Debre Tabor University Faculty of Natural

and Computational
Department of Physics Sciences

Laboratory Manual

for
Optics [Phys2023]

Optics

Prepared by:

Sitotaw Eshete (MSc. In Quantum Optics)

November, 2020
 Debre Tabor University
Faculty of Natural and Computational sciences
Department of Physics

Optics laboratory Manual

Phys2023

Prepared by:
Sitotaw Eshete –MSc. In Quantum Optics
Email: sitotaweshete11@gmail.com

Editors:

Tadesse Abate (MSc. In Radiation Physics)

Getnet Tesema (MSc. In Nuclear Physics)

1
Table of Contents

Report writing format ....................................................................................................................... 9

Experiment One: Refraction through Prism ............................................................................ 14

Experiment Two: Spectrometer diffraction grating .............................................................. 21

Experiment Three: Polarimetry ................................................................................................... 26

Experiment Four: Laws of lenses ................................................................................................ 32

Experiment five: Electron charge to mass ratio ..................................................................... 37

Experiment Six: Solar Cell Experiments ................................................................................... 46

Experiment seven: Laser Diffraction Grating ......................................................................... 49

Experiment Eight: Newton’s Rings ............................................................................................. 59

Experiment Nine: Michelson Interferometer ........................................................................... 74

Experiment Ten: Solid State Lasers and Nonlinear Optics ................................................. 81

References: ....................................................................................................................................... 90

2
 Laser Safety Operating Procedures

General

 Only trained, authorized personnel may operate lasers, Authorization is

received from the authorized laser user and the Laser Safety Officer.
 NEVER put yourself into any position where your eyes approach the axis of a
laser beam (even with eye protection on).
 Keep beam paths below or above standing or siting eye level. Do not direct them
towards other people.
 Do not damage laser protective housings, or defeat the interlocks on these
housings.
 Eliminate all reflective material from the vicinity of the beam paths.
 Never use viewing instruments to look directly into a laser beam or its specular
reflection. If this is necessary, install an appropriate filter into the optical element
assembly.
 Keep ambient light levels as high as operations will permit.
 Do not work alone when performing high power laser operations.
 Visitors would not be permitted to observe a laser experiment without first
receiving a laser safety briefing and being issued laser eye protection.
Knowledgeable personnel will escort them at all times.
 LSO approval is required for deviations from this procedure.

Laser Entryway Controls

1. Class 3b Laser Only Labs

 Doors must be closed and locked during laser operations.

 Doors must be properly posted and the warning light energized during
operations.
 Door windows and labs windows must be covered to prevent the escape
of a laser beam, unless an interlocked laser beam path enclosure is
provided.

3
 2. Class 4 Laser Labs

All Class 4 laser laboratories must have either LSO approved entryway controls or
an installed LSO certified laser enclosure system.
 Overriding any safety controls is considered a serious violation of
safety rules. Overriding actions include, but are not limited to the
following: defeating of interlocks; removal of external shutter from the
laser beam path; rewiring laser interlock connectors.

3. Personnel requiring entry to a laser lab with laser operations in progress shall
knock or press the door buzzer and verbally request permission to enter. Employees
who know the cipher lock combination, or who have a key, may enter after
announcing their presence and asking for instructions. Enter with care, following any
laser operator’s instructions that are given.

Turn-on Procedures
 Follow any pertinent safety precautions listed in the laser manufacturer’s
published owner’s manual.
 Prior to lasing, perform a “countdown” or make an announcement to warn
others that you are about to laze.

Design and Set-up of New Experiments

An LSO review of a laser experiment is required for the following situations:
 Before a newly acquired laser is put into operation.
 Upon a major rearrangement to a new lab.
 Whenever a new experiment within a lab results in a new beam path for
which the prior safety requirements or controls no longer apply.
NOTE: Minor changes to experiments are made quite often in a research
environment. Minor changes that do not affect the overall safety recommendations
for a lab do not require review.

Shared Laser/Non-Laser Space

4
Class 3b and 4 Laser Labs will be arranged so that non-laser personnel will not have
to pass through laser areas to enter or leave the lab. This can be done through lab
design or the use of movable partitions or interlocked curtains.

Use of Laser Eye and Skin Protection

Laser protective eyewear must be worn whenever you are within the Nominal
Hazard Zone (NHZ). The NHZ is defined as that area within which the laser beam
power exceeds maximum permissible exposure levels. During maintenance or
alignment operations, the NHZ extends to the entire lab or to the partitioned laser
use area. Once the laser beam path is well defined and contained to a specific area,
the NHZ may be reduced in size to the area where the experiment is taking place.
Note that Class 4 lasers can produce hazardous diffuse reflections, and that the NHZ
for laser experiments must be extended to account for diffuse reflection hazards from
your experiment.
 Eyewear must be of the correct optical density and offer protection at the
wavelength(s) of the laser(s) being used.
 Eyewear will only protect your eyes for short time periods, depending on
the laser power. Therefore do not look directly into any laser beam, even
with laser eye protection on.
 Periodically inspect and replace damaged or defective eyewear.
 Exposure to direct or diffuse reflections from ultraviolet lasers (particularly
excimers) can result in short and long term skin hazards. Cover your
exposed skin areas when working near these lasers (use long sleeve shirts
or lab coats, cloth gloves, etc. as necessary).

Exceptions:

 Lower optical density eyewear may be used when a laser beam

must be seen. This eyewear is chosen to eliminate the diffuse
reflection hazard.
 If a diffuse reflection must be observed, do this after the beam
path is well defined and away from the area that the diffuse
reflection will be viewed from. During viewing, your eyes may
not come within the diffuse reflection hazard distance.

5
Laser Alignment Practices

 Never look directly into a laser beam. Do not bring your eyes near the axis
of any beam to perform an alignment (or any other operation).
 Wear laser skin and eye protection (see section 6 above).
 Use a low power laser for alignments. If this is not possible, adjust your
laser to minimum power levels and/or use a filter to bring down the power
to safe levels.
 Use viewers or viewing cards to sight where an invisible beam is. To sight
where a visible beam is, use lower optical density laser protective eyewear
(see below) or sight beams with a non-specular, dark colored viewing card.

Laser Beam Termination

 Terminate laser beams at the end of their useful path with immovable, non-
specular, fire retardant beam stops or targets.
 Do not allow open beams to cross aisle ways.
 Choose target materials that partially absorb the laser beam.
 Unused secondary beams emerging from alternate laser apertures will be
terminated.
 Terminate all unused beams.
 Every time that a beam hits an optical element in you beam path, a portion
of the beam will be reflected. This is of particular concern with an invisible
beam and when a prism or angled optical element is used. Block all
reflections and prevent them from leaving the experimental area. Even a
1% reflection from a high power YAG laser beam can cause instantaneous
eye damage.

Non-Beam Hazards

a) Electrical Safety
 Practice Lock-Out/Tag-Out procedures where appropriate.
 Do not defeat laser-housing interlocks or come into contact with
energized electrical circuits.

6
  Do not wear jewelry or metallic objects when working near a high
voltage source.
 In case of emergency, press the Emergency Power Off button in your
lab to turn off the electricity to your lab.

b) Chemical Safety
 Follow the precautions in you Lab Safety Plan when working with
chemicals in your lab. Before working with chemicals you must have
attended Hazard Communication training.
 Work shall be performed in hoods where required. Use appropriate
personal protective equipment, including safety glasses/goggles,
gloves, respirators, etc., as required.
 Follow the precautions listed on the Material Safety Data Sheets for
your chemicals.
 Many dyes and dye solvents are either known or suspected
carcinogens. In addition to the above, you must have a containment
tray or system to contain any spill which may occur within you laser.

c) Gas Safety
 Store hazardous gases in vented gas cabinets. Provide laser housing
ventilation for those lasers (e.g. excimers) that use hazardous gases.

d) Airborne Contaminants
 High power lasers interacting with a target or sample many cause
airborne contaminants to be released to the air. Use a hood or other
ventilation system to remove these contaminants from the ambient air.

e) Noise Safety

7
  Wear hearing protection when in the vicinity of a laser that generates
noise levels exceeding 85dB.

f) Cryogenic Safety
 Wear protective gloves, face shields, and clothing, as required when
handling cryogenic materials.

g) X-Ray Safety
 Power supplies operating at potentials above 15 kV may produce X-
rays. Leave interlocked power supply doors in place. Do not defeat the
door interlocks and open these doors when the power supply is on.

Service and Maintenance Procedures

 Wear laser skin and eye protection.

 Set up a temporary controlled area that restricts access to the nominal
hazard zone. Post warning signs as required.
 When access cannot be adequately restricted, use partitions or curtains
to prevent the beam from leaving the area.
 Work carefully. Take the time needed to service the laser properly.
 Remove only the minimum number of protective housings required to
do the work. Replace the housings promptly when done.
 Use the lowest possible laser power.
 Use indirect viewing instruments or targets to align the beam. Do not
look directly at a potentially hazardous beam or specular reflection.
 After servicing, reactivate all safety features.

Accident/Emergency Procedures

 Emergency response personnel will be directed to you as necessary

 An Emergency Power Off button is located in the lab to shut down
power to the lab.
 Notify the lab manager and the site Laser Safety Officer.

8
Report writing format
This document describes a general format for Lab Reports that you can adapt as
needed. Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering
and can count for as much as 25% of a course - yet little time or attention is devoted
to how to write them well.

A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's
comprehension of the concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and
observed results is not sufficient; you should also identify how and why differences
occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, and shows your understanding
of the principles the experiment was designed to examine. Bear in mind that a
format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and organized writing. You still
need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently.

Typical Components:
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods and Materials
5. Experimental Procedure
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Conclusion
9. References

1. The Title Page: needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab
partners, and the date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than
ten words (i.e. Not “Lab #4” but “Lab #4: Sample Analysis using the Debye-Sherrer
Method”).
2. The Abstract: summarizes four essential aspects of the report:
a) the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose
of the report)
b) key findings,
c) significance and

9
 d) Major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference
to theory or methodology.
The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read
your whole report. The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words (the
sample below is 191 words)

Sample Abstract:

This experiment examined the effect of line orientation and arrowhead angle on a subject's
ability to perceive line length, thereby testing the Müller-Lyer illusion. The Müller-Lyer
illusion is the classic visual illustration of the effect of the surrounding on the perceived
length of a line. The test was to determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects
adjust line segments to equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were
tested in a repeated measures design with four different arrowhead angles and four line
orientations. Each condition was tested in six randomized trials. The lines to be adjusted were
tipped with outward pointing arrows of varying degrees of pointedness, whereas the
standard lines had inward pointing arrows of the same degree. Results showed that line
lengths were overestimated in all cases. The size of error increased with decreasing
arrowhead angles. For line orientation, overestimation was greatest when the lines were
horizontal. This last is contrary to our expectations. Further, the two factors functioned
independently in their effects on subjects' point of subjective equality. These results have
important implications for human factors design applications such as graphical display
interfaces.

3. The Introduction: is more narrowly focused than the abstract. It states a) the
objective of the experiment and b) provides the reader with background to the
experiment. State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two
sentences. When determining the objective, be sure to identify the end goal of the
experiment itself, not the pedagogical goal of the experiment.

