Department of Physics Laboratory Manual For Nuclear Physics (Phys2052)

Department of Physics
Laboratory Manual
for Nuclear Physics (Phys2052)
By:
Tadesse Abate (MSc. In Radiation Physics)
Getnet Tesema (MSc. In Nuclear Physics)
Faculty of Natural and Computational Sciences
Department of Physics
Nuclear Physics Laboratory Manual

Phys2052
Prepared by:
Tadesse Abate−MSc. In Radiation Physics
Email: tadesseabate96@gmail.com
Getnet Tesema−MSc. In Nuclear Physics
Email: getnet2006tesema@gmail.com
Editor:
Sitotaw Eshete−MSc. In Quantum Optics

Contents
1 Experiment One: Specific Charge of Electron 1

1.1 Thomson’s Bar Magnet Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.5 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Pre-Laboratory Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Laboratory Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Sample Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Experiment Two: Photo Voltaic Energy Conversion 10

2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Backgorund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Pre-Laboratory Assignmens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.10 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Experiment Three: Hall Effect 20

3.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CONTENTS – ii –
3.8 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Experiment Four: Demonstration of X−Ray Diffraction 25

4.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.8 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Experiment Five: Study of Geiger Muller Counter 34

5.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.5 Pre-Laboratory Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.9 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6 Experiment Six: Statisics of Nuclear Counting 43

6.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7 Experiment Seven: Absorptions of Beta and Gamma Rays 55

7.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
CONTENTS – iii –
7.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.9 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8 Experiment Eight: Zeeman Effect 62

8.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.2 Equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.5 Pre-Laboratory Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.9 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9 Experiment Nine: Photoelectric Effect 72

9.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2 Equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.8 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10 Virtual Nuclear laboratory 78

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3 Guideline and designing of PhET Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10.4 Ways to Run the free Physics Education Technology (PhET) simulation . . . . . . . . 82
11 Experiment One: Photoelectric Effect 84

11.1 Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.2 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.3 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
11.4 Procedures: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.5 Questions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
CONTENTS – iv –
12 Experiment Two: Alpha Decay 89

12.1 Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.2 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.3 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.4 Procedures: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
12.5 Data collection: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
12.6 Questions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13 Experiment Three: Beta Decay 95

13.1 Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.2 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.3 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.4 Procedures: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
13.5 Data Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
13.6 Questions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14 Experiment Four: Nuclear Fission 103

14.1 Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.2 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.3 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.4 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
14.5 Questions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
15 References 110
CONTENTS –v–
INTRODUCTION
Experiment and Laboratory

An experiment is the scientific test in order to check theories, principles... or a test of a hypothesis.
A hypothesis, in turn, is a proposed relationship or explanation of phenomena. The experiment is the
foundation of the scientific method, which is a systematic means of exploring the world around us.
Although some experiments take place in laboratories, we could perform an experiment anywhere, at
any time. There are three types of Experiments. These are natural experiment (a quasi-experiment),
controlled experiments and field experiments. Natural experiment involves making a prediction or
forming a hypothesis and then gathering data by observing a system. The variables are not controlled in
a natural experiment. Controlled experiments is Lab experiments are controlled experiments, although
we can perform a controlled experiment outside of a lab setting! In a controlled experiment, we
compare an experimental group with a control group. Ideally, these two groups are identical except
for one variable, the independent variable. A field experiment may be either a natural experiment or a
controlled experiment. It takes place in a real-world setting, rather than under lab conditions. Variables
in an Experiment: a variable is anything we can change or control in an experiment. Common examples
of variables include temperature, duration of the experiment, composition of a material, amount of light,
etc. There are three kinds of variables in an experiment: controlled variables, independent variables
and dependent variables. Controlled variables, sometimes called constant variables are variables that
are kept constant or unchanging. The independent variable is the one factor that we are changing.
It is one factor because usually in an experiment we try to change one thing at a time. This makes
measurements and interpretation of the data much easier.
Laboratory is a place (or room) where an experiment is performed. It provides a unique opportunity to
validate physical theories in a quantitative manner. Laboratory experience demonstrates the limitations
in the application of physical theories to real physical situations. It teaches the role that experimental
uncertainty plays in physical measurements and introduces ways to minimize experimental uncertainty.
In general, the purpose of these laboratory exercises is both to demonstrate some physical principle
and to teach techniques of careful measurement. The laboratory provides a unique opportunity to
validate physical theories in a quantitative manner. Laboratory experience demonstrates the limitations
in the application of physical theories to real physical situations. It teaches the role that experimental
uncertainty plays in physical measurements and introduces ways to minimize experimental uncertainty.
In general, the purpose of these laboratory exercises is both to demonstrate some physical principle and
to teach techniques of careful measurement.
CONTENTS – vi –
Significance Figures
The number of significant figures means the number of digits known in some number. The number
of significant figures does not necessarily equal the total digits in the number because zeros are used as
peace keepers when digits are not known. For example, in the number 123 there are three significant
figures. In the number 1230, although there are four digits in the number, there are only three significant
figures because the zero is assumed to be merely keeping a place. Similarly, the numbers 0.123 and
0.0123 both have only three significant figures. The rules for determining the number of significant
figures in a number are:
♣ The most significant digit is the leftmost nonzero digit. In other words, zeros at the left are never
significant.
♣ In numbers that contain no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant digit.
♣ In numbers that contain a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant digit, regardless
of whether it is zero or nonzero.
♣ The number of significant digits is found by counting the places from the most significant to the
least significant digit.
Accuracy and Precision

The central point to experimental physical science is the measurement of physical quantities. It
is assumed that there exists a true value for any physical quantity, and the measurement process is an
attempt to discover that true value. It is expected that there will be some difference between the true
value and the measured value. The terms accuracy and precision are used to describe different aspects
of the difference between the measured value and the true value of some quantity.
The accuracy of a measurement is determined by how close the result of the measurement is to the true
value. For example, in several of the experiments, we will determine a value for the charge−to− mass
ration of the electron. For this case, the accuracy value for the charge−to− mass ration of the electron
is e/m=1.7588196x10 11 C/kg. For many laboratory experiments, the true value of the measured
quantity is not known, and we cannot determine the accuracy of the experiment from the available data.
Precision refers to the reproducibility of a measurement or the precision of a measurement refers
essentially to how many digits in the result are significant. It indicates also how reproducible the
results are when measurements of some quantity are repeated. The smaller the variations of the
individual repeated measurements of a quantity, the more precise the quoted value of the measurement
is considered to be. We will elaborate upon and quantify this idea about the relationship between the
size of the variations in the measurements and the precision of the measurement in a later section on
statistical methods.
CONTENTS – vii –
Precision of a Set of Measurements

A data set of repetitive measurements is often expressed as a single representative number called
the mean or average. The mean (x) is the sum of individual measurements (xi ) divided by the number
of measurements (n).
Pn
i=1 xi
x=
n
Precision (reproducibility) is indicated by the deviation from the mean (x − xi ), the difference between
the individual experimental value and the mean value. The average deviation (σ) is used when a data set
contains less than 5 repetitive measurements. Widely scattered data results in a large average deviation
indicating poor precision. A small average deviation indicates data points clustered closely around the
mean and good precision
Pn
i=1 |x − xi |
∆x = ± .
n
The standard deviation could be calculated by
sP
n 2
i=1 (x − xi )
σ= (f or small samples)
n−1
r Pn
2
i=1 (x − xi )
σ= (f or lagre samples).
n
For Poison distribution
e−λ λN
P (N ) = = probability of distribution of data N
N!
where N is count in unit period of time (integer), λ is the mean of distribution, mean= µ = λ, variance
√
(spread)= σ 2 = λ and standard deviation= σ = λ.
Mistakes and Personal Errors

All measurements are subject to errors. There are three types of errors, which are classified as
personal, systematic, or random. Random errors are sometimes called statistical errors. This section
deals with personal errors. Systematic and random errors will be discussed later. In fact, personal
errors are not really errors in the same sense as the other two types of errors. Instead, they are merely
mistakes made by the experimenter. Mistakes are fundamentally different from the other two types of
errors because mistakes can be completely eliminated if the experimenter is careful. Mistakes can be
made either while taking the data or later in calculations done with the original data. Either type of
mistake is bad, but a mistake made in the data-taking process is probably worse because often it is not
discovered until it is too late to correct it.
The correct attitude toward all data-taking processes is one of skepticism about all the procedures that
are carried out in the laboratory. Essentially, this amounts to assuming that things will go wrong unless
constant attention is given to making sure that no mistakes are made. For every measurement taken, all
CONTENTS – viii –
aspects of the process must be checked and rechecked. Everyone in the group must be convinced that
they know exactly what is supposed to be measured, what the correct procedure is to measure it, and
that the group is making no mistakes in carrying out that procedure.
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are errors that tend to be in the same direction for repeated measurements, giving
results that are either consistently above the true value or consistently below the true value. In many
cases such errors are caused by some flaw in the experimental apparatus. For example, a voltmeter
could be incorrectly calibrated in such a way that it consistently gives a reading that is 80% of the true
voltage across its input terminals. It is also possible to have a voltmeter with a zero offset on its scale,
which is assumed for this discussion to be 0.50 volts. In the first case, the error is a constant fraction
of the true value (in this case, 20%), and in the second case, the error is a constant absolute voltage.
Either of these is a systematic error, and the answer to the question of which one is worse depends upon
the magnitude of the voltage to be measured. If the voltage to be measured is l.00 volts, then the meter
with absolute error of 0.50 volts causes an error of 50%, whereas the meter with relative error causes
an error of 20%. On the other hand, if the voltage to be measured is l00 volts, the meter with absolute
error of 0.50 volts causes only a 0.5% error, and the other meter still causes a 20% error, or in this case,
20 volts. If this measured voltage is used to calculate some other quantity, it too will show a systematic
error in the results. A second common type of systematic error is failure to consider all of the variables
that are important in the experiment. In some cases one may be aware that some other factors need to
be considered, but might not have the ability to do so quantitatively. For example, when using an air
table to validate NewtonâĂŹs Laws, it is common to ignore friction. This is done because friction is
assumed to be small, but also because often there is no easy way to determine its contribution. It is
expected, therefore, that neglecting friction might introduce a systematic error.
For purposes of this laboratory, the concern with systematic errors will usually be twofold-to attempt
to eliminate any obvious systematic errors to the extent possible, and to attempt to identify any data
that show systematic error, and suggest possible reasonable causes for such error.
Random Errors
The final class of errors is those that are produced by unpredictable and unknown variations
in the total experimental process even when one does the experiment as carefully as is humanly
possible. The variations caused by an observerâĂŹs inability to estimate the last digit the same way
every time will definitely be one contribution. Other variations can be caused by fluctuations in line
voltage, temperature changes, mechanical vibrations, or any of the many physical variations that may
be inherent in the equipment or any other aspect of the measurement process. It is important to realize
CONTENTS – ix –
the following difference between random errors and personal and systematic errors. In principle all
personal and systematic errors can be eliminated, but there will always remain some random errors in
any measurement. Even in principle the random errors can never be completely eliminated.
Random errors, on the other hand, can be determined in a prescribed way. It has been found empirically
that random errors often are distributed according to a particular statistical distribution function called
the Gauss distribution function, which is also referred to as the normal error function. Random
measurement errors are said to be normally distributed when a histogram of the frequency distribution
of the results of a large number of repeated measurements produces a bell-shaped curve with a peak at
the mean of the measurements. The histogram of the frequency distribution is simply a graph of the
number of times the measurements fall within a certain range versus the measured values.
Percentage Error and Percentage Difference

