What is N – type semi conductor?

Q.44 What do you understand by donor and acceptor ions?

Q.45 What is doping.

Q.46 Under what conditions does the Zener breakdown occur?

39