A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research,

or formulas the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does not want you to
repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension of the problem. For
example, the introduction that followed the example above might describe the
Debye-Sherrer method, and explain that from the diffraction angles the crystal
structure can be found by applying Bragg's law. If the amount of introductory material

10
seems to be a lot, consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or
Background.

*Note on Verb Tense: Introductions often create difficulties for students who
struggle with keeping verb tenses straight. These two points should help you
navigate the introduction: The experiment is already finished. Use the past tense
when talking about the experiment.
 “The objective of the experiment was...”
The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, these get the
present tense:
 “The purpose of this report is...”
 “Bragg's Law for diffraction is ...”
 “The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs ...”

4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment): can usually be a simple list, but make
sure it is accurate and complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to
a lab manual or standard procedure: “Equipment was set up as in Phys 276
manual.”

5. Experimental Procedure: describes the process in chronological order. Using

clear paragraph structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not
as they were supposed to happen. If your professor says you can simply state that
you followed the procedure in the manual, be sure you still document occasions
when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. “At step 4 we performed four repetitions
instead of three, and ignored the data from the second repetition”). If you've done it
right, another researcher should be able to duplicate your experiment.

6. Results: are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you
still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form, for example:

Using the calculated lattice parameter gives, then, R = 0.1244nm.

Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1: Input
Frequency and Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your results
effective is to draw the reader's attention to them with a sentence or two, so the
reader has a focus when reading the graph. In most cases, providing a sample
calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder in an appendix. Likewise,
your raw data can be placed in an appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary,
pointing out trends and identifying special features.

11
7. The Discussion: is the most important part of your report, because here, you
show that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it.
Explain. Analyse. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the "subjective" part
of the report. By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. This part of
the lab focuses on a question of understanding "What is the significance or meaning
of the results?" To answer this question, use both aspects of discussion, a) Analysis
and b) Interpretation.

a) Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly? What have you found? Explain
what you know with certainty based on your results and draw conclusions:

Since none of the samples reacted to the Silver foil test, sulfide, if present at all,
does not exceed a concentration of approximately 0.025 g/l. It is therefore unlikely
that the water main pipe break was the result of sulfide-induced corrosion.

b) Interpretation: What is the significance of the results? What ambiguities exist?

What questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for problems in the data:

Although the water samples were received on 14 August 2020, testing could not be
started until 10 September 2020. It is normally desirably to test as quickly as
possible after sampling in order to avoid potential sample contamination. The effect
of the delay is unknown.

More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these:

i) Compare expected results with those obtained: If there were differences,

how can you account for them? Saying “human error” implies you're
incompetent. Be specific; for example, the instruments could not measure
precisely, the sample was not pure or was contaminated, or calculated values
did not take account of friction.
ii) Analyze experimental error: Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment?
If an experiment was within the tolerances, you can still account for the
difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental design
explain how the design might be improved.
iii) Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues: Often undergraduate
labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws, such as Kirchhoff's

12
 voltage law, or the Müller-Lyer illusion. Usually you will have discussed these
in the introduction. In this section move from the results to the theory. How
well has the theory been illustrated?
iv) Relate results to your experimental objective(s): If you set out to identify
an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic structure
you'd better know the metal and its attributes.
v) Compare your results to similar investigations: In some cases, it is
legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your answer,
but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those.
vi) Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design: This
is particularly useful if you designed the thing you're testing (e.g. a circuit).
8. The Conclusion: can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply
state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab:

Example: The Debye-Sherrer method identified the sample material as nickel due to
the measured crystal structure (fcc) and atomic radius (approximately 0.124nm).

Notice that, after the material is identified in the example above, the writer provides a
justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure and size. This makes a
sound and sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is enough; however, the conclusion
might also be a place to discuss weaknesses of experimental design, what future
work needs to be done to extend your conclusions or what the implications of your
conclusion are.

9. References: include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done.
(See Online Handbook / Accurate Documentation) for an appropriate way to
reference in your field).

Useful Further Reading: Porush, David. A short guide to writing about science.
Toronto: HarperCollins, 1995. Although, this book uses the “scientific article” as the
basic form for writing, it essentially views that as an extended lab report. Therefore, it
has useful chapters on each of the sections of a lab report.

13
 Experiment One: Refraction through Prism

Objective:

 In this experiment you can determine the refractive index of different liquids
using hollow prism, but here you are expected to determine the dispersive
power of a material of prism using Spectrometer.

Apparatus:
1. Spectrometer,
2. lamp holder,
3. Spectral lamp Hg,
4. Power supply for spectral lamps,
5. Glass Prism.

Theory:
Refraction of light:

Light rays travel in straight lines in a homogeneous medium. But whenever a light
ray passes from one transparent medium to another, it deviates from its original path
at the interface of the two media. In the second medium the ray either bends towards
the normal to the interface or away from the normal. The bending of the light-ray
from its path in passing from one medium to the other medium is called ‘refraction’ of
light. If the refracted ray bends towards the normal relative to the incident ray, then
the second medium is said to be ‘denser’ than the first medium Fig. 1.1(a). But if the
refracted ray bends away from the normal, then the second medium is said to be
‘rarer’ than the first medium Fig. 1.1(b).

14
Fig.1.1The law of reflection and refraction

According to Huygens’s principle, when a wave front passes from one medium into
another, the speed of the secondary wavelets originating from the wave front
changes in the second medium.`

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑣1
= (1.1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑣2

And using Snell’s law one can relate the incident and reflected ray with the index the
medium.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
=𝑛 (1.2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

Dispersion of light by prism

White light is a mixture of lights of different colours. When a beam of white light falls
on a prism, it splits into the rays of its constituents colours. This phenomenon is
called the ‘dispersion’ of light. The reason for the dispersion is that in a material
medium the light rays of different colours travel with different speeds although in
vacuum (or air) rays of all colours travel with the same speed (3 × 108 m/sec). Hence
the refractive index n of a material is different for different colour of light. In glass, the
speed of violet light is minimum while that of red light is maximum.

15
Dispersive power of the optical medium

When white light passes through a thin prism, the ratio of the angular dispersion
between the violet and red emergent rays and the deviation suffered by a mean ray
(ray of yellow colour) is called the ‘dispersive power’ of the material of the prism. It is
denoted by w. Let nV, nR and nY be the refractive indices of the material of the prism
for the violet, red and yellow lights respectively and A the angle of the prism.

Procedure:
1. Place the prism on the table of the spectrometer with the angle to be
measured directed toward the lens of the collimator.
2. Turn the telescope till you get an image formed by refection on the surface of
the prism.
3. Determine the position of the telescope (A1) by reading the scale.
4. Turn the telescope in the opposite direction to get another image of the slit
reflected on the second face of the prism, and determine the position (A 2) in
this case.

Fig 1.2 Experimental Setup

16
 𝐴1 +𝐴2
𝐴= (1.3)
2

where A is the angle of the prism.

Observation tables:
Table 1 Observables of the experimental parameters

Vernier A Vernier B
Telescope reading Telescope reading
𝐴1
𝐴2
𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝐴=
2

Determination of angle of minimum deviation (Dm)

The slit of the collimator is illuminated by light from the mercury vapour lamp. The
prism is mounted on the prism table. The prism platform is turned such that the
beam of light from the collimator is incident on one of the polished face at an angle of
incidence almost equal to 90. The telescope is rotated to catch the mercury
spectrum obtained by refraction through the prism.

The prism platform is turned in such a manner that the entire spectrum moves
towards the entire ray. Minimum deviation of one particular line (say violet) is
obtained. The readings of the verniers are taken. In this manner, the prism is
adjusted for minimum deviation position for the other lines in the spectrum and the
corresponding readings are taken. The prism is removed and the reading is taken.
The angle of minimum deviation ‘Dm’ for each colour of the light is calculated.

By choosing couple of lines not close to each other from the table, the dispersive
power of prism for different sets of readings are calculated and the mean dispersive
power is determined.

Precaution:
1. The axis of the telescope and collimator must be perpendicular to
the axis of rotation of the prism table. The three axes should meet
at a point.

2. The optical surfaces of the prism should not be touched by hand

and should be cleaned by tissue paper only.

17
 Fig.1.3 Experimental setup

Procedure:

1. Place the glass prism on the table (as shown fig1.3) so that the angle (A)
which was measured in the observation table one serves as the refracting
angle.
2. Turn the telescope till you gets spectral lines and measure the minimum
deviation angle (Dm) for each spectral line, and record the results in
observation Table
3. The position of minimum deviation can be detected by looking to the spectrum
through the telescope and rotating it until the spectrum reverses its direction.

Observation tables:
Vernier A Vernier B
S.N Direct Minimum Dm =( R- Direct Minimum Dm =( R-
Reading Deviations Rn) Reading Deviation(Rn) Rn)
(R) (Rn) (R)

1
2
3

18
Readings:-
Direct ray reading = R
Green colour reading =R1
Blue colour reading = R2
Minimum deviation angle for green Dg = R - R1
Minimum deviation angle for blue Db = R - R2

Dispersive power (w):- Angular rotation for a given wavelength is called dispersive
power of the material of a prism w

Observation tables
S.N 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 Dispersive power
𝑛𝐴𝑉 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2
2 𝑤=
𝑛𝐴𝑉

Exercises:
1. What do you mean by interference of light?
2. Does the angle of minimum deviation vary with the colour of light?
3. How refractive index vary with wavelengths?
4. What do you mean by dispersive power? Define it.
5. Define each of the Factors how they affecting angle of deviation.
A. Angle of incident
B. Refractive index of medium
C. Wavelength of light
D. Refracting angle of prism
6. Show that the incident angle verses minimum deviation plot as follows

19
 Fig 1.4. Schematics of problem number 6

7. Which colour in the spectrum is having maximum and minimum refractive

index?
8. What is Dispersion of Light?

20
 Experiment Two: Spectrometer diffraction
grating
Objective:

 To determine the wavelengths of the mercury spectral lines using plane

transmission grating.

Equipment:

1. Spectrometer,
2. lamp holder,
3. spectral lamp Hg,
4. power supply for spectral lamps,
5. Diffraction grating.

Theory:

The phenomenon of interference of light has proved the validity of the wave theory of
light. From the principle of superposition of waves we know that when two wave
trains arrive simultaneously at a point, the resultant vibrations have amplitude
different from the sum of the contributions by the two waves acting separately. This
modification of amplitude obtained by superposition of two waves in known as
interference. It is a characteristic of the wave motion.

If the two waves arrive at the point in the same phase, the resulting amplitude is
large, and if they arrive in opposite phase resulting amplitude is very small, zero if
the two amplitudes are equal. The former is called the constructive interference while
the latter, the destructive interference. Light also exhibits the phenomenon of
interference.

Interference maxima and minima

Consider the waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle 𝜃with the initial
direction.

21
 Fig 2.1 Interferences formation

In this figure ∆ACN

𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 𝑎+𝑏 (2.1)
𝐴𝐶

𝐶𝑁 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2.2)
𝜆
If this path difference is equal to odd multiples of , 𝜃 gives the direction of minima
2

due to interference of the secondary waves from the two slits.