In several of the laboratory exercises, the true value of the quantity being measured will be
considered to be known. In those cases, the accuracy of the experiment will be determined by
comparing the experimental result with the known value. Normally this will be done by calculating
the percentage error of your measurement compared to the given known value. If E stands for the
experimental value, and K stands for the known value, then the percentage error is given by
|E − K|
percentage error = × 100%
K
In other cases we will measure a given quantity by two different methods. There will then be two
different experimental values, E1 and E2 , but the true value may not be known. For this case, we will
calculate the percentage difference between the two experimental values. Note that this tells nothing
about the accuracy of the experiment, but will be a measure of the precision. The percentage difference
between the two measurements is defined as
|E2 − E1 |
percentage dif f erence = × 100%
E1 +E2
2
Note: Calculating or finding the errors have a great role to find out the mistakes of the measurements
during the experiments and it is helpfull to compare the experimental values with that of the true and
theoretical values. It is also helping us to know our data taking ability.
Physics is an experimental science. Advancements in physics throughout its history have come about
mainly driven by experiments. For you, the physics lab will be an opportunity to have some fun with
some hands-on experience with physics theories. Moreover, it will be an opportunity for you to develop
and enhance your skills of experimental observation, data analysis and proper scientific documentation
which are always important in a career in science and engineering. So please look forward to use your
laboratory time for a gainful purpose. This manual will provide the basic theoretical backgrounds and
detail procedures of various experiments that you will perform in the lab. Before that, here are some
specific instructions for you to follow while carrying out the experiments. It also outlines the approach
CONTENTS –x–
that will be undertaken in conducting the lab. Please read carefully the followings.
Mean and Standard Deviation

Assume a series of repeated measurements is made in which there are no systematic or personal
errors, and thus only random errors are present. Assume that there are n measurements made of some
quantity x, and the ith value obtained is xi where i varies from 1 to n. If it is true that the errors are
normally distributed, statistical theory says that the mean is the best approximation to the true value. In
formal mathematical terms, the mean (which has a symbol of x) is given by the equation
X n
1
x= xi .
n i=1
It is not surprising that the mean is the best approximation to the true value. It seems intuitively
reasonable. We can prove mathematically that the mean is indeed the proper choice by something
called the principle of least squares, which we state in the following way. The most probable value for
some quantity determined from a series of measurements is that value that minimizes the sum of the
squares of the deviations between the chosen value and the measured values. We can demonstrate that
the proper choice to produce this minimum sum of deviations is simply the mean of the measurements.
This idea can be usefully generalized later for the case of two variables.
Statistical theory, furthermore, states that the precision of the measurement can be determined by
calculating a quantity called the standard deviation from the mean of the measurements. The symbol
for standard deviation from the mean is σn−1 , and it is defined by the equation
v
u n
u 1 X
σn−1 = t (xi − x)2 .
n − 1 i=1
The quantity σn−1 , which is actually called the sample standard deviation, is a measure of the precision
of the measurement in the following statistical sense. It gives the probability that the measurements
fall within a certain range of the measured mean. From the sample standard deviation and tables of the
standard error function, it is possible to determine the probability that the measurements fall within any
desired range about the mean.
Probability theory states that approximately 68.3% of all repeated measurements should fall within
a range of plus or minus σn−1 from the mean. Furthermore, 95.5% of all repeated measurements
should fall within a range of 2σn−1 from the mean. As a final note on the expected distribution for
measurements that follow a normal error curve, 99.73% of all measurements should fall within 3σn−1
of the mean. This implies that if one of the measurements is 3σn−1 or farther from the mean, it is very
unlikely that it is a random error. It is much more likely to be the result of a personal error.
A second issue that can be addressed by these repeated measurements is the precision of the mean.
After all, this is what is really of concern, because the mean is the best estimate of the true value. The
precision of the mean is indicated by a quantity called the standard error. The standard error, which has
CONTENTS – xi –
a symbol of ‘α’, is defined by

σn−1
α= √ .
n
In this laboratory, students will often be asked to make repeated measurements of some quantity and
to determine the mean. Assuming thatα represents the uncertainty in the value of the mean, a crucial
question is the appropriate number of significant figures to retain in α. In this laboratory, the convention
to be followed is to retain one significant figure in α and to make the least significant figure in the mean
be in the same decimal place as α. In this context the appropriate procedure is to originally calculate
the mean and ÏČ nâĹŠ1 to more significant figures than it is assumed are needed, and then allow the
value of α to determine the significant figures to be retained in the mean.
Linear least Square Fits

Often measurements are taken by changing one variable (call it x) and measuring how a second
variable (call it y) changes as a function of the first variable. In many cases of interest, it is assumed
that there exists a linear relationship between the two variables. In mathematical terms one can say that
the variables obey an equation of the form
y = mx + b
where m and b are constants. This also implies that if a graph is made with x as the horizontal axis
and y as the vertical axis, it will be a straight line with m equal to the slope (defined as ∆y/∆x) and
b equal to the y intercept (the value of y at x=0). The measurements are repeated measurements in
the sense that they are to be considered together in the attempt to determine to what extent the data
obey the above equation. It is possible to generalize the idea of minimizing the sum of squares of
the deviations described earlier for the mean and standard deviation to the present case. The result of
the generalization to two-variable linear data is called a linear least square fit to the data. It is also
sometimes referred to as a linear regression.
The aim of the process is to determine the values of m and b that produce the best straight-line fit to
the data. Any choice of values for m and b will produce a straight line, with values of y determined by
the choice of x. For any such straight line (determined by a given m and b) there will be a deviation
between each of the measured y0 s and the y0 s from the straight-line fit at the value of the measured x0 s.
The least squares fit is that m and b for which the sum of the squares of these deviations is a minimum.
Statistical theory states that the appropriate values of m and b that will produce this minimum sum of
squares of the deviations are given by the following equations:
n ni=1 xi yi − ( ni=1 xi ) ( ni=1 yi )
P P P
m= 2 .
n ni=1 x2i − ( ni=1 xi )
P P
( ni=1 x2i ) ( ni=1 yi ) − ( ni=1 xi yi ) ( ni=1 xi )

P P P P
b= 2 .
n ni=1 x2i − ( ni=1 xi )
P P
CONTENTS – xii –
The best possible straight-line fit to the data has been determined by the least squares fit process. A
second goal remains, to determine how well the data actually fit the straight line that we have obtained.
Again, we derive a qualitative answer to this question by making a graph of the data and the straight
line and qualitatively judging the agreement between the line and the data.
There is, however, a quantitative measure of how well the data follow the straight line obtained by the
least squares fit. It is given by the value of a quantity called the correlation coefficient, r. This quantity
is a measure of the fit of the data to a straight line with r=1.000 exactly signifying a perfect correlation,
and r=0 signifying no correlation at all. The equation to calculate r in terms of the general variables x
and y is given by
Pn Pn Pn
n
i=1 x i y i − ( i=1 x i ) ( i=1 yi )
r= q P q .
2 2
n ni=1 x2i − ( ni=1 xi ) n ni=1 yi2 − ( ni=1 yi )
P P P
When performing a least square fit to data, particularly when a small number of data points are involved,
there is some tendency to obtain a surprisingly good value for r even for data that do not appear to be
very linear. For those cases, we can determine the significance of a given value of ‘r’ by comparing
the obtained value of r with the probability that that value of r would be obtained for n values of two
variables that are unrelated.
Specific Instructions
1. You are expected to complete one experiment in each class. For that to happen, you will have
to come to the laboratory with certain initial preparation. The initial preparation will involve a
prior study of the basic theory of the experiment you are going to take up as well as the procedure
to perform it so as to have a rough idea of what to do. In addition, it will also involve a partial
preparation of the lab report in advance as mentioned later in this section.
2. You must bring with you the following materials to the lab: This instruction manual, A4 size
papers for writing the lab report, graph sheets if necessary, pen, pencil, measuring scale, calculator
and any other stationary items required. On the very first day of your lab class, bring also a file
cover/folder with your name, roll no., brance name etc. written on it clearly and submit it to the
instructor. The folder will be used to store your laboratory reports regularly at the end of the
classes. The folder with your reports will be kept in the laboratory and will be returned to you
only after the course instructions are over.
3. The format of a lab report shall be as follows:
a. The first sheet will contain your name, branch name, roll number, date and title of the
experiment. The subsequent sheets will contain the followings in that order.
b. The objective of the experiment, apparatus needed, and a brief theory with working formulas
and figures or diagrams whenever necessary.
c. Experimental observations. Data from experimental observations should be recorded in
CONTENTS – xiii –
proper tabular format with well documented headings for the columns. The data tables
should be preceded by the least counts of the instruments used to take the data and numerical
value of any constant, if any, used in the table.
d. Graphs whenever applicable.
e. Relevant calculations, error analysis.
f. Final results along with error estimates.
g. Remarks if any.
h. Please do not write the procedure of experiment anywhere.
4. As part of the initial preparation mentioned earlier, you are required come to the lab ready with
the items 3(a) and 3(b) above already written in your report sheets. This will save valuable lab
time and help you to complete the rest of the experiment within the allowed time.
5. After the completion of your data recording, switch off any power supply etc. used and put
back the components of the apparatus in their proper places. Complete the rest of the relevant
calculations and hand over the final report sheets to the instructor before leaving the lab.
6. Last but not the least - please handle the instruments with care and maintain utmost discipline
and decorum in the lab.
Laboratory Guidelines
Every week before lab, each student should read over the laboratory experiment and work out the
various calculations, etc. that are outlined in the prelab. The student should refer to applied electronics
I course for basics theory.
* Return parts and jumper wires to correct bins when you are finished with them.
* Do not put suspected defective parts back in the bins. Give them to the Lab-Technician for testing
or disposal.
* Report all equipment problems to Lab Instructor or Lab Technician.
* Most experiments have several parts; students must alternate in doing these parts as they are
expected to work in group.
* Each student must have a laboratory notebook. The notebook should be a
* permanent document that is maintained and witnessed properly, and that contains accurate records
of all lab sessions.
* Laboratory and equipment maintenance is the responsibility of not only the Lab
* Technician, but also the students. A concerted effort to keep the equipment in excellent condition
and the working environment well-organized will result in a productive and safe laboratory.
CONTENTS – xiv –
Safety in the Laboratory

To minimize electric shock hazard, the experiments are designed for low-voltage; however one
should never assume that electric circuits are safe. Few milliamperes of current through the body can
be lethal. For your safety you must follow safety rules particularly:
+ Turn off power before working on circuits.
+ Know the location of emergency power-off switch.
+ Make sure that the transformers and equipments are plugged into utility lines, have no exposed
wiring.
+ Check with the instructor if you are not certain about the Procedure.
Laboratory Notebook
Purpose of Laboratory Notebook

A laboratory notebook provides a permanent record of research, ideas, concepts, data, analysis,
and/or observations. It is a legal record of your work and may be used as evidence for patent filing,
patent protection, or other legal purposes. Documentation and maintenance of your records is a
fundamental part of GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) and is essential for the management and protection
of intellectual property rights. The proper use of a laboratory notebook will ensure that the progress
from conception to reduction to practice can be retraced in a chronological and logical manner, thus
providing a solid basis for patent purposes. Moreover, the contents of the laboratory notebook must be
able to withstand any challenges to their validity or accuracy. The laboratory notebook is a record of all
work pertaining to the experiment. This record should be sufficiently complete so that you or anyone
else of similar technical background can duplicate the experiment and data by simply following your
laboratory notebook. Record everything directly into the notebook during the experiment. Do not use
scratch paper for recording data. Do not trust your memory to fill in the details at a later time.
Guidelines for Laboratory Notebook

State the objective of the experiment.
Draw the circuit diagram and mention the values of each component, which are used.
Make a note of all the measuring instruments you have used.
Mention the formulas used.
Create a table and write down the readings, including the units.
Show all your calculation neatly and systematically. Do this is an organized manner.
Attach graph if any.
Be concise. Complete sentences are not necessary as long as the context is clear.
CONTENTS – xv –
If mistakes are made, they should not be erased. Just bracket them and make a Short note
explaining the problem.
Make entries as the lab progresses; don’t assume you can fill it in later.
Instructor will ask to see it during the lab.
Date every page.
All important results must be underlined.
Attach simulation and hand calculation to your note book.
Draw the figure using pencil before you come to the lab so that you can make Corrections to it in
case you need to do so by erasing and redrawing.
This will ensure tidy and neat work.
Prepare the READING TABLE using pencil and ruler and not just by sketching
Lines. Sketching gives rise to crooked lines and gives the lab notebook a
Haphazard look.
Take a few short notes (2-3 lines), which explains some of the problems you
encountered while doing the experiment. This will help you write better reports.
General Lab Report Format