𝜆
𝐶𝑁 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 (2.3)

Putting n = 1; 2; 3 ...... the values of 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , … … corresponding to the directions of

minima can be obtained from the equation

(2𝑛+1)𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = (2.4)
2(𝑎+𝑏)

and
𝑛 = 1, 2 (2.5)
3𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 2(𝑎+𝑏) (2.6)
5𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = (2.7)
2(𝑎+𝑏)

22
Thus the angular separation between any two consecutive minima (or maxima) is
𝜆
equal to . the angular separation is inversely proportional to 𝑑 (= 𝑎 + 𝑏), the
𝑎+𝑏

distance between the two slits.

On the other hand, if the secondary waves travel in a direction 𝜃 such that the path
𝜆
difference is even multiples of , then 𝜃, gives the direction of the maxima duo to
2

the interference of light waves emanating from the two slits.

𝜆
𝐶𝑁 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛) 2 (2.8)

𝑛𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = 𝑎+𝑏 (2.9)

Putting n = 1, 2, 3...... the values of 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , … … corresponding to the directions of

maxima can be obtained.

Plane transmission diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is an extremely useful device and in one of its form it consists of
a very large number of narrow slits side by side. The slits are separated by opaque
spaces. The distance between two slits (𝑎 + 𝑏 or d) is known as the grating element
and it is equal to the reciprocal of the number of lines per centimetre (N):

1
𝑑=𝑁 (2.10)

When a wave front is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the
slits and obstructed by the opaque portions. Such a grating is called a transmission
grating. The secondary waves from the positions of the slits interfere with one
another, similar to the interference of waves in Young's experiment.

Determination of the wave length of a spectral line using plane

transmission grating

In the laboratory, the grating spectrum of a given source of light is obtained by using
a spectrometer. Initially all the adjustments of the spectrometer are made and it is

23
adjusted for parallel rays. If the source of light emits radiations of different
wavelengths, then the beam gets dispersed by the grating and in each order a
spectrum of the constituent wavelength is observed. To find the wavelength of any
spectral line, the diffracting angles are noted in the first and the second orders and
using the equation.
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝝀 (2.11)
the wavelength of the spectral line can be calculated.

Procedure:
1. Illuminate the slit of the collimator by the mercury light.
2. Place the grating on the table of the spectrometer such that its surface is
normal to the incident beam. We can adjust the grating, normally to the
incident beam; by looking to the spectrum through the telescope and then
rotating the table until the spectrum reverse its direction. In this position the
grating surface is normal to the incident beam.
3. Measure the angles of diffraction 𝜃1𝐿, 𝜃2𝐿,and𝜃3𝐿, corresponding to the first and
second orders for each spectral line, and record the measurements in Table
1, (𝜃1𝐿 and 𝜃2𝐿 denote the angles measured from the left and from the right
sides of the central image as in Fig 2.2.
4. Calculate the angles of diffraction𝜃1, and 𝜃2,, where

𝜃1𝐿 +𝜃2𝐿
𝜃1 = (2.12)
2

5. Record the values of 𝜃1, and 𝜃2, in Table 2.1.

24
 Fig.2.2 Dispersion in diffraction grating.

Observation tables:

n 𝜃𝑛𝐿, 𝜃𝑛𝑅, 𝜃𝑛, 𝜃1𝐿 + 𝜃1𝐿

𝜆𝑛 =
2
1st

2nd

3rd

4th

𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 +. . . +𝜆𝑛
𝜆𝑎𝑣 = ________________________________
𝑛

Exercise

1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?

2. What is difference between interference and diffraction?
3. What is diffraction grating?
4. Graph 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 vs. 𝑚𝜆 for the first and second orders. Use the slope and
intercept to draw the best fit line for each graph.

25
 Experiment Three: Polarimetry
Objective:
 To determine the specific rotation of a sugar by measuring the rotation of
various solutions of known concentration.

Apparatus Required:
1. Polari-meter
2. Balance
3. Measuring cylinder
4. Beaker, source of light
5. Polari-meter tube

Theory:

The experiments on interference and diffraction have shown that light is a form of
wave motion. These effects do not tell us about the type of wave motion i.e., whether
the light waves are longitudinal or transverse, or whether the vibrations are linear,
circular or torsional. The phenomenon of polarization has helped to establish beyond
doubt that light waves are transverse waves.

Polarization of light waves

Let light from a source S fall on a tourmaline crystal A which is cut parallel to its axis
(Fig. 3.1). On rotating the crystal A, no remarkable change is noticed. Now place the
crystal B parallel to A.

1. Rotate the crystals together so that their axes are always parallel. No change
is observed in the light coming out of B (Fig.3.1 a).
2. Keep the crystal A fixed and rotate the crystal B. The light transmitted
through B becomes dimmer and dimmer. When B is at right angles to A, no
light emerges out of B (Fig.3. 1 b).
If the crystal B is further rotated, the intensity of light coming out of it gradually in-

26
creases and is maximum again when the two crystals are parallel. This experiment
shows conclusively that light is not propagated as longitudinal or compressional
waves. If we consider the propagation of light as a longitudinal wave motion

Fig.3.1 (a) Polarization of light.

then no extinction of light should occur when the crystal B is rotated. It is clear that
after passing through the crystal A, the light waves vibrate only in one direction.
Therefore light coming out of the crystal A is said to be polarized because it has
acquired the property of one-sidedness with regard to the direction of the rays.

This experiment proves that light waves are transverse waves. Polarimeter in
general consists of a source of light a polarimeter and an analyzer provided with a
graduated circular scale. Figure bellow represents the general optical arrangement
of most polarimeters.

Fig. 3.2 (b) optical arrangement of general polarometer

27
S is a source of light, so placed that it is nearly at a focus of the lens L so that
parallel pencil of rays enters the Nicol Prism N1 which serves to polarize the beam of
light passing through it. The polarizing nicol is immediately followed by a Laurent half
shade plate or a biquartz. The other Nicol prism N2 analyses the transmitted beam
and detects its plane of polarization and is placed in front of a low power telescope.
In between N1 and N2 is placed the tube T containing the liquid under investigation.
The tube is closed on both sides with metal caps.

When this tube is filled with solution containing an optically active substance, the air
bubbles if any will appear at the upper side of the wide portion of the tube. The light
from N1 can pass through N2 only if N2 is placed in exactly the same way as N1. In
this case the Nicols are said to be parallel. If however, N2 is turned from this position
by a right angle no light from N1 can pass through N2. In this position the Nicols are
said to be crossed. Certain substances like quartz, solution of sugar etc. possess the
property of rotating the plane of polarized light.

When it passes through them, on inserting the active substance on account of the
rotation of plane of polarization, some light will pass through N2 even when it is set in
crossed position. It is found that rotation of N2 in one direction or the other will again
bring N2 into a plane in which light is once more stopped. Thus we can get the
amount of rotation by measuring the angle through which N2 has turned.

Optical activity

Liquids containing an optically active substance (like sugar solution), rotate the plane
of the linearly polarized light. The angle through which the plane polarized light is
rotated depends upon:

 The thickness of the medium.

 Concentration of the solution or density of the active substance in the
solvent.
 Wave length of light.
 Temperature.

28
Specific rotation

Specific rotation is defined as the amount of rotation produced by one decimetre of

the solution divided by the weight of the dissolved substance in unit volume . The
specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be
determined by the following formula.

𝜃×𝑣
𝑆 = 𝑚×𝑙 (3.1)

where,
𝜃 = rotation produced in degrees
l = length of tube in decimetre
m = mass of sugar in 𝑔𝑚𝑠 dissolved in water
V = volume of sugar solution
Let W grams be dissolved in 100 c.c. and suppose a length 𝑙 cm. of liquid produces
a rotation 𝜃.
𝜃 𝑤 𝜃
[𝑆]𝐷
𝑡 = 𝑙 ÷( ) = 1000 (3.2)
( ⁄10) 100 𝑙𝑤

Precaution
1. The Polari-meter tube should be well cleaned.
2. Care should be taken that there is no air bubble when the tube
is filled with liquid.
3. Care should be taken in weighing sugar and measuring the
quantity of water.
4. Note the temperature of the room and also the wavelength of
the light used.
5. Start with a concentrated solution and then go on diluting by
adding water to it.

Procedure:
1. Weigh sugar in a watch glass and dissolve the sugar in 100 c.c. Have distilled
water.

29
 2. Clean the polarimeter tube and fill it with distilled water. See that there is no
air bubble in the tube when the end caps have been screwed. Place the tube
in its position inside the polarimeter.
3. Look through the analyser when it will be observed that two portions of the
field of view of the sensitive biquartz device are of different colours red and
blue.
4. Rotate the analyser till the two portions of the field of view are of same
intensity or acquire tint of passage.
5. Take the reading of the analyzer on the circular scale. The settings of the
analyzer should be done by rotating the analyzer in the clock-wise as well as
by rotating in the anticlockwise directions.
6. Remove the distilled water from the tube and fill it completely with the sugar
solution and again place it in the polarimeter. On looking through the analyzer
the previous setting would be disturbed. Adjust the analyzer again till the two
portions of the field of views acquire the gray tint shade. Take the reading of
the analyzer.
7. Difference between the two settings of the analyzer (6) - (5) gives the value of
the angle of rotation.
8. Repeat the experiment with sugar solution of different concentrations.
9. Measure the length of the tube l and also note the room temperature.

Observation tables

Room temperature = ___________________________________°C

Weight of the empty watch glass = _________________________
Weight of the watch glass + sugar = ________________________
Weight of the sugar employed = ___________________________
Volume of the water taken = ______________________________
Least count of the analyzer = _____________________________
Length of the Polari-meter tube = ___________________________

30
Table for the Angle of Rotation: (1) for 1st solution
Position of analyzer with distilled Position of analyzer with sugar Mean 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
water solution 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
Clockwise Ant-clockwise Clockwise Ant-clockwise
rotation rotation rotation rotation
One Other One Other One Othe One Other 1
(𝜃 − 𝜃1′ )
side side side side side r side side 4 1
′
vernie vernie vernie vernie vernie side vernier vernie 𝑟 +(𝜃2 − 𝜃2 )
r𝜃1 𝑟𝜃2 r𝜃3 𝑟𝜃4 r𝜃1′ verni 𝜃3′ 𝜃4′ +(𝜃3 − 𝜃3′ )
e𝑟 𝜃2′ +(𝜃4 − 𝜃4′ )

Exercise:

1. What do you mean by polarisation?

2. How will you distinguish between unpolarised and plane polarised light?
3. What do you mean by optical activity, optical rotation and angle of rotation?
4. Plot the graph for the concentration verses the angle of rotation.
5. What does polarization of light tell about the nature of light?
6. Define optic axis and principal section.
7. What is specific rotation?
8. What is polarimeter?
9. Is there any arrangement which can work with white light?
10. What is bi-quartz plate?

31
 Experiment Four: Laws of lenses

Objective:
 To determine the focal length of an unknown convex lens by measuring the
distances of image and object (using thin lens equation method)
 To determine the focal length of a convex lens using Bessel's method

Apparatus:
1. Lenses
2. Translucent screen
3. Screen with arrow slit
4. Double condenser
5. Optical profile-bench
6. Power supply 0-12V DC

Theory:

The focal length of a lens can be determined by several techniques. Some of these
are less difficult to use than others and some are more accurate. The following two
subsections are a brief description of some of the techniques.

Thin Lens Equation

The relationship between the focal length 𝑓 of a lens, the object distance u and the
image distance 𝑣 is obtained from geometrical optics. Three particular rays, the focal
ray, the parallel ray and the central ray, are used to construct the image (Fig. 4.1).
From the laws of similar triangles,

32
Fig 4.1 Image construction with three principal rays.

𝐼 𝑣
= (4.1)
𝑂 𝑢

and
𝑂 𝑓
= (4.2)
𝐼 𝑣−𝑓

where I is the image size and O is the object size. From Eq. (4.1) and Eq. (4.2), we
can write
𝑢 𝑓
=
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑣 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑓
Then it follows that
1 1 1
=𝑢+𝑣 (4.3)
𝑓

33
Fig.4.2 Image construction with three principal rays.

Bessel's method

Bessel developed a method of conjugate foci which is more accurate than the above
method. The distance between object and image screen, L, is made longer than four
times the focal length. If the lens is moved back and forth along the axis, the image
will be in focus at two positions of the lens; in one position the image is magnified, in
the other it is reduced. The focal length is calculated from the equation.

𝐿2 −𝑑 2
𝑓= (4.4)
4𝐿

where 𝑑 is the distance between the two lens positions that produce an image for the
given conjugate plane separation as illustrated in Fig 4.2. The focal length of the
convex lens can therefore be determined from the measured values of 𝐿 and 𝑑.

Procedure:

1. A parallel light beam is produced with the lamp and the double condenser.
2. Put the object (screen with arrow slit) directly behind the condenser, and a
clear image is projected on to the screen with a lens.
3. The distances of image and object from the lens are measured (assume that
the lens is thin).

34
 4. The measurement of distances of image and object is repeated, with the lens
and the screen in different positions.
5. Record the measurements in Table.1

Observation tables:
𝒖(𝒄𝒎) 15 17 19 21 23

𝒗(𝒄𝒎)

𝒇(𝒄𝒎)

Compute the focal length of the lens from

1 1 1
=𝑢+𝑣 (4.5)
𝑓

Find the average value of the focal length.

𝑓 ̅ = ____________________________ cm (4.6)

Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by using

Bessel's method

1. The distance between the object and the screen, L, is made longer than four
times the focal length of the lens.
2. Adjust the position of the lens until you obtain a clear image on the screen,
and record the scale reading of the optical profile-bench (the image is
magnified).
3. Alter the position of the lens so that the image and object distances are
transposed, and record the new reading of the scale (the image is reduced).
4. Find the distance d between the initial and the final positions of the lens, and
record the value of d in Table 2.
5. Repeat steps (2-4) four times and record the value of 𝑑 in Table 2.

35
 Bessel's method

Observation Table:
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 1 2 3 4 5

𝑑(𝑐𝑚)

Calculate the average value of the distance 𝑑.

Compute the focal length of the lens from
𝐿2 − 𝑑 2
𝑓=
4𝐿
𝐿 =? 𝑑̅ =? 𝑓 =?

36
Experiment five: Electron charge to mass ratio
Objectives:
 Electronic charge to mass ratio (e/m) is determined by subjecting the electron
beam to electric and magnetic fields.
Apparatus:
1. It consists of 1000V power supply
2. deflection voltage ± 25V, X-shift, focus
3. Intensity controls
4. A deflection magnetometer with stand and a set of bar magnets

Theory:

If an electric field, E, is applied between the two plates perpendicular to the direction
of electron beam passing through the space between the plates, the force acting on
an electron in the upward direction of motion is given by

𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸 (5.1)
where
F is the force acting on an electron,
e is the electronic charge = 1.6x10-19 Coulomb, and
E is the applied electric field.

Because of the applied electric field, electrons travel in a semi-circular path and
strike the screen at the point M1. By reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to
the plate, electrons can be moved in the downward direction in a semi-circular path
as shown in Figure-5.1

37
Figure- 5.1: Deflection of electron beam by an electric filed

Instead of electric field if we apply a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of

electron flow, similar deflection of the beam takes place by reversing the magnetic
field in which case also the direction of the beam gets reversed similar to the
deflection caused by the electric field. If r is the radius of the semi-circular path
traversed by an electron in the magnetic field, the force acting on the electron is
given by
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = (5.2)
𝑟

where
𝐵 is the applied magnetic field,
𝑣 is the velocity of the electron at the point where it enters the magnetic field,
𝑟 is the radius of the circular path traversed by the electron

𝑒
From Equation, 2, is given by
𝑚
𝑒 𝑣
= 𝐵𝑟 (5.3)
𝑚

In order to determine the ratio e/m, one needs to know the value of the magnetic
field applied, the velocity of the electron, and radius of semi-circular path traced by
the electron.

38
Determination of electron velocity (v)

With the application of electric field, the electron beam moves to position M1 as
shown in Figure. 5.2. Now the magnetic field is applied so that the beam deflects
back to its original position at O. When the magnetic force is equal to the electric
force, the beam comes back to its original position. Hence one can write
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = 𝑒𝐸 (5.4)
𝐸
𝑣=𝐵 (5.5)

𝑒 𝐸
= 𝐵2 𝑟 (5.6)
𝑚

Thus the electron velocity is equal to the ratio of the two applied fields which is
known and hence 𝑣 can be determined.

Determination of radius (r) of the semi-circular path traced by the

electron beam

In order to determine the radius, r, one needs to consider the geometry of electron
path as shown in Figure-5.2. An electron entering between the pair of plates PQ at O
will trace an arc and leave the plates at R and then move in a straight line path and
strike the screen at the point M2. OA is the path traced by the electron when there is
no applied field. The line joining the electron path after leaving the plates is
extrapolated to meet the OA line at T.

Two perpendicular lines OC and RC are drawn to meet at C which forms the circle of
radius r. OC and CR are two perpendicular lines drawn to meet at C. From the
geometry one can write

∟𝑂𝐶𝑅 = ∟𝐴𝑇𝑀2 = 𝜃 (5.7)

39
Figure-5.2: Geometry of the electron path
𝐴𝑀2 𝑂𝑋
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = (5.8)
𝐴𝑇 𝑂𝐶

𝐴𝑡×𝑂𝑥
𝑟 = 𝑂𝐶 = (5.9)
𝐴𝑀2

If P is distance between the screen and centre of the two parallel plates, LT= P OX is
the length of the parallel plates
OX= l (5.10)
LM2 = y is the distance the spot moves on the screen, which can be measured on
𝐿𝑙
the graduated screen of the CRT. Hence 𝑟 = Substituting for radius and velocity,
𝑦

e/m is given by

𝑒 𝑦𝐸
= 𝐿𝑙𝐵2 (5.11)
𝑚

If V is the voltage applied between the two parallel plates and d is the separation
between them, then

40
 𝑉
𝐸=𝑑 (5.12)
Hence
𝑒 𝑉𝑦
= 𝑑𝐿𝑙𝐵2 (5.13)
𝑚

Using this equation e/m can be calculated from this experiment.

Measurement of magnetic field (B)

The magnetic field at the centre of the two plates P and Q cannot be measured using
a gauss meter because the magnetic field produced by bar magnets is of the order
of 10-3 Tesla which is quite low. Hence conventional methods are used for this. The
magnetic field strength, B, can be calculated knowing the pole strength and
dimensions of the bar magnet or by the well-known method using a magnetometer
which does not need information on any dimensional parameters of the magnet.

In this method the bar magnets are placed perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic
field, as shown in the Figure-3. The CRT is aligned parallel to the earth’s magnetic
meridian in which case the electron beam travels parallel to the magnetic meridian

Figure-5.3 Magnetic compass used for measuring magnetic field

41
The magnetic field strength at the centre of the compass due to a bar magnet is
given by

𝐵 = 𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (5.14)
where
𝐻 is earth’s magnetic field = 3.81 𝑥 10 − 5𝑇 at Bengaluru, and
𝜃 is the angle of deflection of the compass needle.

The permeability of vacuum (𝜇𝑜) does not come into picture in this case, because
the magnetic field produced by a moving electron or vice versa is not being
considered here. Hence
𝐵 = 𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (5.15)
The parameters that appear in the e/m equation (Equation-5), namely v, r and B, can
be measured experimentally and, therefore, e/m can be determined. The dimensions
of the CRT can be treated as constant K
𝐾 = 𝑙𝐿𝑑, (5.16)
Hence
𝑒 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦
= 𝑑𝐿𝑙𝐵2 = 𝑘𝐵2 = 𝑘𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃𝐻 2 (5.17)
𝑚

From this equation if one draws a straight line graph taking V y along Y-axis and
Tan2θ along X-axis, the slope of the straight line will be the average value of
𝑉𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (5.18)

which can be substituted in Equation- to obtain the value of e/m

𝑒 𝑉𝑦 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
= = (5.29)
𝑚 𝑘𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃𝐻 2 𝑘𝐻 2

CRT constant K (= 𝑳𝒍𝒅)

𝐾 = 𝐿𝑙𝑑 is known as CRT constant. As the data on the physical parameters of the
tube is not supplied by the manufacturer, we had to cut open the tube as shown in
Figure-5.4 for measuring them.

42
 Figure-5.4: 8SJ31J CRT internal construction

Figure-5.5: Structure and dimensions of CRT 8SJ31J

Procedure:
1. The magnetic meridian, giving the direction of earth’s North-South magnetic
field, is marked on the centre of a study table.
2. The U-shaped stand is placed on the table and its two arms are made
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian.
3. The CRT is now placed in the arms of the U-shaped stand. In this position the
axis of the CRT is parallel to the earth’s magnetic field.
4. The CRT is now connected to the power supply kept away from the CRT and
is switched on. The brightness and focus knobs are adjusted to get a bright
spot on the CRT screen. With X- and Y- deflection voltage knobs turned to the
minimum position, the position of the spot on the screen is noted.

43
 5. The two bar magnets are placed on either side with opposite poles and at
equal distance from the tube on the two arms of the U-shaped deflection
magnetometer stand. The distance, D, is read from the scale D = 3cm on the
left arm and 3cm on the right arm
6. The spot moves up or down (Y-direction) depending on how the bar magnets
are Placed
7. The distance moved by the spot on the screen is noted. This is the ‘y’
deflection
8. The Y-deflection voltage is now applied so that the spot comes back to its
origin position at 0.0. The deflection voltage is read from the digital meter.
This gives the value of V
9. This completes the first trial. The Y-deflection voltage is now brought back
0.0V and the magnets are positioned at 4cm on both the arms to repeat the
experiment. The distance moved by the spot
10. The trial is repeated by keeping the two magnets at different distances on the
arms and applying voltage to bring the spot back to 0.0 positions. The
readings obtained are tabulated in Table-1.

Observation table

Table5.1 Deflection of the spot and voltage applied in forward (upward) direction

Position of Spot Y-deflecting Vy Deflection Tanθ Tanθ2

the magnet deflection voltage (V) θ
(D)cm y (cm)

1. The two bar magnets are now placed at a distance of 3cm on both the arms
and deflection in the compass is noted (reading of any one of the two pointers
is enough for this purpose
2. For various positions of the magnet given in Table-1, the deflection angle is
noted and recorded in Table-1. Value of the tangent of the angle is also
recorded and Tan2θ is calculated and presented in Table-1.