Following the completion of each laboratory exercise in Electrical Engineering courses, a report
must be written and submitted for grading. The purpose of the report is to completely document the
activities of the design and demonstration in the laboratory. Reports should be complete in the sense
that all information required to reproduce the experiment is contained within. Writing useful reports is
a very essential part of becoming a scientist. In both academic and industrial environments, reports are
the primary means of communication between scientists. There is no one best format for all technical
reports but there are a few simple rules concerning technical presentations which should be followed.
Adapted to this laboratory they may be summarized in the following recommended report format:
1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Theory
5. Experimental Procedure
6. Results /Calculations
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
9. References
Detailed descriptions of these items are given below.
CONTENTS – xvi –
1. Title Page: The title page should contain the following information:
(a). Your name.
(b). ID number.
(c). Course number (including section).
(d). Experiment number and title.
(e). Date of submitted.
(f). Instructor0 s Name.
2. The Abstract: summarizes four essential aspects of the report:
(a). the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report)
(b). key findings,
(c). significance and
(d). Major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or method-
ology.
The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your
whole report. The abstract should be one paragraph of 100−200 words (the sample below
is 191 words)
3. Introduction: It should contain a brief statement in which you state the objectives, or goals of
the experiment. It should also help guide the reader through the report by stating, for example,
that experiments were done with three different circuits or consisted of two parts etc. or that
additional calculations or data sheets can be found in the appendix, or at the end of the report.
4. Theory: This section is intended to be a description of the theory underlying the laboratory
to be performed, particularly describing the variables to be measured and the quantities to be
determined from the measurements. In many cases, the theory has been shortened significantly
compared to previous editions.
5. The Procedure: The procedure given is usually very detailed. It attempts to give very explicit
instructions on how to perform the measurements. The data tables provided include the units in
which the measurements are to be recorded. With few exceptions, SI units are used.
6. Results /Calculations: This section of the report should be used to answer any questions
presented in the lab handout. Any tables and/or circuit diagrams representing results of the
experiment should be referred to and discussed/explained with detail. All questions should be
answered very clearly in paragraph form. Any unanswered questions from the lab handout will
result in loss of points on the report.
The best form of presentation of some of the data is graphical. In engineering presentations a
figure is often worth more than a thousand words. There are some simple rules concerning graphs
and figures which should always be followed. If there is more than one figure in the report, the
figures should be numbered. Each figure must have a caption following the number.
CONTENTS – xvii –
7. The Discussion /Sample Calculation: It is a critical part of the report which testifies to the
student’s understanding of the experiments and its purpose. In this part of the report you should
compare the expected outcome of the experiment, such as derived from theory or computer
simulation, with the measured value. Before you can make such comparison you may have to do
some data analysis or manipulation. When comparing experimental data with numbers obtained
from theory or simulation, make very clear which is which. It does not necessarily mean that
your experiment was a failure. The results will be accepted, provided that you can account for
the discrepancy. Your ability to read the scales may be one limitation. The value of some circuit
components may not be well known and a nominal value given by the manufacturer does not
always correspond to reality. Very often, however, the reason for the difference between the
expected and measured values lies in the experimental procedure or in not taking into account all
factors that enter into analysis.
8. Conclusion /Question: A brief conclusion summarizing the work done, theory applied, and the
results of the completed work should be included here. Data and analysis are not appropriate for
the conclusion.
Note:
Typed Reports are required. Any drawings done by hand must be done with neatness, using a
straight edge and drawing guides wherever possible. Free hand drawings will not be accepted.
Pre-lab results should be reported in the provided sheets at the end of the manual. It is your
responsibility to obtain the instructor’s signature and to include the signed sheet with your final
experiment report. Each student must submit an individual report based on an individual effort.
9. References: include your lab manual and any outside reading findings during your lab report
writing. (See online resources: such as handbook, lab reports and any documentation) for better
lab report related to the lab that you will be done.
GENERAL LABORATORY INFORMATION
Data Taking Procedures

Original data should always be recorded directly in the data tables provided. Avoid the habit of
recording the original data on scratch sheets and transferring them to the data tables later.
When working in a group, all partners should contribute to the actual process of taking the mea-
surements. If time and other considerations permit, each partner should perform a separate set of
measurements as a check on the procedure. Each partner should record data separately even if only one
set of data is taken by the group.
CONTENTS – xviii –
Reading Measuring Scales

For the measurement of any physical quantity such as mass, length, time, temperature, voltage, or
current, some appropriate measuring device must be chosen. Despite the diverse nature of the devices
used to measure the various quantities, they all have in common a measurement scale, and that scale
has a smallest marked scale division. All measurements should be done in the following very specific
manner. All meters and measuring devices should be read by interpolating between the smallest marked
scale division. Generally the most sensible interpolation is to attempt to estimate 10 divisions between
the smallest marked scale division. Consider the section of a meter stick pictured in Figure 1 that
shows the region between 2 cm and 5 cm. The smallest marked scale divisions are 1 mm apart. The
location of the arrow in the figure is to be determined. It is clearly between 3.4 cm and 3.5 cm, and the
correct procedure is to estimate the final place. In this case a reading of 3.45 cm is estimated. For this
measurement the first two digits are certain, but the last digit is estimated. This measurement is said to
contain three significant figures. Much of the data taken in this laboratory will have three significant
figures, but occasionally data may contain four or even five significant figures.
CONTENTS – xix –
Foreword
The purpose of this laboratory manual is to describe nuclear physics experiments utilizing the
latest counting electronics that are in broad use in todayâĂŹs industry. The goal is to deliver highly
productive training in the fundamentals of nuclear physics while providing the student with hands-on
experience that is of vocational relevance.
The experiments are built around the OspreyTM and Lynx Âő Digital Signal Analyzers. The
versatility of these instruments enables the performance of fundamental experiments in high and low
medium resolution gamma spectroscopy and neutron counting. Their advanced features allow for
higher-level experiments, such as coincidence and anti-coincidence, with both hardware gating and
event-by-event data.
The Osprey and Lynx are easy to use and feature highly-stable digital electronics, thereby pro-
viding the optimum solution for laboratory instruction. The devices are controlled with ProSpectTM
Gamma Spectroscopy Software which includes a flexible security feature to ensure that the student is
only presented with the functions required for the class. This increases the productivity of the training.
The format of each experiment is consistent across the manual, beginning with the goal and the
equipment required. Each description includes the required steps together with the format of the data
entry and the results. It is envisaged that, in some cases, the instructor may wish to produce his or
her own laboratory script with this as a starting point. A relatively modest investment yields a flexible
equipment package that can serve undergraduate and post-graduate university training in addition to
in-house training for industrial users.
Precautions with Radioactive Sources

Several types of radioactive sources are required to perform the experiments described in this
Laboratory Manual. These include both sealed and unsealed sources with a range of activity. When
working with radioactive sources, utilize the three basic principles of ALARA, either individually or
in combination: ALARA−As Low As Reasonably Achievable
Time: The simplest way to reduce exposure is to keep the time spent around a radioactive source
to a minimum. If time is cut in half, so is the exposure, with all the other factors remaining
constant.
Distance: Distance is another effective means to reduce radiation exposure. A formula known
as the “inverse square law" relates the exposure rate to distance. Doubling the distance from a
CONTENTS – xx –
radioactive source reduces the exposure to one-fourth its original value. If the distance is tripled,
the exposure is reduced by a factor of nine.
Shielding: Shielding is any material used to reduce the radiation reaching the user from a
radioactive source. While a single sheet of paper may stop some types of radiation such as alpha
particles, other radiation such as neutrons and photons require much more shielding. Dense
materials, such as lead or steel, are used to shield photons. Materials containing large amounts
of hydrogen, such as polyethylene, are used to shield neutrons.
The three most effective rules consistently employed by radiation workers to minimise exposure when
using ionising radiations are: minimise the time close to radioactive sources, maximise the distance
away from them and make full use of shielding.
Shielding adds to the effectiveness of both the time and distance rule and is mandatory in many
situations. Radioactive sources should be shielded in lead pots of appropriate thickness, allowing for
the energies and the intensities of the emitted radiations (see below). Stores of radionuclides should
be shielded in firmly locked steel cupboards placed out of the way, thus adding distance shielding to
metal shielding. In every case shields should be thick enough to ensure that absorbed doses at locations
accessible to the general public are within prescribed limits.
Whenever practical use should be made of commercially available bench top shields, 2 to 5 cm thick
lead, fitted with lead glass visors as well as of workstations for use with β particle emitters. They are
fabricated from 10 mm thick acrylic sheets, 50 cm high on a plastic base, containing stands for test
tubes, pipettes, long−handled tweezers, etc. with very smooth, hard surfaces to facilitate the removal
of contaminants. Manufacturers of this equipment also offer other devices to improve the effectiveness
of shielding in situations commonly met during industrial applications.
The effectiveness of shielding introduced to attenuate γ radiation is commonly measured in terms of
half value layers. This is the thickness of a material which reduces the intensity of a beam of γ rays to
half its initial intensity, leading to a corresponding reduction in dose.
Experiment One: Specific Charge of Electron
Thomson’s Bar Magnet Method
Objectives
♠ Determination of the specific charge of the electron (e/m) from the path of an electron beam in
crossed electric and magnetic fields of variable strength.
♠ Determination of period of oscillation of the magnetometer needle.
♠ Determination of Bm from period of oscillation of the magnetometer needle.
Apparatus
♣ Cathode ray tube (CRT) with power supply unit.
♣ One pair of bar magnets, high resistance voltmeter, magnetometer, and stopwatch.
Theory
We have learnt that the electron has a negative charge whose magnitude e equals 1.6 × 10−19
Coulomb and mass (m) equal to 9.1 × 10−31 Kg. Millikan’s Oil Drop method enables us to measure the
electron charge but the mass of the electron can not be measured directly. It is calculated by measuring
the value of e/m. The aim of this experiment is to determine value of e/m by Thomson’s method. This
involves the motion of an electron in a cathode ray tube (CRT).
A simplified form of a cathode ray tube is shown in f igure 1.1. The electrons are emitted from the
cathode and accelerated towards the anode by an electric field. A hole in the accelerating anode allows
the electrons to pass out of the electron gun and between the two sets of deflection plates. The metallic
coating inside the tube shields the right end free of external electric fields and conducts away the
electrons after they strike the fluorescent screen where they form a luminous spot.
This experiment can be divided into the following parts:
1. The electric field (E) is applied alone. This produces a deflection of the electron beam.
2. A magnetic field is simultaneously applied along the electric field so that the deflection produced
by the electric field is exactly counter-balanced by that produced by the magnetic field. As a
result the spot made by the electron on the fluorescent screen returns back to the central position.
1.4 Theory –2–
Figure 1.1: Cathode ray tube
Figure 1.2:
Let us consider an electron moving in the direction of magnetic meridian (say x−axis) with the velocity
vo m/s after passing through the accelerating anode. Under the action of the electrostatic field E = V /s
(s being the vertical distance between the plates V V 0 and V the deflecting voltage)each electron ,as it
passes between the plates, is acted upon by a perpendicular force eE. As a result the electron moves
along a parabolic path AB (figure 1.2).The equation of motion is
2
dy
m = eE (1.1)
dt2
which, upon integrating once with respect to time, gives

dy eE
vo = t (1.2)
dt m
where vo = dx/dt is the constant horizontal velocity. Here we also used the initial condition dy/dx = 0
at point A time t = 0. At any point distant x(= vo t) from point A in the field between the plates V V 0 ,
equation (1.2) gives