44
 3. The magnets are reversed in their positions and the deflection angle, θ, of the
compass needle is noted for various positions of the magnet and recorded in
Table-2. Tanθ and Tan2θ are also calculated and presented in the Table-2.

Observation table
Table2. Deflection of the spot and voltage applied in reverse (downward)
direction
Position of Spot Y-deflecting Vy Deflection Tanθ Tanθ2
the magnet deflection voltage (V) θ
(D)cm y (cm)

Exercise
1. Write important parts of cathode Ray Tube.
2. Describe working of cathode Ray Tube.
3. Write function of deflecting plates in CRT.
4. What is the experimental arrangement for the determination of specific
charge ‘e/m’?
5. plot graphTan2θ versus Vy curve with forward voltage and Tan2θ versus
Vy curve with reverse voltage

45
 Experiment Six: Solar Cell Experiments

Objective:
 The purposes of these experiments are to examine the relationships between
lights and the electrical output of solar cells.

Apparatus used:
1. Solar cell
2. Digital multi-meters
3. Mercury lump Hg
4. Power supply
5. Meter

Theory:

In this lesson you will be introduced to the theory of Photovoltaic (PV) cells. You will
also, hopefully, begin to realize the importance of PV cells and the career
opportunities available in this area of intense materials science research. In the
laboratory investigation that follows, you will be asked to use PV cells to power
operating circuits that they will construct in order to perform simple tasks. A solar cell
(photovoltaic cell) is a solid-state electronic device that takes in light energy and
converts it directly into electrical energy. This is sort of like a light bulb that is acting
in reverse.

The typical blue/silver solar cell has a base of the element silicon. The silicon is
doctored so that some loosely held electrons in the silicon could be bounced into the
electrical circuit. These moving electrons, also known as electrical current, can
power electronic devices, especially devices that have low power requirements. Low
power devices would be things like calculators, radios, LED lights, electronic
switches, monitoring equipment, rechargers for batteries, and such. Solar cells have
made space habitation and space research possible. The
International Space Station gets its electrical power from massive arrays of solar
cells. Similarly, the earlier Space Lab and Mir Space Stations also used solar power.

46
The Space Shuttle does not use solar cells, but uses fuel cells, which produces
drinking water as a by-product. Most satellites orbiting the earth use solar cells for
power. Planetary probes go away from the earth and sun and the light intensity
diminishes, so they do not rely on solar power but use other power sources.

Procedure:

1. Connect your digital multi-meter with the solar cell.

2. Measure the voltage as you change the distance between the source and
solar cell.
3. Fill the recorded values on the table bellow
Light source
Separation (cm)
Voltage(V)

A. Does the distance between the bright light source and the solar cell affect the
current?
1. Use small resistor to connect seriously with digital multi-meter.
2. Measure the current as you change the distance between the source and
solar cell.
3. Fill the recorded values on the table bellow

Light source
Separation (cm)
Current (I)

B. Does the intensity of the light affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?
1. Use small resistor to connect seriously with digital multi-meter
2. Take a piece of cardboard (or other material that blocks all of the light).
3. Cover the surface of the cell 1⁄4 , 1⁄2 , 3⁄4 and record the voltage and
current respectively.

47
 C. Does the colour of the light affect the voltage and current of the solar cell?

1. Use the colour filters to change the colour of the light source and repeat the
above two Procedures.
Light source
Separation (cm)
colour Green ,Blue yellow
Current (I) or
Volt(V)

Exercise
1. plot graph for each of the data’s recorded on the table above.
2. which of the colours produce much current or volt? Why?
3. Compare the voltage and current actually being produced by your solar array
to the optimal values provided by the manufacturer. Are your values greater or
less than those provided by the manufacturer? Why might they be different
(even if they are not)?
4. Does the intensity affect the current voltage production?

48
 Experiment seven: Laser Diffraction Grating

Objective:

 Study the diffraction pattern of laser light on different diffraction gratings.

 To study the characteristics of a diffraction grating and
 To measure the wavelength of the light from the He-Ne laser.

Apparatus:
1. 3 diffraction gratings (100, 300, and 600 lines/mm)
2. 1 grating mount
3. 1 2-meter metric ruler
4. 1 He-Ne laser (λ=632.8 nm) and Laser pointer
5. 1 optical bench
6. 1 wooden screen
7. 1 force table spectrometer
8. 1 spectrum tube
9. 1 spectrum tube power supply
10. Wooden stand
11. Strips of paper

Theory:
When light waves hit a barrier with an opening of similar dimensions to the
wavelength, the part of the wave that passes through will diffract (spread out).
Diffraction patterns of bright and dark fringes occur when monochromatic light
passes through a single or double slit. Fringe patterns also result when light passes
through more than two slits. Notice that most of the light intensity is concentrated in
the broad central diffraction maximum.

The arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel, closely spaced slits,

perhaps as many as several thousand per millimetre is called a diffraction grating. To
find the locations of the bright spots we first assume that the screen is far enough
away from the grating so that the rays reaching a particular point P are

49
approximately parallel when they leave the grating. The separation d between
rulings is called the grating spacing; i.e. d is the distance between any two slits.
The path difference, δ, between adjacent rays is δ= d sinθ, where θ is the angle
from the central axis of the grating to the point P.

Fig. 7.1: Diffraction by a grating

Fig. 7.2 Screen Observation

The diffraction grating is essentially a multiple-slit device used in optics for producing
interference fringes that are exceedingly sharp and widely spaced. This diffraction is

50
in contrast to single and double slit diffraction, where the fringes are quite broad and
closely spaced. As a consequence, a much more accurate determination of wave
length can be made with the former device than with the latter.

Original gratings are made by ruling a large number of fine lines on a carefully
prepared piece of glass or metal with a diamond point. In the case of glass the
grating is transparent everywhere, so that there is little periodic change in the
amplitude of the wave as the grating is crossed. The effect of the rulings is to change
the optical thickness of the grating in a periodic way, rays traversing the grating
between the rulings containing more wavelengths than rays traversing the grating in
the center of the rulings. This results in a periodic change of phase as light crosses
the grating at right angles to the rulings. See Figure 7.3.

Fig. 7.3 Cross-section of the diffraction grating

When coherent monochromatic light, such as that from a laser, passes through
narrow slits an interference pattern is formed. A diffraction grating is composed of a
large number of narrow evenly spaced slits. When laser light passes through the
grating, a regular pattern of sharp bright maxima in the intensity of the light can be
formed on a screen. The location of the m th maximum in the pattern is given by the
relationship
𝑚λ = d 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑚 ), m= 1, 2, 3 … (7.1)

51
Which means, a bright spot is formed when the two rays interfere constructively, that
is the path length difference between adjacent rays is an integer number of
wavelengths, this is known as the diffraction equation or the grating equation. Where
m is the order of the diffraction maximum, d is the separation between slits (the
grating spacing), λ is the wavelength of the light, and θm is the angular displacement
from the centre of the zeroth order maximum (centre of the pattern) to the centre of
the mth order maximum (θm is the diffraction angle, i.e., the angle that the diffracted
ray makes with the incident ray).

Figure 7.4: Schematic arrangement of diffraction experiment.

If the linear distance between the centre of the zeroth order maximum and the mth
bright maximum is given by xm, then the sin (θm) is approximately given by
𝑥m
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑚 ) = (7.2)
𝐿

Where L is the distance from the grating to the screen where the pattern is displayed
and L ≫ xm. Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) yields
𝑚𝜆𝐿 𝑑 𝑥𝑚
𝑥𝑚 = ’ or 𝜆 = , for m = 1, 2, 3 . . . (7.3)
𝑑 𝑚𝐿
If the diffraction angle, θm, is not small, then the wavelength must be calculated from
the formula:
𝑑
𝜆= sin[tan−1 ( 𝑥𝐿𝑚)]. (7.4)
𝑚

52
The value of 1/𝑑 = 𝑁, is the number of lines per unit length on the diffraction grating.
It is desirable to calibrate this quantity instead of using the value given by the
manufacturer. In some cases, the photographic film, upon which the "replica" is
made, shrinks during processing. The value of d can be determined by measuring
the separation between two maxima in the interference pattern and the distance from
the grating to the screen for a spectral line of known wavelength (for the He-Ne laser
is 632.8 nm.)

The optical diffraction grating is a glass or plastic plate with many fine, parallel
grooves spaced the same distance d from each other on its surface. When
monochromatic light from a distant source or laser hits the grating, each groove re-
radiates the light as spherical waves in phase with the incident wave. The diffracted
light beams are formed by the superposition of many spherical waves. In the case
where the incident light beam is a parallel beam, and is incident at right angles to the
grating, the diffraction pattern will be generated by groups of beams parallel at a
given angle 𝛼 to the direction of the incident beam as in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Diffraction by a grating

It is very important that the diffraction grating and the screen be parallel. Light
shining through a diffraction grating will produce an observable interference pattern.

53
The laser pointer emits red light.
Hint: At this point you should be able to predict the range in which the wavelength of
light will fall as you know the light is red.

You should tape sheets of paper to the screen before marking the interference
pattern.

Figure 7.6: The Diffraction Mosaic.

54
Laser light is much more coherent than light from conventional sources. So, coherent
is laser light that one may observe interference effects even when the path
difference between the interfering rays is much greater than 109 wavelengths!

Lasers are devices that amplify or increase the intensity of light to produce a highly
directional, high-intensity beam that typically has a very pure frequency or
wavelength. They come in sizes ranging from approximately one-tenth the diameter
of a human hair to that of a very large building. Lasers produce powers ranging from
nanowatts to a billion trillion watts (1021 W) for very short bursts. They produce
wavelengths or frequencies ranging from the microwave region and infrared to the
visible, ultraviolet, vacuum ultraviolet, and into the soft-X-ray spectral regions. They
generate the shortest bursts of light that man has yet produced, or approximately five
million-billionths of a second (5 × 10–15 sec).

Lasers are a primary component of some of our most modern communication

systems and are the probes that generate the audio signals from our compact disk
players. They are used for cutting, heat treating, cleaning, and removing materials in
both the industrial and medical worlds. They are the targeting element of laser-
guided bombs and are the optical source in both supermarket checkout scanners
and tools (steppers) that print our microchips. Because of the special stimulated
nature of the laser light source, and the apparatus needed to produce laser light,
laser photons are generally not as cheap to produce or to operate as are other light
sources of comparable power. We presently do not use them to light our rooms, as
lamp bulbs for our flashlights, as headlights for our automobiles, or as street lamps.
Lasers also don’t generally provide “white light” but instead produce a specific
“colour” or wavelength, depending upon the laser used.