dy eE
= x. (1.3)
dx mvo2
On leaving the electrostatic field at point B (i.e. x = a), the electron moves along the tangential path
BC with it’s velocity making an angle α with the horizontal. Clearly,

dy eE
tan θ = tan F BC = = a = tangent to the curve AB at point B (1.4)
dx at point B mvo2
1.4 Theory –3–
The electron finally strikes the screen at the point C (figure 1.2). The total vertical deflection of the
electron y = CF + F O0 , now
eEaL
CF = BF tan α = L tan α = (1.5)
mvo2
On the other hand, by equation (1.3), we have
Z a
eEa2

eEx
BD = dx = (1.6)
0 mvo2 2mvo2
Therefore the total displacement (y) in the spot position on the screen S due to the application of electric
field between the plates V V 0 is
eEa a
y = CF + F O0 = CF + BD = + L . (1.7)
mvo2 2
Thus,
e yvo2
= (1.8)
Ea a2 + L

m
Hence, if the velocity of electron along the X-axis (vo ) is known, the value of (e/m) can be calculated.
Let B be the magnetic field produced by the two bar magnets placed symmetrically on either side of
the cathode ray tube at a distance d from it. The magnetic field of the bar magnets will be in the east-
west direction. The magnetic force in the electron is given by F = −ev × B. This step up a force Bevo
on the moving electron along the Y-direction. As a result, the electrons path becomes circular, with
radius of curvature r given by
mvo2
= Bevo (1.9)
r
When the force on the electron beam due to crossed electric field and magnetic field is equal and
E
opposite, the electron beam will be undeflected. For this we require eE = evo B or vo = B
.
The above analysis assumes that the magnetic field B is uniform. However the magnetic field produced
by the bar magnet is non-uniform. Note that the CRT is aligned along the magnetic meridian, i.e.
Figure 1.3: The arrangement of the magnets with respect to the CRT
S − N direction, which is the direction along which the horizontal component of the earth0 s magnetic
field, BE acts. Since BE and the electron velocity are parallel, there is no deflection produced by the
1.4 Theory –4–
earth’s magnetic field.

The magnetic field produced by the bar magnet along the path of the electrons will be a function B(x)
of the position of the element and will act in the EW direction as shown in figure 1.3. The deflection,
y, due to the magnetic force will be in the negative y-direction. To calculate the total deflection of the
electron as it moves from A (anode aperture) to S (screen) we proceed as follows.
The radius of curvature r of the electron path y(x) in the presence of the magnetic field is related to the
1 d2 y
curvature of the path as r
= dx2
.
Of course, the radius of curvature will also change with position since the magnetic field changes, i.e.
mvo
r = r(x) = eB(x)
by equation (1.9). Thus,
d2 y eB(x)
2
= (1.10)
dx mvo
which upon integrating gives,
Z Z

eB(x)
y(x) = dx dx (1.11)
mvo
The net displacement y at the position of the screen (i.e. x = Lo = L − a) is then
Z L0 Z x
eB(x) eI
y= dx dx = (1.12)
o 0 mvo mvo
where we have denoted the double integral of the magnetic field as
Z Lo Z x
I= B(x)dx dx (1.13)
0 0
when the deflection due to the electric and magnetic field are the same then we can use equations (1.7)
& (1.11) and eliminate the unknown velocity vo to obtain
a

e 2
+ L avy
= (1.14)
m sI 2
Approximate evaluation of I: A calculation of the integral ‘I’ requires the knowledge of the magnetic
field produced by the magnets along the path of the electron in the CRT. We now give an approximate
calculation of I assuming that the magnets are very long compared to the length of the CRT (Lo ). (See
figure 1.3). The effect of the distant poles can be ignored. The field at the point Q, which will be in a
direction normal to the x-axis, is
(m + m0 )d
B(x) = 3 . (1.15)
(x2 + d2 ) 2
Thus, we can write as,
Bm d3
B(x) = 3 (1.16)
(x2 + d2 ) 2
R Lo Rx
The integral I = 0
dx B(x)dx can be evaluated to give,
0
Z Lo Z x h p i
2 2 2
I= dx B(x)dx = Bm d d + Lo − d (1.17)
0 0
Determination of Bm : The value of Bm is determined from the period of oscillation of the magne-
tometer needle. The magnetometer is placed at the center in place of CRT so that the magnets are at
a distance of d from it (see figure 1.4). The magnetometer needle aligns itself along figure 1.4 the
1.5 Experimental Procedures –5–
p
2 where B is the earth0 s magnetic field acting towards south.
resultant magnetic field B = BE2 + Bm E
A small disturbance of the needle about the equilibrium position causes it to oscillate. The angular
Figure 1.4:
q
µB
frequency of small oscillations can be easily shown to be ω = ,
where is the magnetic moment of
I
q
the needle and I it0 s moment of inertia, and hence the time period of small oscillations T = 2π µB
I
.
p 2
Now, the resultant magnetic field B = BE2 + Bm 2 = B / sin θ . Thus, B = 4π I sin θo .
m o m µT 2
In the absence of the magnets B = BE (due to the earth’s magnetic field) and the time period
q 2
To = 2π µMI E giving, 4πµ I = To2 BE , thus
To2
Bm = BE sin θo (1.18)
T2
With a determine of Bm the value of the equation (1.15) can be calculated and hence from equation
(1.13) the value of (e/m).
Electrons in a CRT are deflected in the vertical direction by applying a potential between the vertical
deflection plates of the CRT. A magnetic field perpendicular to the deflecting electric field is produced
using a pair of the bar magnets. The position of the magnets is adjusted so as to cancel the deflection
of the electrons. The knowledge of the deflecting potential and the magnetic field of the bar magnets
leads to a calculation of the specific charge.
In this laboratory, we will study the interaction of electrons and a magnetic field, with the specific
purpose to determine the electron charge-to-mass ratio e/m, sometimes referred to as the specific
charge of the electron or the mass-normalized charge. Throughout this manual, we use the designation
~ , and magnetic induction or simply field for the field B.
magnetic field for the field H ~
Electrons are accelerated in an electric field and enter a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of
motion. The specific charge of the electron is determined from the accelerating voltage, the magnetic
field strength and the radius of the electron orbit.
1.5 Experimental Procedures –6–
Experimental Procedures
Part A
1. Place the magnetometer on the wooden box enclosing the CRT. Rotate the dial so that 0o − 0o
position is perpendicular to the length of the CRT. Next rotate the CRT with the magnetometer
on it so that the magnetometer needle aligns along 0o − 0o position. In this position the CRT is
aligned along the magnetic meridian (N−S position) while the scales attached perpendicular to
the CRT (for magnetic mounting), are in E−W position.
2. Switch on the power supply and adjust the intensity and focus controls to obtain a fine spot on
the CRT screen.
(Note: the position of the spot may not be at the center of the CRT screen. Note down the initial
position of the spot)
3. Choose a value of the deflection voltage and note down the deflection of the spot.
(Note: the deflection has to be taken with respect to the initial spot position.)
4. Now extend the scales attached to the CRT and place identical bar magnets (as shown in f igure
1.3) and move the magnets symmetrically along the length of the scales until the spot deflection
becomes zero (i.e. the spot returns to its initial position). Note the value d of the distance of the
magnet poles from the center of the CRT.
5. Reverse the deflection voltage and (with magnets removed) note the deflection of the spot.
6. Place the magnets on the scale and find the value of d for which the spot returns to its.
7. Repeat the above steps for three different spot positions.
(Note: The deflection voltage should not exceed 375 volts)
Part B
Determination of time period of oscillation of magnetometer needle:
1. Align the wooden arm on which the magnetometer is placed along the magnetic meridian and
place the magnets along the scales in the EW direction at the same distance ‘d’ as in part A.
2. Note the equilibrium deflection θ.
3. With a third magnet, slightly disturb the needle from its equilibrium position and measure the
time period of oscillations T .
4. Now remove the magnets and let the needle come to equilibrium at 0o − 0o position.
5. Disturb the needle about to this equilibrium position and measure the time period To of the
oscillation.
1.6 Pre-Laboratory Assignments –7–
Precautions
1. The Cathode ray tube should be accurately placed with its longitudinal axis in the magnetic
meridian.
2. The spot on the screen should allowed to remain at a given position on the screen for a long time.
3. There should not be any other disturbing magnetic field near the apparatus.
4. While taking the observations for time periods, the maximum angular displacement of the
magnetic needle should not exceed 40−50 degrees.
Pre-Laboratory Assignments
1. If the deflecting voltage is switched off but the bar magnets kept in place, will there be a deflection
of the spot? Describe qualitatively the motion of the electron in the CRT from aperture to screen.
2.
3. What is the effect of earth’s magnetic field on the electron motion? What would happen if the
apparatus were rotated by 90o so that the CRT is along the EW direction?
4. What is the physical meaning of specific?
Calculations
1. Study the working of a CRT. What is the typical value of accelerating voltage used in a CRT?
Estimate the velocity ‘vo0 of the electron.
2. Draw a neat diagram showing the 3-dimensional orientations of vectors of the electron’s horizontal
velocity, the electric field, the magnetic field the electric force on the electron and the magnetic
force as the electron moves in the CRT. Orient your diagram according to the experimental set-up.
3. Describe the motion of the electron in the CRT in the presence of the deflecting voltage magnetic
fields of the magnets.
4. Consider a dipole µ aligned with a magnetic field. If the dipole is given a small angular
displacement, then it experiences a restoring torque ‘τ 0 = B sin θ, where θ is the angle between
the dipole and the magnetic field. Considering small qdisplacements, show that the dipole will
oscillate about the equilibrium with angular frequency µBI
. Where ‘I’ is the moment of Inertia.
5. Recalculate the integral ‘I’ (equation 1.12) assuming that the magnetic field of the magnet is
a constant B = Bm . Use this to calculate the specific charge “e/m". Does our approximate
evolution of ‘I’ improve the evaluation of “e/m"?
1.8 Laboratory Report –8–
Laboratory Report
Constant Values
Length of plate, a = 2 cm
Distance to screen from plate, L = 16.0 cm
Distance between the plates, S = 0.4 cm
Horizontal component of earthâĂŹs magnetic field BE = 3.53 × 10−5 T.
Initial position of spot, yo = cm (specify +ve or -ve)
Table 1.1: Measurement of deflection y

Applied Displaced y1 (m) Displacement y = y1 − yo Magnet’s Position d(m) Mean
voltage d(m)
(V)
Direct Reverse Direct Reverse Direct Reverse
Table 1.2: Determination of time period

With magnet Without magnet
d = cm, θ = deg d = cm, θ = deg d = cm, θ = deg
Ttotal To Ttotal To Ttotal To Mean Mean
To Ttotal
Table 1.3: Calculations table

To2
p e ( a2 +L)
Displacement Bm = T2 E
B sin θo I = Bm [d d2 + L2o − d2 ] m
= sI 2
Sample Calculations
1. To =
2. T =
3. αTo =
1.10 Questions –9–
4. αT =
e
5. m
=
|E−K|
6. % Error = K
× 100% =
Questions
1. What will happen to the spot if a sinusoidally time varying voltage is applied to the deflecting
plates V V 0 or HH 0 ? What will happen if such a voltage (of the same frequency) is applied
simultaneously to the horizontal and vertical deflecting plates?
2. What are the sources of error in this experiment?
3. How does your result compare with “e/m" measurement by Thomson’s method? Which experi-
ment is more accurate?
Experiment Two: Photo Voltaic Energy Conversion
Objective
The purpose of this activity is to construct a simple photovoltaic (PV) system, using a PV cell(s)
and a DC ammeter, in order to learn:
♠ how the amount and wavelength of light affect the generation of electricity
♠ how PV systems are connected to produce different voltages and currents
♠ how temperature affects the efficiency of a PV cell
Apparatus
♣ Three 0.5 volt PV cells, at least 10 square centimeters (1.5 sq in) in size each, (found at most
science supply companies and electronic stores)
♣ Several sheets of colored transparency film in various colors, including yellow and blue (office
supply stores) Small pieces should be cut beforehand just to cover the PV cells.
♣ 30 cm of thin electrical wire (use with alligator clips unless the meter leads have alligator clips
on their ends)
♣ Small PV cells
♣ Two electrical leads with alligator clips
♣ DC ammeter
♣ DC volt meter
♣ Source of bright light or access to direct sunlight (desk lamp or flashlight could be substituted)
♣ Aluminium foil
♣ Protractor
♣ hair dryer or heat gun
♣ goggles
Backgorund
Solar energy is radiant energy from the sun. It is vital to us because it provides the world directly
or indirectly with almost all of its energy. In addition to providing the energy that sustains the world,
solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and is responsible for powering the water cycle and
2.4 Theory – 11 –
producing wind.
Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy
each day than the world uses in one year. Solar energy comes from within the sun itself. Like other
stars, the sun is a big ball of gases−mostly hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen atoms in the sun’s core
combine to form helium and radiant energy in a process called nuclear fusion.
During nuclear fusion, the sun’s extremely high pressure and temperature cause nuclei to separate from
their electrons. At this extremely energized state, the nuclei are able to fuse, or combine. Hydrogen
nuclei fuse to become one helium atom of a higher atomic number and greater mass, and one neutron
remains free. This new helium atom, however, contains less mass than the combined masses of the
hydrogen isotopes that fused. This transmutation of matter results in some mass being lost. The lost
matter is emitted into space as radiant energy. The process of fusion occurs most commonly with lighter
elements like hydrogen, but can also occur with heavier nuclei, until iron (Fe) is formed. Because iron
is the lowest energy nucleus, it will neither fuse with other elements, nor can it be fissioned (split) into
smaller nuclei.
The nuclear fusion process in the sun’s core produces, among other things, gamma rays. These gamma
rays are constantly absorbed and re-emitted as they move through the sun, essentially bouncing in
random directions. By the time this ‘random walk’ takes them to the sun’s surface they have been
transformed into visible light. This light escapes from the photosphere, the visible surface of the
sun, and arrives at Earth about eight minutes later. The solar energy travels to the Earth at a speed
of 3.0 × 108 meters per second (186,000 miles per second), the speed of light. Heat energy is not
transmitted from the sun because the space between the sun and Earth is mostly a vacuum. Rather,
radiant energy transforms into thermal energy when it strikes the molecules in the atmosphere or on
the surface of the earth.
Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the earth one part in two billion.
Yet, this amount of energy is enormous. It was mentioned before that the sun provides more energy
in a day than the world uses in a year. The sun also provides more energy in an hour than the United
States uses in a year!
Where does all this energy go? About 30 percent of the sun’s energy that hits the Earth is reflected
back into space. Another 25 percent powers the water cycle; it evaporates water that is then drawn into
the atmosphere, turns into clouds, condenses, and falls back to Earth as precipitation. Plants, the land,
and the oceans also absorb a portion of solar energy. The rest is reflected and could be used to supply
our energy needs. A surface’s albedo describes how much solar energy it reflects.
Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source. Renewable sources of energy are resources
that are continually replenished by nature, and hence will never run out. Solar power is considered
renewable because the nuclear fusion reactions that power the sun are expected to keep generating
sunlight for many billions of years.
2.4 Theory – 12 –
Theory
Photovoltaic (or PV) systems convert light directly into electricity. The term photo comes from
the Greek phos, which means ‘light’. The term volt is a measure of electricity named for Alessan-
dro Volta (1745−1827), a pioneer in the development of electricity. Photovoltaics literally means
light−electricity.
Commonly known as solar cells, PV cells are already an important part of our lives. The simplest
PV systems power many of the small calculators, wrist watches, and outdoor lights we see every day.
Larger PV systems provide electricity for pumping water, powering communications equipment, and
even lighting homes and running appliances.
In certain applications and remote settings, such as motorist aid call boxes on highways and pumping
water for livestock, PV power is the cheapest form of electricity. Some electric utility companies are
building PV systems into their power supply networks.
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight directly
into electricity. PV technology works any time the sun is shining, but more electricity is produced
when the light is more intense and when it is striking the PV modules directly when the rays of sunlight
are perpendicular to the PV modules.
Sunlight is composed of photons or bundles of radiant energy. When photons strike a PV cell, they
may be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through the cell.
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When the photons are absorbed, the energy of the
photons is transferred to electrons in the atoms of the solar cell, which is actually a semiconductor.
With their new found energy, the electrons are able to escape from their normal positions associated
with their atoms to become part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving their positions, the
electrons cause holes to form in the atomic structure of the cell into which other electrons can move.
Special electrical properties of the PV cell a built in electric field provide the voltage needed to drive
the current through a circuit and power an external load, such as a light bulb.
Advantages of PV Technologies
They are safe, clean and quiet to operate;
They are highly renewable;
They require virtually no maintainance;
They are cost-effective in remote areas and for some residential and commercial applications;
They are flexible and can be expanded to meet increasing electrical needs for homes and busi-
nesses;
They can provide independence from the grid or back-up during outage;
2.4 Theory – 13 –
Figure 2.1: Sunlight to electricity
The fuel is renewable and free.
Limitations
PV cell cannot operate all the time;
PV systems are not well suited for energy-incentive uses such as heating;
Grid connected systems are rarely economical primarily, because the current cost of PV technol-
ogy is much higher than the cost of conventional electricity;
Large amount land or space are required for large scale generation;
The process to make PV technologies can have harm-full effect to the environment.
Let’s look more closely at how a PV cell is made and how it produces electricity.
Step 1
A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of the slab is very thinly diffused
with an ‘n’ dopant, such as phosphorous. On the base of the slab, a small amount of a ‘p’ dopant,
typically boron, is diffused. The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker than the phosphorous
side. Dopants are similar in atomic structure to the primary material. The phosphorous has one more
electron in its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants help create the electric
field that motivates the energetic electrons out of the cell created when light strikes the PV cell.
The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; it has a negative character. This
is called the n-type silicon (n=negative). The n-type silicon is not charged it has an equal number of
protons and electrons, but some of the electrons are not held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move
to different locations within the layer. This silicon has a negative character, but not a negative charge.
The boron gives the base of the silicon wafer a positive character, which will cause electrons to flow
toward it. The base of the silicon is called p−type silicon (p=positive). The p−type silicon has an
equal number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character, but not a positive charge.
2.5 Experimental Procedures – 14 –
Step 2
Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from the n−layer flow into the
p−layer for a split second, then form a barrier to prevent more electrons from moving between the two
sides. This point of contact and barrier is called the p−n junction.
When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is now a negative charge in the p-type section of the
junction and a positive charge in the n−type section of the junction due to movement of the electrons
and ‘holes’ at the junction of the two types of materials. This imbalance in electrical charge at the p−n
junction produces an electric field between the p−type and n−type.
Step 3
If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in the p-n junction and
energize them, knocking them free of their atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge
in the n−type silicon and repelled by the negative charge in the p−type silicon. Most photon-electron
collisions actually occur in the silicon base.
Step 4
A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an external load such as a light or battery, and
then back to the n−type silicon, forming a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the
n−type silicon, they repel each other because they are of like charge. The wire provides a path for the
electrons to move away from each other. This flow of electrons is an electric current that can power a
load, such as a calculator or other device, as it travels through the circuit from the n-type to the p−type.
In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other electrical
contact to collect electrons from the semiconductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back
contact layer to complete the electrical circuit.
1. Step I. Constructing the photovoltaic energy system for light source changes (wear goggles):
(a). If your PV cell does not have wires already attached to it, you should attach 15 cm of wire
to each node of the PV cell. The cell should have either clips or hooks around which you
can manually twist the wire.
(b). Follow your teacher’s safety instructions and attach the red wire from the PV cell to the red
lead of the ammeter (either clip or wrap the wires together).
(c). Similarly, attach the black wires from the PV cell to the black lead of the ammeter.
Figure 2.2: How a traditional PV cell is made
(d). Use the sun or shine a light source on the PV cell to see if you are getting a current reading.
If the ammeter shows no current, check the wire connections.
2. Step II. Performing the activity for light:
(a). Keeping the sunlight constant (or the light source at constant distance), cover the PV cell(s)
with a piece of colored transparency film. Repeat with the other colors of transparency film,
and then use just direct sunlight alone (or light substitute). Record the current generated for
all colors tested and for direct light in Data table 2.1.
(b). With just 1 PV cell in the circuit, shade 1/4 of the PV cell with a piece of cardboard or paper
and take a reading. Shade 1/2, 3/4 and then all of the photovoltaic cell. Record the readings
in data table 2.2.
(c). Connect PV cells in series and take a reading. Shade one cell completely and take a reading.
Cover all PV cells and take a reading. Record the readings in data table 2.3.
(d). Connect PV cells in parallel and take a reading. Shade one cell completely and take a
reading. Cover all PV cells and take a reading. Record the readings in data table 2.4.
2.6 Pre-Laboratory Assignmens – 16 –
(e). Place the PV cell(s) directly pointed at the sun (or light source). Using a protractor
to determine the angle, slant the PV cell(s) at 15-degree intervals away from the direct
perpendicular position. Record the amps generated at every 15-degree change in data table
2.5.
(f). Take a piece of aluminium foil and design a light reflector for your PV cell to concentrate
the light shining on it. Measure the new current with the reflector attached and record.
Current with and without aluminum foil reflector , .
3. Step III. Constructing the photovoltaic energy system for temperature changes:
(a). Take your PV cell(s) with its attached wires and attach the red wire from the PV cell to the
red lead of the voltmeter.
(b). Attach the black wire from the PV cell to the black lead of the voltmeter. Check that you
are getting a reading. If you do not get a reading check the wire connections.
4. Step IV. Performing the activity for temperature:
(a). Take your PV cell(s) that is connected to the voltmeter and, shading the PV cell, read the
voltmeter at regular room or outside temperature and record your readings in data table
(2.6).
(b). Place the PV cell directly in the sun (or under a lamp) so that the cell becomes warm.
Record this new reading.
(c). Heat the solar cell with a hair dryer for 15 seconds, take a reading. Heat the solar cell for
30 seconds, take a reading. Heat the solar cell for 1 minute, take a reading. Record the
readings in data table 2.6.
5. Step V. Performing the activity for effects of distance from light source:
(a). Put your PV cell on the table below the light source. Measure the distance between the light
source and the solar cell. Record distance in data table 2.7. Measure current and record
1
current in data table 2.7. Move cell to 2
the original distance to the light source. Record
distance in data table 2.7.
(b). Measure current and record current in data table 2.7.
1
(c). Move the cell to 4
the original distance to the light source. Record distance in data table
2.7. Measure current and record current in data table 2.7.
Pre-Laboratory Assignmens
1. What is radiant energy? How can we produce it?
2. Define renewable energy. How many renewable energies do you know?
3. Write the advanteges and limitations of solar energy.
4. Write three benefits of solar power.
2.7 Calculations – 17 –
5. Does the future for both industrial and less developed countries hold a place for the use of
photovoltaic systems? Discuss.
6. How could you increase the output of a PV cell during the day, when the angle of the sun’s rays
is constantly changing?
7. In what direction would you face a photovoltaic system being installed on your home? Explain.
Calculations
V
1. Calculate the current produced at different tilt angles (I = R
).
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance of series circuit (Re = R1 + R2 + ...... + Rn ).
3. Calculate the equivalent resistance of parallel circuit ( R1e = 1
R1
+ 1
R2
+ ...... + 1
Rn
).
Laboratory Report
Table 2.1: Effect of color (wavelength) on cell current

Color of filter Current
No filter
Table 2.2: Effect of shading on cell current

Color of filter Current
No shade
1/4 covered
1/2 covered
3/4 covered
All covered
Table 2.3: Effect of shading on cell current-PV cells in series

Amount of shade Current
No shade
1 cell shade
All cells shade
2.9 Sample Calculations – 18 –
Table 2.4: Effect of shading on cell current-PV cells in parallel