The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation which describes the theory of laser operation. Stimulated emission of
radiation is a natural process first identified by Einstein. It occurs when a beam of
light passes through a specially prepared medium and initiates or stimulates the
atoms within that medium to emit light in exactly the same direction and exactly at
the same wavelength as that of the original beam. A typical laser device (Figure 5.7)
consists of an amplifying or gain medium, a pumping source to input energy into the

55
device, and an optical cavity or mirror arrangement that reflects the beam of light
back and forth through the gain

Figure 7.7: Basic laser components including gain medium, pumping source,
and mirror cavity

Properties of laser light

Unlike other forms of light, laser light has special properties which make it
significantly more effective and dangerous than conventional light of the same
power. The laser light particles (photons) are usually:

 Monochromatic: consisting of a single wavelength or colour

 Coherent: photons are in phase (like marching soldiers)
 Collimated: photons are almost in parallel (aligned), with little
divergence from the point of origin

Caution:

You must be very careful not to look directly into the laser beam. Also, do not view
the laser beam if it has been reflected from a mirror or other highly-reflecting surface.
You can view the laser after scattering from a piece of paper, your hand, or the panel
on the front of the light sensor. That is,
 Never look directly into a laser beam.
 If the laser is not used carefully, it may result in permanent eye damage.
 Do not shine it in anyone’s face.
 Do not point it around the room.

56
 Procedure:
1. Arrange the laser and diffraction grating mosaic so that the mosaic is about 5m
from a white wall in the laboratory. This wall will serve as the screen.
2. Place the laser behind the Mosaic so that the beam is incident normal to the
grating (300 lines/mm).
3. Measure the separations between the zeroth order maximum and the 1st, 2nd
and 3rd order maxima.
4. Record these data in the data table and determine the value for the wavelength,
λ.
5. Compare your average calculated value of the wavelength to the given value for
the He-Ne laser.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the 300 lines/mm grating.
7. Compare your average calculated value of the wavelength to the given value for
the He-Ne laser.
8. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the 600 lines/mm grating.
9. Compare your average calculated value of the wavelength to the given value for
the He-Ne laser.

Observation Table:

Grating d L Xm tan(θm)= Xm/L θm = tan-1(Xm/L) λ=(dsinθm )/m

100 1mm/100 X1 θ1 =
lines/mm X2 θ2 =
X3 θ3=
300 1mm/300 X1 θ1 =
lines/mm X2 θ2 =
X3 θ3=
600 1mm/600 X1 θ1 =
lines/mm
X2 θ2 =
X3 θ3=

57
Exercise:
1. Describe the differences observed in the diffraction patterns for the three
gratings.
𝑥m
2. Show that this Eq.(𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑚 ) = ) is (or is not) a valid approximation when
𝐿

L>>xm.

58
 Experiment Eight: Newton’s Rings

Objective:

 To observe Newton rings formed by the interface of produced by a thin air film
and to measure the diameter of the rings at different wavelengths and,
 To determine the radius of curvature of a given plano-convex lens by forming
Newton’s rings at given wavelengths, or
 To determine the wavelengths for a given radius of curvature of the lens of
Newton's rings apparatus.
Apparatus:
1. Sodium vapour lamp
2. Travelling microscope
3. Plano convex lens
4. Plane glass plate and
5. Magnifying lens.

Introduction:
Newton’s rings are a special case of interference of light in a thin film of slowly
varying thickness. This is used in the laboratory to determine wavelength of
monochromatic light and the refractive indices of liquids available in small quantities.

The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an illustration of the interference of light

waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness. The
two interfering beams, derived from a monochromatic source satisfy the coherence
condition for interference. Ring shaped fringes are produced by the air film existing
between a convex surface of a long focus plano-convex lens and a plane of glass
plate.

Theory:

When a plano-convex lens (L) of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate
(G) , a thin film of air I enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and upper

59
surface of the glass plate,(see fig 8.1). The thickness of the air film is very small at
the point of contact and gradually increases from the centre outwards. The fringes
produced are concentric circles. With monochromatic light, bright and dark circular
fringes are produced in the air film. When viewed with the white light, the fringes are
coloured.

A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B at an angle of 450. The plate B
reflects a part of incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and plate
G. The reflected beam (see fig 8.1) from the air film is viewed with a microscope.
Interference takes place and dark and bright circular fringes are produced. This is
due to the interference between the light reflected at the lower surface of the lens
and the upper surface of the plate G.

Figure 8.1: Newton’s rings

For the normal incidence the optical path difference between the two waves is
nearly 2μt, where μ is the refractive index of the film and t is the thickness of the air
film. Here an extra phase difference π occurs for the ray which got reflected from

60
upper surface of the plate G because the incident beam in this reflection goes from a
rarer medium to a denser medium. Thus the conditions for destructive and
constructive interference are (using μ = 1 for air)
2 t = n λ for minima; n = 0, 1, 2, 3… (8.1)
And
2𝑡 = (𝑛 + 1/2)𝜆 for maxima; n = 0, 1, 2, 3… (8.2)
Then the air film enclosed between the spherical surface of R and a plane surface
glass plate, gives circular rings such that (see fig 8.2)
𝑟𝑛2 = (2𝑅 − 𝑡)𝑡 (8.3)
where rn is the radius of the nth order dark ring.
(Note: The dark ring is the nth dark ring excluding the central dark spot). Now R is
the order of 100 cm and t is at most 1 cm. Therefore, R>>t. Hence (neglecting the t 2
term), giving
𝑟𝑛2
2𝑡 ≈ (8.4)
𝑅

𝑟𝑛2
Putting the value of “2 t” in Eq. (8.1) gives 𝑛𝜆 ≈ with the help of a traveling
𝑅
microscope we can measure the diameter of the nth ring order dark ring = Dn. Then,
𝑟𝑛=𝐷𝑛 and hence,
2

𝐷2 1
𝑅 = ( 𝑛) (8.5)
𝑛 4𝜆
𝐷𝑛2
The value of is calculated from the slope of the graph drawn in between n Vs 𝐷𝑛2
𝑛

So if we know the wavelength, 𝜆 we can calculate R (radius of curvature of the lens).

61
Figure 8.2: Schematics A

Figure 8.3: Schematics B

62
Figure 8.4: General set-up

63
Figure 8.5. Schematics C

64
Figure-8.6: System for the experiment

The phenomenon known as Newton's Rings occurs when a curved glass lens is set
on a flat glass plate and, upon illumination; a series of bright and dark interference
fringes is observed. Around the point of contact between the surfaces, there is a thin
film of air whose thickness increases with distance from the contact point.

In a Newton's rings apparatus, monochromatic light interferes in the thin film of air
between the slightly convex lens and a plane glass plate. The wavelengths are

65
determined from the radii of the interference rings. The fringes produced with
monochromatic light are circular. The fringes are concentric circles, uniform in
thickness and with the point of contact as the centre. With monochromatic light,
bright and dark circular fringes are produced in the air film.

Figure 8.5: Geometry used to determine the thickness t.

If the fringes of equal thickness are produced in the air film between a convex
surface of a long-focus lens and a plane glass surface, the contour lines will be
circular. For purposes of measurement, the observations are usually made at normal
incidence by an arrangement such as that in Fig. 8.6, where the glass plate G
reflects the light down on the plates. After reflection, it is transmitted by G and
observed in the low-power microscope T. Under these conditions the positions of the
maxima are given by Eq.
2μt = (m+1/2) λ (the condition for bright fringes) (8.6)
where 𝑡 is the thickness of the air film, μ= refractive index, for air μ=1, m=order. Now
if we designate by R the radius of curvature of the surface A and assume that A and

66
B are just touching at the centre, the value of t for any ring of radius r is the sagitta of
the arc, given by
r2
t= (8.7)
2R
Substitution of this value in Eq. (8.6) will then give a relation between the radii of the
rings and the wavelength of the light.
𝑟 2 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝑅𝜆 (Bright fringes) (8.8)
For quantitative work, one may not assume the plates to barely touch at the point of
contact, since there will always be either some dust particles or distortion by
pressure. Such disturbances will merely add a small constant to Eq. (8.7), however,
and their effect can be eliminated by measuring the diameters of at least two rings.

Figure 8.6: Experimental arrangement used in viewing and measuring

Newton's rings.

In going from one fringe to the next m increases by1, and this requires the optical
thickness of the film μ*t to change by λ /2. Because the ring diameters depend on
wavelength, white light will produce only a few coloured rings near the point of
contact. With monochromatic light, however, an extensive fringe system such as that

67
shown in Fig. 8.7 is observed. When the contact is perfect, the central spot is black.
This is direct evidence of the relative phase change of 𝜋 between the two types of
reflection, air-to-glass and glass-to-air. If there were no such phase change, the
rays reflected from the two surfaces in contact should be in the same phase and
produce a bright spot at the centre. In an interesting modification of the experiment,
due to Thomas Young, the lower plate has a higher index of refraction than the lens,
and the film between is filled with an oil of intermediate index.

Then both reflections are at "rare-to-dense" surfaces, no relative phase change

occurs, and the central fringe of the reflected system is bright. The experiment does
not tell us at which surface the phase change in the ordinary arrangement occurs,
but it is now definitely known that it occurs at the lower (air-to-glass) surface. A ring
system is also observed in the light transmitted by the Newton's-ring plates. These
rings are exactly complementary to the reflected ring system, so that the centre spot
is now bright.

Figure 8.7: Newton's rings. (By permission from Bausch & Lomb Incorporated)

68
Figure-8.8: Newton’s rings

At the point of contact O, (point of A & B at centre) of the lens with the glass plate,
the thickness of the air film is zero. Therefore, 2 µ t cos Ɵ =0. The total path
difference at O is only λ/2. This satisfies the condition for darkness. Hence, the point
O, the centre of the ring system appears dark.

69
Figure 8.9 (a) The combination of rays reflected from the flat plate and the
curved lens surface gives rise to an interference pattern known as Newton’s
rings. (b) Photograph of Newton’s rings.

The contact point at O is dark, as seen in Figure 6.8b, because there is no path
difference and the total phase change is due only to the 180° phase change upon
reflection.

Precautions:
Notice that as you go away from the central dark spot the fringe width decreases. In
order to minimize the errors in measurement of the diameter of the rings the
following precautions should be taken:
i. The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.
ii. If you place the cross wire tangential to the outer side of a
perpendicular ring on one side of the central spot then the cross
wire should be placed tangential to the inner side of the same ring
on the other side of the central spot.(See fig 6.3)
iii. The traveling microscope should move only in one direction.
iv. Carefully clean the interference plates and the lens with lens tissue
before trying to form interference fringes and Newton’s rings.

70
Procedure:

1. Clean the plate G and lens L carefully and put the lens over the plate with the
curved surface below B making angle with G, i.e. Place the convex lens with
its convex surface in contact with the surface of the glass plate (see fig 8.1).
2. Switch in the monochromatic light source. This sends a parallel beam of light.
This beam of light gets reflected by plate B falls on lens L.
3. Place the lens and glass plate setup under the microscope as shown in the
figure
4. (Fig 8.4).
5. View the rings through the microscope. On looking through the microscope, a
spot with rings around it can be seen on properly focusing the microscope.
Adjust the microscope’s cross-wires coincide with the central dark spot.
6. Once good rings are in focus, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the two
perpendicular cross wires, one has its length parallel to the direction of travel
of the microscope. Let this cross wire also passes through the centre of the
ring system.
7. By counting the central spot as zero, move the microscope to the left side
using the slow motion screw counting the dark rings.
8. When the vertical cross-wire is tangential to the 10th ring (Set the crosswire
tangential to one ring as shown in fig (8.3), note (record) the main scale
reading and the vernier coincidence (the microscope reading).
9. Now, move the microscope and make the vertical cross-wire coincide with 8th,
6th, 4th and 2nd ring and note down the reading of M.S.R and V.C as above.
10. Then, move the microscope towards the right side of the central spot and note
the readings for 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th … as was done on left side.

Observation table:

Tabulate the readings and calculate the diameter for each rings. Microscope
Readings

71
 Table 1: Measurement of diameter of the ring

S. Orde Left edge of the ring Right side of the ring Diameter D2
No r of of the ring cm2
the D= d1-d2cm
ring M.S.R, V.C, Total M.S.R, V.C, Total
(n) a cm n reading d1=a a cm n reading
+(n* L.C)cm d2=a+(n*
L.C)cm
1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

5 10

NB: (Make sure that you correctly read the least count, L.C, of the vernier in mm
units)
D2 m−D2 n
Radius of curvature of the given lens is, 𝑅 =
4λ(m−n)

Where, R is radius of curvature of the given lens (cm)

D2 m is diameter of the mth ring.
D2 n is diameter of the nth ring.
0
λ is the wavelength of the sodium vapour lamp = 5893 A
1. Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________mm
2. Wave length of light = _______________________ m

72
Calculations:
1. Plot the graph of D2 Vs n and draw the straight line of best fit.
2. Give the calculation of the best fit analysis below. From the slope of the
graph, calculate the radius of curvature R of the given Plano convex lens as
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑅= =__________________________________________cm
4𝜆

Questions:
1. Explain why the centre ring is a destructive interference zone.
2. Provide an argument to support the model expressions given in Equations (1)
and (2).
3. What is the approximate width of the mth dark fringe?
4. What is the approximate width of the mth bright fringe?
5. Provide separate expressions, based respectively upon a set of dark and
bright fringe radii measurements, to qualitatively estimate the uncertainty of
the inferred radius at which each fringe occurs. Discuss how this uncertainty
propagates into a measure of uncertainty in the radius of curvature, ∆R.
6. Derive the wavelength equation for the (m+k)th dark and bright rings.
-10
7. A water film with refractive index 1.33 in air is 3200*10 m thick. If it is
illuminated with white light at normal incident, what colour will it appear to be
in reflected light?

73
 Experiment Nine: Michelson Interferometer

Objective:
 Obtain a basic understanding of interferometry and its use to measure
wavelength and refractive indexes. Learn about the use and characteristics of
nano-actuators based on piezoelectricity and stepping motors. You will use
and modify the software and hardware that you build in earlier modules.
Apparatus
1. HeNe laser
2. Several mirrors
3. Beam splitter
4. Newport electrostrictive actuators with controller
5. Stepping motor based translation Stage with controller
6. Lock-In Amplifier
7. Function generator

Theory
The Michelson interferometer is an optical instrument of high precision and
versatility. It generally is used in investigations that involve small changes in optical
path lengths. With the Michelson interferometer, one can produce circular and
straight-line fringes of both monochromatic light and white light. One can use these
fringes to make an accurate comparison of wavelengths, measure the refractive
index of gases and transparent solids, and determine small changes in length quite
precisely. The instrument can be used as a stable mode selecting resonator element
in laser cavities as well. The Michelson interferometer is perhaps the best known and
most basic in a family of interferometers, which includes the Fabry-Perot
interferometer, the Twyman-Green interferometer and the Mach-Zehnder
interferometer.

The Michelson interferometer operates on the principle of division of amplitude rather

than on division of wavefront. According to this principle, the incident beam of light

74
falls on a beam splitter which reflects roughly half of the intensity of the beam cross
section or wavefront in one direction and transmits the other half of the intensity of
the entire wavefront in another direction. The two beams which travel different optical
paths are subsequently recombined in a common region where interference occurs
and fringes are formed. The character of the fringes is directly related to the different
optical path lengths traveled by the two beams and, therefore, is related to whatever
causes a difference in the optical path lengths.

Optics of the Michelson Interferometer

The important parts of a Michelson interferometer include a sturdy base, a diffusing
glass, a beam splitter, a movable mirror with a micrometer screw for measuring
distance of movement, a fixed mirror, and compensating glass. These parts are
shown in a typical physical arrangement in Figure 9-1. The light source shown to the
left can be a white light or spectral light source. It is not generally considered a part
of the Michelson interferometer.

Fig 9-1: Basic set-up of a Michelson Interferometer

An accurately machined micrometer screw (in our case an electrostrictive actuator)

is attached to the movable mirror, permitting the mirror to be moved toward or away
from the beam splitter by a precisely determined amount. The micrometer generally

75
has about one inch of movement and usually can measure mirror motion to within
0.002 mm. The two mirrors, beam splitters, and compensating glass all are made of
carefully annealed glass (e.g., borosilicatecrown). The mirrors are front-coated with
aluminum and protected with a wavelength layer of silicon monoxide. Both mirrors
are flat over the reflecting surfaces to about wavelength of mercury green light. The
beam splitter is flat to about wavelength, while the compensating glass is flat to
about wavelength. The diffusing glass generally is mounted on a filter holder and
fitted with a metal pointer for alignment purposes.

Fig9-2: Optical arrangement and light path in a Michelson Interferometer

The optical arrangement for the Michelson interferometer is shown schematically in

Figure 9-2. Light from a broad spectrum source S, such as an incandescent bulb,
passes through a diffusing glass DG (e.g., a ground glass plate) , and strikes the
beam splitter P. The beam splitter is half-silvered glass plates (silvered on the back
side) which reflect half of the light toward mirror M1 and transmits half of the light
(but the entire cross section) toward mirror M2. We are using a laser as a light
source and replace the diffusion glass by a small lens.

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Actuators using Piezoelectricity

When these materials are compressed, they produce a voltage proportional to the
applied pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied across the material,
there is a change of shape. Several natural materials exhibit piezoelectric properties,
but most devices now use polycrystalline ceramics such as lead zirconate titanate
(PZT). Typically, linear extensions of up to 200 mm are obtained when suitable
voltages are applied to the appropriate ceramic geometries. Several families of
ceramics and types of devices were developed when designers attempted to
accentuate the more desirable properties and minimize the less appropriate ones for
specific applications.

Although similar materials are used, it is proper to refer to devices that operate in the
ferroelectric region below the Curie temperature as piezoelectric and to those that
operate in the paraelectric region above the Curie temperature as electrostrictive.
Piezoelectric. Ceramic-based actuators with a non-symmetric crystal structure
capable of moving and measuring at the nanometric level. The most common
piezoelectric crystal is lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Electrostrictive. Ceramic-based
actuators with a symmetric crystal structure capable of moving and measuring at the
nanometric level. Although similar to piezoelectric actuators, they expand according
to the square of the field (to first order) whereas piezoelectric materials expand
linearly (to first order). Electrostrictive materials exhibit less Hysteresis than
piezoelectric materials, but are difficult to use at very low voltages. Detailed
information are found in the pdf-files obtained from two suppliers of actuators. Note,
that each of them tries to promote their own products. Summarize the advantages
and disadvantage of each type in an objective way.

The compensating glass, CG, of identical composition and thickness to the beam
splitter, is included so that each of the two beams (paths PM1PO and PM2PO in
Figure 2) passes through the same thickness of glass. Note that otherwise the beam
that travels along pathPM1PO would pass through a thickness of glass three times
while the beam that travels along the other path would pass through the same
thickness of glass only once. The compensating glass is necessary if one wishes to
produce white-light fringes; it would not be needed if one only worked with highly
monochromatic light.

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If the optical path length PM1P is equal to the other optical path length, or if these
two paths differ by a whole number of wavelengths λ , the condition for constructive
interference is met. Thus, bright fringes will be formed for that wavelength. This
condition is written as Eq. (9.1).
𝑃𝑀1𝑃 – 𝑃𝑀2 𝑃 = 𝑝𝜆 (Bright fringes) (9.1)
where: p = The order number (may be 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, and so on). If, on the other
hand, the two optical paths differ by an integral odd number of half wavelengths
(p/2)𝜆, where p= ±1, ±3, ±5, and so on, the condition for destructive interference is
met and dark fringes will be formed in accordance with Eq. (9.2).
𝑃𝑀1𝑃 – 𝑃𝑀2𝑃 = (𝑝/2)𝜆 (dark fringes) (9.2)

If the two mirrors M1 and M2 are not aligned precisely perpendicular to one another,
the path difference will depend on the particular region of mirror M1 (and the
corresponding region of M2) which we are observing from the position O. The field of
view, then, seen by looking at mirror M1 from position O will be made up of a series
of alternately bright and dark fringes, nearly straight and parallel, similar to those
produced by interference from a simple wedge. Such fringes are referred to as
fringes of equal thickness, or straight-line fringes. If the path difference is near zero,
the fringes will be broad and widely spaced in the field of view. On the other hand, if
the path difference is on the order of 40 or 50 wavelengths (p = 40 or 50), the fringes
will be narrow and closely spaced, so much so that they may be not resolvable with
the naked eye.

Fig 9-3: Circular fringes (equal inclination) as seen in a Michelson intererometer

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If the two mirrors are precisely aligned such that their planes are exactly
perpendicular to one another, thus ensuring that path differences over different
regions of the mirrors are constant, the fringe pattern will be seen by the observer at
0 to consist of a series of concentric rings. Each ring will correspond to a different
angle of view measured from the perpendicular direction to the mirror M1, as
illustrated in Figure 9-3. The fringes shown are called fringes of equal inclination.
When the mirrorM1 is moved so as to approach the condition for zero path
difference, the fringe pattern will appear to collapse with all fringes moving toward
the center, and then disappearing.

Procedure

(Details of the procedure have to developed independently)

1. Align the Interferometer such that the path length difference is almost zero.
Use a ruler to determine the position of the beam splitter and the mirrors to
achieve this. First, set-up the interferometer without the lens. You need to
align the mirrors such that the two reflections from the mirrors overlap. If you
include the lens at this point you should see fringes at this point. Do a fine
adjustment to center the frinces and have only a round bright or dark spot in
the center. Place one mirror on a mount the can be displaced by the
electrostrictive actuator and another mirror on a mount on top of the stepping
motor controlled translation stage.
2. Inlcude the Lock-In amplifier module and the stepping motor control into your
program. (sub routines are provided)
3. Calibrate the electrostrictive actuator using the HeNe laser. Change the
voltage to the actuator up and down and determine the number of bright/dark
sequences for small voltages steps and translate these measurements into
displacement of the actuator. Optional: Apply an up/ down ramp from a
function generator to the actuator and observe the intensity of the central
interference spot using a photo detector and an oscilloscope. Translate the
trace on the oscilloscope into a displacement vs voltage plot
4. Replace the HeNe laser by the unknown laser pointer and determine its
wavelength. Knowing the displacement/voltage characteristic of the actuator,

79
 change its voltage and count the bright/dark sequences in the linear region of
the actuator.
5. Introduce a glass plate on a rotating stage into one of the arms of the
interferometer and determine its thickness (assuming you know its refractive
index). Compare your result to the result you get with a caliber. The optical
pathlength difference can be changed by changing the angle the light goes
through the glass plate. Determine this change as a function of angle by counting
again the bright/dark sequences
6. Introduce your air-cell into one of the arms of the interferometer and determine the
refractive index of air. Determine the number of dark/bright sequences between
several pressure steps, as you go down in pressure. To be accurate you also need to
know the air pressure in the room for the day you do the experiment.