Amount of shade Current
No shade
1 cell shade
All cells shade
Table 2.5: Effect of tilt angle on cell current

Angle Current
0o (pointed at the sun
or light source)
15o
30o
45o
60O
75o
90o
Table 2.6: Effect of temperature on cell voltage

Temperature Voltage
Room temperature,
shaded
Full sunlight, warm
After heating 15 sec
After heating 30 sec
After heating 1 minute
Table 2.7: Effect of distance on cell current

Distance (in) Current
Sample Calculations
1. V =
2. I =
3. Series Re =
1
4. Parallel Re
=
5. % Dif f erence =
2.10 Questions – 19 –
Questions
1. Which colors allowed the most electricity to be generated?
2. What happens when the PV cell is shaded?
3. What happens to the current when the PV cells are connected in series and shaded?
4. What happens to the current when the PV cells are connected in parallel and shaded?
5. What happens when the PV cell is heated?
6. How does temperature affect the efficiency of a PV cell?
7. What is the relationship between the color of filter used and the current produced by the photo-
voltaic cell?
8. Does more light produce more current? Explain.
9. What happens when the solar cell is moved closer to the light source?
Experiment Three: Hall Effect
Objective
♠ To study Hall effect and determine the Hall coefficient and hence the number density of majority
charge carriers of a semiconductor sample.
♠ To investigate the Hall effect in a semiconductor.
♠ To determine the Hall coefficient for a semiconductor sample.
♠ To determine the sign and density of charge carriers in the sample.
♠ To determine the mobility of the charge carriers.
Apparatus
♣ Hall probe of InAs semiconductor with accompanying circuitry.
♣ Probe current power supply, electromagnet with current supply.
♣ Various meters (voltmeter, gaussmeter etc.), Traveling microscope.
Theory
When an electrical current passes through a sample placed in a magnetic field, a voltage develops
across the sample in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This is known
as Hall effect.
The basic experimental setup for study of Hall effect is shown in f igure 3.1. A rectangular slab of a
semiconducting sample with its width (w) along y-direction and thickness (d) along z-direction is placed
in a magnetic field of strength B directed along the z-direction. Now, an electric current, IH is made to
pass through the sample along its length by maintaining a potential difference along x-direction. The
IH
corresponding current density is, Jx = wd
. Suppose that the charge carriers are positive, each having
charge +q, and are moving along +x direction with velocity ~v . Then the Lorentz force experienced by
the carriers due to the magnetic field is,
F~B = q(~v × B)
~ = −(qvB)ŷ (3.1)
This force F~B along −ŷ direction deflects the positive charge carriers towards the bottom surface of
the sample. This makes the bottom surface positively charged while leaving the top surface negatively
charged. This accumulation of charges near the bottom and top surfaces of the sample leads to the
3.3 Theory – 21 –
Figure 3.1: Hall effect experiment (for +ve charge carriers).
~ = Ey ŷ along the y-direction. Force due to this electric

development of a transverse electric field E
~ opposed the Lorentz force F~B and prevents further charge accumulation. In the steady state
field, q E
condition, these two forces balance out each other and we get,
qE = qvB (3.2)
Now we define a quantity called Hall coefficient RH , as the ratio of the electric field Ey to the current
density Jx multiplied by magnetic field B, that is
Ey 1
RH = = (3.3)
Jx B nq
where we have used Equation (3.3) and the fact that Jx = nqv, n being the number density (m−3 ) of
Jx
charge carriers. In order to determine RH, we proceed as follows. Writing v = nq
and multiplying both
sides of Equation (3.3) by wd, we get
Jx wdB
Ey wd = (3.4)
nq
But Ew = VH , the voltage across the top and bottom surfaces called the Hall voltage and Jx wd = IH .
This gives,
RH B
VH = IH (3.5)
d
Therefore, if we measure the Hall voltage VH against Hall current IH for a fixed magnetic field B and
plot VH versus IH , the curve will be a straight line with the slope m being,
RH B
m= (3.6)
d
The Hall coefficient RH can be calculated from the value of this slope, m if the thickness d of the
sample is known. Once RH is determined, the carrier density n can be calculated using Equation (3.4).
Now assume the situation where the charge carriers are negative with q = −e. In that case, for
current direction along +x, the charges will be moving with velocity ~v = −vx̂. The Lorentz force,
FB = q(~v × B)~ = −(evB)ŷ will still be along negative y direction as before. However this time, the
bottom surface acquires negative polarity and consequently, the sign of the Hall voltage VH will be
3.4 Experimental Procedure – 22 –
opposite to what was observed in case of positive charge. Thus for given directions of the Hall current
and the magnetic field, we can determine the type of charge carriers (whether +ve or -ve) by looking at
the sign of the Hall voltage VH .
Experimental Procedure
The experimental setup is complete unit (f igure 3.2) consisting of the followings an electromagnet,
constant current power supply, a Gauss and Tesla meter, a Hall current and voltage measurement unit
and the sample connected with contact leads for passing Hall current and measuring Hall voltage.
Figure 3.2: Electrical diagrams for Hall effect experiment and Hall effect measurement unit
1. Keep the poles of the electromagnet apart by a distance of around 20 mm.

2. Connect the electromagnet with the constant current power supply and switch on power.
3. Set a suitable magnetic field (< 3KGauss) by adjusting the magnetizing current. You can
measure the magnetic field using the Hall probe. You will have to keep the magnetic field
constant at, say B = 1KG and B = 2KG for two sets of measurements.
4. Insert the sample between the pole pieces of the electromagnet.
5. For the first set of measurement, set the magnetic field (+B) first at, say B = 1KG and keep it
constant.
6. Switch on the Hall current IH through the sample and adjust it at around 5mA. Measure the hall
voltage VH .
3.5 Pre-Laboratory Assignments – 23 –
7. Increase the Hall current IH at suitable steps (up to maximum 20 mA) and record VH against
each IH .
8. Now reverse the direction of the magnetic field (-B) keeping its magnitude constant at the same
value (1 KG in this case).
9. Record VH against IH for the same set values of IH as taken for +B.
1. What is Hall effect?
2. What is the difference between the theoretical and experimental definitions?
Calculations
1. For each current IH , calculate the average of two values of VH (+B) and VH (-B). This cancels
out offset voltage due to any misalignment in the sample contacts.
2. Calculate the Hall coefficient, RH from the slope.
3. For the second set of measurement, increase the magnetic field (+B) to say B = 2KG and keep
it constant.
4. Calculate the average RH and determine the number density n using Equation (3.4).
Laboratory Report
Table 3.1: Hall voltage VH as a function of Hall current IH , for B = 2 KG

|VH1 −VH2 |
IH (mA) VH1 (+B)(mV ) VH2 (−B)(mV ) VH = 2
(mV ) I H (A) VH (mV )
5
7
9
Questions
1. Plot two graphs of VH versus IH for the above two data tables and find its slopes.

IH (mA) VH1 (+I, + VH2 (−I, + VH3 (−I, − V H (mV )
B)(mV ) B)(mV ) B)(mV )

IH (mA) VH1 (+I, + VH2 (−I, + VH3 (−I, − V H (mV )
B)(mV ) B)(mV ) B)(mV )
2. From the slopes of the above two IH − VH curves, calculate the Hall coefficient RH and find
the average of the two values obtained. Calculate the number density of majority charge carriers
using equation (3.4) and assuming that q is equal to the charge of an electron.
Experiment Four: Demonstration of X−Ray
Diffraction
Objectives
♠ To determine the crystal structure
♠ To calculate the spacing between layers in the crystal
♠ To determine the lattice constant a
Apparatus
♣ 1 X-ray apparatus , basic device
♣ 1 X-ray tube Cu, 1 Goniometer
♣ 1 End-window counter with cable, 1 Set of 2 crystal powder holders
♣ 1 Goniometer 1 NaCl, 250 g, 1 Spatula, 1 Pestle, 100 mm long
♣ 1 Mortar, porcelain, 70 mm
♣ additionally suggested: e.g. KCl or LiF powder an 1 PC with Windows 98/2000/XP/Vista
Theory
The determination of the chemical structure of molecules is indispensable to chemists in their
effort to gain insight into chemical problems. Only a few physical methods are capable of determining
chemical structure, and amongst these methods, diffraction methods have been the most successful.
Diffraction methods are capable of defining bond lengths, bond angles and the spatial proximity of
non-bonded atoms for materials capable of forming crystalline solids. For example, the models of
myoglobin which were displayed in the fluoride-myoglobin lab are representations of the myoglobin
structure found using x−ray diffraction. The importance of structural determination to science has
been recognized with several Nobel Prizes for x−ray diffraction related research.
X−ray diffraction can be used to determine a materials crystalline structure and lattice parameter.
This information can then be used to identify the material being analysed since each metallic element
in the periodic table has a unique combination of lattice structure and parameter at room temperature.
Simple geometry demonstrates that for two waves reflected by adjacent planes, the wave that is reflected
by the second plane has traveled a distance of (2d sin θ) further than the wave that is reflected by the
4.3 Theory – 26 –
Figure 4.1: Diffraction angle
first plane. In general, the reflected waves from successive planes destructively interfere, however, if
the pathlength difference between reflected waves is an integer multiple of the wavelength (λ), con-
structive interference is observed (a bright spot). This condition (the Bragg’s condition for constructive
interference) is summarized by Bragg’s Law.
The interference patterns formed in x-ray diffraction originates from the x-rays that are scattered by the
electrons of atoms within a crystalline solid. A simple picture of a solid (composed of only one type
of atom) is a collection of balls packed together to form a crystal lattice. In a crystalline material the
packing of the atoms is well defined, and in fact, the entire crystal can be constructed by repeating a
pattern of atoms that define the unit cell. This is analogous to the fact that a wall can be constructed
by stacking bricks; the brick is the unit cell of the wall. The simplest case (the only one that we will
consider) is when the unit cell is cubic, that is to say that all of the edges of the cube are equal and the
corners form right angles. For cubic unit cells the length of the edge is usually given the symbol ‘a’.
Given that two parallel rays will strike a grating at an angle theta where the grating separation is given
as d then: Due to the regular spacing of the atoms, imaginary planes can be pictured which contain the
nuclei. For example, each face of the cube in the illustration above is one such plane. The electrons
of each of these imaginary planes of atoms scatter the x-rays giving a result that can be interpreted as
set of parallel partial mirrors; the light (x−rays) is partially “reflected" by each plane. Although the
x-rays originate in-phase from the x−ray source, the scattered x−rays are not necessarily in phase when
they emerge from the crystal and reach the detector. The relative phases of scattered x-rays depend
critically on the separation distance between these imaginary planes. This is due to the fact that x-rays
that penetrate deeper into the crystal lattice before they are reflected, travel further. Simple geometry
demonstrates that for two waves reflected by adjacent planes, the wave that is reflected by the second
plane has travelled a distance of (2d sin θ) further than the wave that is reflected by the first plane. In
general, the reflected waves from successive planes destructively interfere, however, if the pathlength
4.3 Theory – 27 –
Figure 4.2: Lattice constant a
Figure 4.3: Path difference
difference between reflected waves is an integer multiple of the wavelength (λ), constructive interfer-
ence is observed (a bright spot). This condition (the Bragg’s condition for constructive interference) is
summarized by Bragg’s Law:

2d sin θ = nλ (4.1)
where λ is the wavelength, d is the interplanar separation, and θ is the Bragg0 s angle. The n defines the
order of the reflection, with n = 1 giving first-order, n = 2 giving second order, etc.
From the above equation, it is evident that the structure of the solid (i.e. the distance between the
atoms) can be obtained if a monochromatic x-ray source is used (only one λ) and the intensity of x-rays
is measured as a function of θ. The constructive interference that results at specific values of theta (θ)
map out the interplanar spacing of the solid. Further, the total intensity at a spot, not only depends
on the fulfillment of the Bragg’s condition, but also on the number of electrons, which depends on the
chemical identity of the atoms.
Figure 4.4: Miller Lattice
There is one further complication however, the planes of atoms can be constructed in several
different ways as illustrated below. Each imaginary plane can be indexed using Miller indices. The
Miller index is written as three numbers, (h k l), one for each coordinate in three dimensional space.
Consider the indices as labelling scheme for all possible imaginary planes. Each plane can satisfy the
Bragg0 s condition and give a bright spot due to constructive interference. To account for all possible
planes, the Bragg0 s Law is usually rewritten (for a cubic system) as,
λ2
sin2 θ = 2 (h2 + k 2 + l2 ) (4.2)
4a
where ‘a’ is the unit cell dimension, λ is the wavelength of the radiation, (h, k, l) are the Miller indices,
and θ is the Bragg angle.
1. The sample preparation and data acquisition for this lab are almost trivial. Each group member
will be responsible for one sample from the following set of alkali halides: NaF, NaCl, NaBr,
Reflection Diffrction
Occurs from surface Occurs throughout the bulk
Takes place at any angle Takes place only at Bragg an-
gles
≈100% of the intensity may be Small fraction of intensity is
reflected diffracted
NaI, KCl, KBr, and CsCl. In addition, a powder diffraction pattern of LiCl, will be provided to
each group. Each group member should begin her/his numerical analysis on the LiCl data.
Experimental diffraction patterns will be obtained for each of the other samples. The sample
preparation consists of grinding the sample in a mortar and pestle and placing a flattened pile of
salt on a glass plate. The plate is then placed into the sample holder and a diffraction pattern
is obtained using the wavelength of 1.5418 Angstroms (CuKα , isolated with a Ni foil filter).
Your TA or safety monitor will help you will this step. The data will be printed as intensity
as a function of scattering angle (2θ). Each set of reflections will be analysed to determine the
structure (primitive or FCC) and the unit cell dimension.
2. Get the variable X-ray source from the TA
3. Turn on first the NIM power, then turn on very slowly the high voltage bias of the detector (-500
Volts) and watch the signals from the main amplifier. In case they are not regular stop and ask.
4. Important: Check the main settings of the main amplifier to obtain good resolution. Time
constant 2−3 µs should work best. Set amplification so that the 59.5 keV line of 241 Am has an
amplitude of nearly 8 Volts.
5. Set MCA to 2048 or 4096 channels (both channel select and conversion gain)
6. Check pole zero cancellation very carefully with the oscilloscope
241
7. Calibration of the detector using three lines Cu Kα , Ba Kα and 59.5 keV Am line, you can
also use the Cs-137 (36 keV X-ray), the Mn-54 (5.4 keV X-ray) and the Co-57 (14.4 keV γ-ray)
source; measure the calibration spectrum with all lines at once, but keep the total count rate
within reasonable limits (1 kHz)
8. Determine detector resolution in keV for at least two lines (iron Kα and 122 keV line of 57 Co)
(a). Mount the Goniometer in the experiment chamber of the X-ray apparatus. To bring the
counter tube out of stray radiation, put the Goniometer to the very left position and use the
full length of the sensors arm.
(b). Mount the Ni-filter on the collimator to produce monochromatic copper Kα X-rays. The
filter must be mounted on the left side on the collimator, facing the tube, not on the right
hand side, where it would produce a lot of stray radiation into the experiment chamber.
(c). Prepare a powder sample by using the mortar and the pestle. The NaCl (or other) salt is
grind in a mortar until no grains can be felt when rubbing the powder between the finger
tips. Do not try to prepare to much powder at once, as it will take a lot of time. An amount
of 2 times the volume of the powder holder will take approximately 5 minutes to pulverise.
Note: Coarse powder samples yield Debye-Scherrer reflections of inhomogeneous intensity
distributions.
(d). The powder holder consists of one aluminium frame and a solid aluminium plate. Put the
frame onto the plate and fill the powder into the frame, move both aluminium parts together
close to the sample holder inside the X-ray apparatus and slide the frame sideways onto the
sample holder, so that the powder is always supported either by the aluminium or by the
plastic parts.
(e). Attach strips of scotch-tape to the rear of the powder holder and fill the prepared powder
into the frame.
(f). Squeeze the powder into the frame with the spatula as dense as possible.
Note: Instead of using the crystal powder holder a self-made styrofoam block can be used,
where the powder is pressed into a recess. This will lower the background radiation even
more.
9. (a). Start the software and the x−ray apparatus
(b). Set the tube high voltage to U =35.0 kV and the emission current I =1.0 mA.
(c). Set the time per angular step ∆t =10 s and the angular step width ∆β = 0.1o .
(d). Select “coupled", set appropriate start and stop angles β for the scan. Usually 10 to 40 deg
is sufficient, but up to 60o gives additional lines.
(e). Switch on the high voltage and press the automatic scan button for recording the spectra.
(f). To check for the existence of the weak, but important < 111 > reflection, scan that region
left of the 200 reflex (11o − 18o for NaCl) with ∆t =30 s at least.
10. To observe the reflection, then we must:
(a). move the sphere
(b). move the crystal (rotate)
(c). change the size of the sphere.
Calculations
1. For the simple cubic unit cells, all possible combinations of integer Miller indices are possible. In
general for FCC, certain combinations of Miller indices are eliminated by destructive interference
caused by the planes formed by the atoms in the faces of the unit cell. The result is that for FCC
type lattices reflections occur only if h, k, and l are all even or all odd. There is one caveat though,
in FCC systems in which the scattering power of the two types of atoms is nearly identical (i.e
when the two ions have the same number of electrons) a pseudo-primitive pattern (one that looks
primitive) is observed; this is the case for KCl. These results can be used to assign the diffraction
patterns and extract the lattice type and cell dimensions from the data. To correlate the observed
Bragg’s angle with the predicted values the data must be manipulated to resemble the Bragg’s
law, equation (4.2). This is most easily accomplished using a spreadsheet program.
(a). First, enter the position of each reflection and label the column “2θ".
(b). Construct a second column that equals sin2 θ. This is c1 = (sin(c0 /2))2 in KaleidaGraph
(or = SIN (P I() ∗ A2/360)2 in Excel then fill down).
λ2
(c). Realize that Bragg’s law has the form sin2 θ = C ∗ i, where C is a constant equal to C = 4a2
and i is an integer as indicated in the table above. Therefore, divide the experimental values
of sin2 θ by the sin2 θ-value of the first reflection (c2 = c1 / sin2 θref lection−1 ). If the unit cell
is simple cubic, the result of this operation should give an integer series starting with one
(see table above). If the unit cell is FCC, the column will need to be multiplied by 3 before
the expected integer series is obtained. (There will be some experimental error).
(d). Once the unit cell type has been established create a column that contains the expected
integer values for the appropriate cell type (e.g. 3,4,8,11,12 for FCC).
(e). To determine if the constant, ’a‘, represents the unit cell dimension, half of the unit cell
dimension, or twice the unit cell dimension, requires that the density calculated from the
cell volume be compared to the actual (macroscopic) density. The simple cubic unit cell
contains 1 molecule (AX) and the FCC contains 4 molecules (4 AX). The volume is the cell
length cubed, and density is mass divided by volume. The experimental values for density
as well as cell parameter data (for comparison to your own) is presented in the table below.
You will find that in the case of KCl and CsI the unit cell may need to be contracted or
expanded (why are these special cases?).
Table 4.1: Example: Data from F.P. Boer, and T.H. Jordan, J. Chem. Educ., 42, 76 (1965)
Salt ao (A) Density(g/cm3 ) Weight(g/mol) Lattice type
NaF Ca.4.68 2.558 41.99 FCC
LiCl 5.1295 2.068 42.40 FCC
NaCl 5.6405 2.165 58.45 FCC
KCl 6.290 1.984 74.55 FCC (pseudobodysimple)
CsCl 4.123 3.97 168.37 Simple cubic
NaBr 5.9732 3.203 102.91 FCC
KBr 6.60 2.75 119.01 FCC
CsI 4.567 4.51 259.83 Simple cubic (pseudo-
body centred)
(f). Ionic radii will be calculated following the seminal work of Lande, which was one of the
first determinations of the values for ionic radii. Lande assumed that due to the small size
of the lithium cation, the unit cell dimension of lithium halides was determined by anion
anion contacts. By inspection of the FCC unit cell, four times the radius of the halide atom
4.6 Laboratory Report – 32 –
√
is seen to be 4rCl = 2ao . Once this value is set, r = 1.81 Angstroms in the case of
Cl− , other radii can be obtained by assuming that cation-anion contacts determine the edge
length. Again inspection of the unit cell leads to the conclusion that: ao = 2rcation + 2ranion
√
in the case of FCC and 3ao = 2rcation + 2ranion in the case of simple cubic. (Br− , 1.96
Angstroms; N a+ , 1.01 Angstroms; K + , 1.34 Angstroms; and Cs+ , 1.76 Angstroms)
(g). Calculate the values of ‘a’, h, k and l using the value λ above for different ions.
(h). Determine the lattice structures of different salts that you have used for experiments.
λ2
(i). Use the wavelength of λ = 1.5418 Angstroms to solve for the constant, ‘a’ using C = 4a2
.
2. Using the diffraction data calculate sin θ and sin2 θ for each diffraction peak.
sin2 θi
3. Find the ratio of sin2 θ1
for each diffraction peak where sin2 θ , is the value for each successive
peak.
Laboratory Report
Table 4.2: Data table (take the value of ao from table 38.1)
Salt ao (A) Density(g/cm3 ) Weight(g/mol) Lattice type
NaF FCC
LiCl FCC
NaCl FCC
KCl FCC (pseudobodysimple)
CsCl Simple cubic
NaBr FCC
KBr FCC
CsI Simple cubic (pseudo-
body centred)
Sample Calculations
√
1. a = d h2 + k 2 + l2 = .......
T otal value of a
2. Mean value of a = no. of data
= ..........
¯
3. Mean value of c = ..........
4. Mean value of Q2 = ..........
5. Mean value of h2 + k 2 + l2 = ..........
6. Mean value of Bragg Diffraction angle,θi = ...
K×λ
7. t = B×cos θB
= ...; where t=thickness of crystallite, K=constant dependent on crystallite shape
(0.89), λ =x-ray wavelength, B=FWHM (full width at half max or B = 2θ maximum −
2θ minimum) or integral breadth & θB =Bragg Angle.
Table 4.3: Data table for X-ray diffraction