Exercise: Set-up a Michelson interferometer

 Calibrate and use an electrostrictive actuator to use for precision
positioning
 Calibrate and use the stepping mot0r controlled for precession positioning
 Accurately measure the wavelength of a laser
 Determine the refractive index of a glass plate
 Determine the refractive index of air

80
 Experiment Ten: Solid State Lasers and
Nonlinear Optics

Objectives:
 Understand the function of a continuous wave laser and its components.
Learn strategies to align a laser cavity.
 Get a basic understanding of the principle of Q-switching and how it can be
used to create laser pulses.
 Understand the concept of nonlinear optics and its application to second
harmonic generation.
Apparatus
1. Nd:YAG laser including a Nd: YAG crystal rod, halogen pump lamps,
adjustable cavity mirrors,
2. and Q-switch assembly
3. Electronic Driver for Q-switch
4. IR-viewer card
5. Optical Spectrum Analyzer
6. Polarizer
7. Grating
8. Photodetector
9. Power meter
10. CCD camera
11. Computer

Introduction
(The description here is very basic but should be enough to give you the basic idea).
A more detailed description can be found in Laser and Electr0-Optics by C.. C.
Davis. The book is available in the teaching lab) In this experiment we are working
with a laser that is invisible to you eye but is very powerful. Extra caution is required
when working with it. In particular protective goggles have to be worn whenever the
laser is operated. Watch the presentation on laser safety. The Nd:YAG laser is a

81
four-level system in which the lasing transition occurs at 1.064μm. The energy level
diagram for a four-level system is shown in figure 10-1.

Fig:10-1: (left) Level scheme of a four level system, (right) Basic optical resonator

The atoms in the ground state are pumped to state 3 and then the excited Nd3+ ions
rapidly relax to the upper lasing state 2. Lasing occurs between states 2 and 1 at a
wavelength of 1.064μm. The ions then relax rapidly back to the ground state 0 and
are available again to be pumped back up to state 3. Nd:YAG lasers can be
operated in a continuous wave (cw) or a pulsed mode. In this laboratory we will study
both modes of operation. The laser is pumped by a tungsten-halogen lamp in a
double elliptical pump cavity. The lamps are at one focus of the ellipse and the
Nd:YAG rod is at the other common focus. Heat is removed from the system by
flowing water around the Nd:YAG rod and through the elliptical housing.

The lasing rod is a crystal of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), which has been doped
with neodymium ions. The optical cavity is formed by two mirrors which are coated
for high reflectivity at 1.064μm. The output mirror is a 98% reflector and the back
mirror reflects greater than 99.9%. Since the lasing transition for the Nd:YAG laser is
in the near infrared, an infrared viewer or a phosphor card is needed to see the laser.
Q-switched mode
Q-switching is the generation of high power optical pulses by switching the loss of
the laser cavity from high loss (low Q) to low loss (high Q). Q-switching is done by

82
introducing a fast optical shutter in the cavity which for our laser is an acousto-optical
modulator. When the shutter is closed, the population inversion is allowed to build up
to a very high level without lasing. Energy is stored in the laser crystal. When the
shutter opens, the photon flux inside the cavity builds up rapidly but decays shortly
after that because the population inversion is quickly depleted. If the shutter is not
closed immediate then further smaller pulses may develop.

Second harmonic generation

The invisible infrared output of the Nd:YAG laser can be frequency-doubled to
0.53μm, the green portion of the visible spectrum, by using a nonlinear crystal. Since
the efficiency of the frequency doubling (second harmonic generation, SHG) is rather
low, it is important to match the velocities of the phase fronts of the fundamental and
the second harmonic waves in the crystal. This so-called phase-matching results in
orders of magnitude improvement in the conversion efficiency. In order to achieve
phase-matching the indices of refraction for both the fundamental and second
harmonic waves must be equal.

This is usual not the case because essentially all materials exhibit a wavelength
dependence of their refractive index (dispersion). In a number of birefringent
crystals, it is possible to achieve phase matching at a given fundamental wavelength
by a proper choice of polarization direction of the light beam, orientation, and
temperature of the crystal. The trick is to match the phase velocity of one polarization
at the fundamental wavelength with the phase velocity of another polarization at the
second harmonic wavelength.

Procedure

A) Alignment of the laser cavity using a He-Ne laser

1. Set the He-Ne laser in a horizontal position, its beam at about the same
height as that of the Nd: YAG rod. Set up mirrors M1 and M2, and an aperture
as shown in Fig. 10-2.
2. Remove the output coupler. With mirrors M1 and M2, direct the He-Ne beam
through the ND: YAG rod. Observe the emerging spot on a piece of paper.
Similar as in earlier experiments, we use 2 mirrors to steer a laser beam in a
desired direction.

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 Fig: 10-2

3. With mirror M2, align for the brightest possible He-Ne beam spot on the piece
of paper. The spot is probably not centered in the middle of the projected
aperture at this stage (fig. 2)
4. Observe the spot reflected by the first surface of the rod on the aperture in
front of the He-Ne laser.

Fig: 10-3
5. If the reflected beam is not autocollimated (i.e., retroreflected back through
the aperture, see figure 10-3), then with mirror M1 alone, increase the offset.
Now with mirror M2 alone bring the beam spot back towards the center of the

84
 projected aperture. Repeat this walking of the beam until the reflected beam is
well autocollimated and the beam spot is bright and well centered in the
projected aperture.
6. Next we need to adjust the back mirror of the resonator. Using the mirror
mount, orient the reflection back through the aperture. This beam is
converging due to the slight curvature of the mirror. Do not confuse this beam
with the collimated beam reflected off the flat back surface of the mirror
substrate.
7. Introduce the front mirror (output coupler). Again, you may observe two
reflections: one from the inner coated surface 1 and one from the outer
surface 2. We need to concentrate on the beam reflected from surface 2. It
needs be reflected back back through the aperture.
Now the laser should be aligned.

B) Laser Operation
1. Ask the instructor to turn on the cooling water. THE WATER SHOULD
REMAIN ON AT ALL TIMES. The laser will not function unless the water flow
is on. SAFETY GOGGLES SHOULD BE WORN. We are entering dangerous
terrain.
2. Turn on the power to the tungsten lamp (set 65V, push button and wait about
20 sec. slowly increase the input power up to 95V on the variac. The laser
should oscillate (work) now. Check for an output beam with a phosphor card
and a power meter.
3. If it does not lase, make fine adjustments of the output coupler about the
position obtained with the He-Ne laser. Watch for the laser to flash as the
mirror is adjusted.

C) Slope Efficiency
1. Using a photovoltaic cell and the digital scope to detect the output beam,
determine the threshold input voltage. Record how the signals look like below,
close to, and well above threshold
2. Using a power meter with the neutral density filter, measure the maximum
output power versus input voltage. For each measurement, optimize the

85
 alignment because it depends on the input power through thermal lensing
effects in the Nd: YAG rod.
3. The plot of the output power vs input power yields the slope efficiency.

D) Output Polarization Control

1. To analyze the polarization state of the laser output, use the set up shown in
Fig. 10-4 with the input voltage set such that the laser as well above
threshold. Rotate the linear polarizer to analyze the polarization of the output.
2. Repeat the procedure after you have introduced the Brewster plate into the
laser cavity.

Fig: 10-4

E) Laser Wavelength
1. Replace in Fig. 10-4 the detector by a fiber input coupler
2. Ask the instructor to show you how to couple light into the fiber
3. Use the fiber output as the input to the optical spectrum analyzer
4. Measure the spectrum and determine the peak wavelength

F) TEM00 Mode Operation

1. Using the phosphor card, an IR viewer or the CCD camera, determines the
spatial mode of the laser. This is easiest to do by looking at the output several
meters from the laser.
2. Play around with the adjustment to check on how the spatial modes are
changing.

86
 3. Adjust the laser such that you have a nice symmetrical round mode with the
smallest radius. This is the TEM00 mode.

G) Q-switched operation
1. Set the power of the laser to about 1W. Turn on the Q-switch power supply.
Measure the average power of the laser.
2. Using a photodiode and the oscilloscope, characterize the output from the
laser in the Qswitched mode of operation by measuring the repetition rate and
pulse length.
3. Calculate the intensity of the pulse for the Q-switched operation. Compare this
to the cw operation.

H) Second Harmonic Generation (extra-cavitiy)

1. To generate the second harmonic use the set-up shown in Fig. 10-5
2. Adjust the angle of the crystal until the SHG is achieved and optimized
3. Determine the polarization of the SHG signal
4. Using the Optical Spectrum analyzer determines the spectrum of the SHG
light. Confirm that it is really half the fundamental wavelength.

Fig: 10-5
5. Determine the SHG output power vs. fundamental output power
characteristics. Using the diffraction grating to separate the two wavelengths.

87
 Why will your measurements only yield the relative dependence but not the
absolute SHG/fundamental power ratio
6. Calibrate your ratios using the measurement obtained from the OSA
7. Turn the Q-switch off and observe the SHG output.

I) Second Harmonic Generation (intracavity-cavitiy)

1. Adjust the laser for maximum power
2. Introduce the SHG crystal into the laser cavity and adjust such that lasing
occurs again
3. Adjust the angle such that you see optimum green output.
4. Determine the SHG output power vs fundamental output power characteristics

Exercise: Get the laser to work

 Determine the threshold and slope efficiency of the laser
 Determine the polarization behavior of the laser with and without a
Brewster plate
 Determine the spatial mode of the laser
 Characterize the laser output in its Q-switched operation mode
 Study extra-cavity and intra-cavity SHG and its dependence on
fundamental laser power

88
 Annex 1: Data Sheet Page

Date: _____________________
Experiment No.__________________________

Title of the experiment: ____________________________________________________

Objective (s):
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Table of Data (Sample)-record the data here
S. N0. Data-01 Data-02 Data-03 Data-04 Data-05 Data-06 Data-07
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Group member (s)

1.__________________________________ Signature_______________
2.__________________________________ Signature_______________
3.__________________________________ Signature_______________
4.__________________________________ Signature_______________
5.__________________________________ Signature_______________
6.__________________________________ Signature_______________

Approved by (Name of Lab technician): ________________________________

Signature: ________________________________

89
References:
[1] Serway, Physics: For Scientists and Engineers.

[2] Cenco, Operating Instructions for Force Table Spectrometer #87006

[3] Cenco, Selective Experiments in Physics

[4] Gottlieb, Experiments using a He-Ne Laser., 10th edition.

[5] General Physics Lab Handbook by D.D.Venable, A.P.Batra, T.H¨ubsch, D.Walton

& M.Kamal

[6] William T. Silfvast School of Optics/CREOL University of Central Florida

Orlando, Florida

[7] Fundamentals of Optics fourth Edition by Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E.

White, University of California, Berkeley.

[8] Laboratory Experiments in Optics Prepared by Zaher Nassar and Revised by

Dr. Hussian Dawoud 2007, Islamic University-Gaza.

[9] Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th Edn. R.A.Serway Emeritus, James

Madison University

[10] Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual By Mr. M. Srinivasa Reddy

[11] http://labs.google.co.in/smschannels/subscribe/JNTUHOME

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