sin2 θi
Diffraction Bragg Diffrac- sin θi sin2 θi sin2 θ1
Q2 c a h2 + k 2 + l2
peak tion angle,θi
1 19.1
2 22.2
3 32.2
4 38.8
5 40.85
6
7
8
9
10
...
...
30
Questions
1. Determine the indices of the peaks that you observed.
2. From your data, can you determine whether NaCl is sc, fcc, or bcc? If so, which is it, and how
do you know? If not, what further information would you need?
3. Suppose that we had measured the same sample using Mo Kα radiation, for which the photons
have approximately twice the energy as Cu Kα photons. Qualitatively, how would you expect the
data to change? Would you expect to see more peaks, or fewer?
Experiment Five: Study of Geiger Muller Counter
Objectives
♠ To determine the plateau and optimal operating voltage of a Geiger−Muller counter.
♠ To determine the resolving time of a GM counter.
♠ Measure the count rate versus voltage for a Geiger counter to determine its appropriate operating
voltage.
♠ To measure the half-life and the activity of meta-stable Barium−137.
♠ To determine the efficiency of a Geiger−Muller counter.
♠ To investigate the relationship between absorber materials (atomic number), absorption thickness
and backscattering.
Apparatus
♣ Geiger counter, scaler, timer, 90 Sr beta radiation source.
♣ Minigenerator that produces 137 Ba from the decay of a parent nuclide of 137 Cs.
♣ Disposable plachet (very thin small metal plate to contain a radioactive sample).
♣ Three−cycle semilog graph paper.
Theory
The nuclei of atoms are affected by three forces: the strong nuclear force which causes protons
and neutrons to bind together, the electric force, which is manifested by repulsion of the protons and
tends to rip the nucleus apart and the weak nuclear force which causes neutrons to change into protons
and vice versa.
Radioactivity, discovered in 1986 by Henri Becquerel, is a process by which an unstable parent nucleus
transforms spontaneously into one or several daughter nuclei that are more stable than the parent nucleus
by having larger binding energies per nucleon than does the parent nucleus. The daughter nucleus may
also be unstable and will decay further through a chain of radioactive decays until a stable nuclear
configuration is reached. Radioactive decay is usually accompanied by emission of energetic particles
that may be used in science, industry, agriculture, and medicine.
As we have seen, unstable nuclei can often transmute into other nuclei through the emission of α, β or
5.3 Theory – 35 –
γ particles. Any such spontaneous transition from one state to another is known as a radioactive decay.
Let N denotes the number of radioactive nuclei of any specified type, at a given time, and λ is the
constant probability for decay per unit time (that is, the decay constant), then the change in the number
of nuclei during an infinitesimal time interval dt is defined by
dN = N (t + dt) − N (t) = −N (t)λdt. (5.1)
The negative sign in the above equation represents, as usual, the fact that the number of nuclei decreases
as a result of decay. If we assume No to be the initial number of nuclei at t = 0, then the number of
nuclei N (t) at any later time can be obtained as:
dN
= −λdt. (5.2)
N
The negative sign in the equation means that dN/dt is negative because the number of radioactive
nuclei is decreasing. The number of radioactive nuclei at t = 0 is designated as No . The question
of interest is how many radioactive nuclei N are there at some later time t. The solution is found by
rearranging equation (5.2) and integrating it, subject to the condition that N = No at t = 0. The result
of that procedure is
N (t) = No e−λt . (5.3)
Equation (5.3) states that the number of nuclei N at some later time t decreases exponentially from the
original number No that are originally present. The quantity λN is the number of decays per second,
and it is called the activity A of the sample. It can be shown that it obeys the equation
A(t) = Ao e−λt . (5.4)
ln 2 0.693
t1 = = . (5.5)
2 λ λ
To study these radioactive processes, we must detect the presence of these particles that are the product
of the decay. We can build devices in many forms to accomplish the detection, but they all would have
one feature in common. Every practical device that detects radiation allows the particles to interact
with matter, and then uses that interaction as the basis for detection. The particular device we will use
in this laboratory is called a Geiger counter. It consists of a tube in which the incident particle interacts,
and a scaling circuit to count the pulses of electricity produced. A diagram of a Geiger tube is shown
in figure 5.1.
The Geiger tube is a small metal cylinder with a thin self-supporting wire along the axis of the cylinder.
The wire is insulated from the cylinder. The cylindrical wall of the tube serves as the negative electrode
(cathode), and the wire along the axis is the positive electrode (anode). At the entrance end of the tube
there is a thin “window" formed by a very thin piece of fragile mica. Inside the counter is a special gas
mixture that is ionized by any radiation that penetrates the “window".
In operation, a voltage is applied across the electrodes. The particular voltage for each tube must be
determined experimentally. The applied voltage creates a large electric field in the tube, and the field
5.3 Theory – 36 –
is especially large in the region near the central wire. When radiation passes through the window and
ionizes the gas, the large electric field causes an acceleration of the free electrons. These accelerated
electrons cause additional ionizations that create an “avalanche" effect. The total number of ion-electron
pairs created by a single incident particle is of the order of one million.
The electrons are more mobile and drift toward the positive central wire. When they arrive at the wire,
their negative charge causes the voltage of the wire to be lowered, and this sudden drop in voltage
creates a pulse that is counted by the electronic circuitry. Each pulse counted signifies the passage of
a particle through the counter. The ions then recombine with electrons, leaving the gas neutral again
and ready for the passage of another particle. The whole process takes a time of the order of 300 ms,
and during that time period if another particle goes through the counter, it may not be counted. Thus
one disadvantage of Geiger counters is this ‘dead time’ during which counts may be missed. This is a
negligible effect unless the count rate is very high.
The count rate of a Geiger counter is a function of the voltage applied across the electrodes. Therefore,
the counter should be operated in a region where the rate at which the count rate changes with voltage
is a minimum. This is accomplished experimentally by measuring the count rate of some fixed source
of radiation as a function of the voltage applied to the tube. A graph of the count rate versus the voltage
will be made from the data and the operating point will be chosen to be some voltage where the count
rate versus voltage curve is as nearly flat as possible. This is referred to as the plateau region.
The counter needs a minimum voltage to produce pulses at all. Both this minimum voltage and
Figure 5.1: Diagram of the essential elements of a Geiger tube
the operating voltage are quite variable and depend upon the dimensions of the Geiger tube, and
on the particular gas used in the tube. Therefore, the exact nature of the count rate versus voltage
curve depends on the particular tube used. In general, the student-type Geiger tubes used in most
undergraduate laboratories operate at about 500 V and do not have a very flat count rate versus voltage
curve anywhere. Thus it is difficult to identify much of a plateau region. Typically, research-grade
Geiger tubes operate in the neighbourhood of 1000 V, and they have a much flatter count rate versus
voltage curve. A typical count rate versus voltage curve for a student-type Geiger tube is shown in
figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Typical count rate versus voltage for a Geiger tube
Count Rate Versus Voltage to Determine Operating Voltage

1. All Geiger tubes have a maximum permissible operating voltage above which they are subject to
breakdown. This may permanently damage the tube. Consult your instructor or the instruction
manual for the specific maximum voltage of the particular Geiger tube used. Do not ever exceed
this maximum voltage. Before plugging in the power cord of your instrument, make sure that the
high voltage control is turned to the minimum setting.
2. Place the 90 Sr b source about 2 or 3 cm from the window of the Geiger tube. Once the source
is positioned, take all the measurements for this procedure without changing the position of the
source relative to the detector.
3. Turn on the power to the instrument, reset the scaler to zero, and start the counter in a continuous
count mode with the high voltage still set to a minimum. Slowly increase the high voltage setting
until counts begin to register on the scaler. Leave the voltage at this setting for which the Geiger
tube just begins to count. This is called the threshold voltage.
4. Reset the scaler to zero, start the counter, and let it count for 1 minute. Repeat this procedure two
more times for a total of three 1-minute counts at this voltage setting. Record the voltage and the
three values of the count in data table 5.1.
5. Raise the high voltage setting by 50 V, repeat Step 4 at this new high voltage setting and record
the high voltage and the counts for these three trials.
6. Continue this process up to the maximum permissible voltage of the Geiger tube. Be sure to obtain
the proper maximum voltage for your tube either from your instructor or from the instruction
manual for the instrument.
Half-life of 137 Ba
1. The graph of count rate versus voltage should be similar in shape to figure 5.2. The operating
point of the tube should be chosen to be just beyond the shoulder on the relatively flat portion
of the graph. That region is shown by an arrow in figure 5.2. If the graph of your data does not
look like you expect, consult your instructor for help in picking the proper operating voltage for
your Geiger counter. Make all the measurements in this procedure at the same voltage once it is
determined.
Figure 5.3: Experimental set-up for determining the half-life of Ba-137
2. With no radioactive source near the Geiger tube, reset the scaler to zero and count the background
for 2 minutes. The activity will be determined by counting for 15.0 s intervals. Divide the number
of counts obtained in 2 minutes by eight to obtain an average background count rate for 15.0
seconds. Record that background rate in data table 5.2.
137
3. The Ba isotope must be prepared at the time of its use because it has such a short half-life.
The Mini-generator contains 137 Cs, which decays with a 30-year half-life to produce 137 Ba as a
137
daughter product. A saline solution of HCl is used to wash out the Ba that has established
137 137
equilibrium with the Cs. The Ba is created in an excited state and decays to the ground state
137
of Ba by gamma-ray emission with a half-life of less than 3 minutes.
4. Your instructor will prepare the sample when you are ready to count. Very carefully review all
of the remaining steps of the procedure so that you will be ready to begin counting the sample
immediately after it is prepared.
5. Set the scaler to the stop position and reset the scaler to zero.
6. As quickly as possible after you receive your sample, place the plachet containing the sample as
close to the Geiger tube window as possible, to obtain the maximum counting rate.
7. As quickly as possible, start the scaler in the continuous count mode and start the external timer
simultaneously. Do not ever stop the timer. Let it run continuously for the rest of this procedure.
5.5 Pre-Laboratory Assignment – 39 –
8. When the timer reaches 15.0 seconds, stop the scaler. Record the counts obtained during the
interval 0−15.0 seconds in the appropriate place in data table 5.2.
9. During the time interval when the timer reads between 15.0 and 30.0 s elapsed time, reset the
scaler to zero and wait for the next counting period.
10. Start the scaler when the timer reads 30.0 s and stop the counter when the timer reads 45.0 s.
Record the counts obtained in the interval 30.0−45.0 s in the appropriate place in data table 5.2.
11. Continue this process, letting the timer run continuously and alternately counting for a 15.0 s
interval and resetting and waiting a 15.0 s interval until data table 5.2 is completed. If a mistake
is made on one of the counting periods, just skip it and start at the next counting period.
Pre-Laboratory Assignment
1. For the isotope of the element nickel 63
28 N i give the number of protons Z, the number of neutrons
N and the mass number A.

2. Show that equation (5.4) in the laboratory can be expressed in the form ln(Ao /A) = λt. This is
the form used to fit the data in the laboratory.
3. What is the basis for the detection of the particles from any radioactive decay?
4. The inside of a Geiger tube is filled with (a) gas (b) liquid (c) solid (d) plasma.
5. The pulse that is counted in a Geiger tube is caused by (a) rise in voltage from ions arriving at
the anode (b) drop in the voltage from ions arriving at the anode (c) rise in voltage from electrons
arriving at the anode (d) drop in voltage from electrons arriving at the anode.
6. In a Geiger tube the total time taken to create a pulse and then let the electrons recombine with
the ions to again form a neutral state is about (a) 1 µs (b) 30 µs (c) 300 µs (d) 10,000 µs.
7. A typical operating voltage for a Geiger counter is about (a) 5 V (b) 50 V (c) 500 V (d) 5000 V.
8. In this laboratory the half-life of 137 Ba will be determined by measuring (a) the number of atoms
left as a function of time (b) the activity that is constant (c) the activity that decreases as a function
of time (d) the activity that increases as a function of time.
Calculations
Count Rate Versus Voltage

1. Calculate the mean C and standard error αC for the three trials of the count at each voltage.
√
Calculate the square root of the mean count C at each voltage. Record all calculated values in
calculations table 5.1.
2. On linear graph paper plot the mean count rate C (counts/min) versus voltage to produce a graph
like the one shown in figure 5.2.
Half-life of 137 Ba
1. Each count period is 15.0 s long, during which time the activity changes continuously. For each
of the counting periods, subtract the average background count for 15.0 s from the count in that
time period. Divide that result for each period by 15.0 s and record it as the activity A in counts/s
at the appropriate place in calculations table 5.2. This is actually the average activity during each
15.0 s time interval, but it will be assumed that it approximates the instantaneous activity at the
middle of each time interval.
2. Calculate the quantities (Ao /A) and ln(Ao /A) for each of the activities in data table 5.2 where
Ao is taken to be the activity at t = 0.
3. The quantity ln(Ao /A) should vary linearly with t the time, and the slope should be equal to the
disintegration constant λ. Perform a linear least squares fit of the data in calculations table 5.2
with ln(Ao /A) as the vertical axis and t the time as the horizontal. Record the value of the slope
as the disintegration constant λ in calculations table 5.2.
4. Using equation (5.4), calculate the experimental value of the half-life of 137 Ba from the experi-
mental value of the disintegration constant λ.
Laboratory Report
Table 5.1: Data table

Voltage Count 1 Count 2 Count 3

√
C αC C
Table 5.3: Data table (Background 2 minute=)

Count period(s) Counts
0−15
30−45
60−75
90−105
120−135
150−165
180−195
210−225
240−255
270−285
300−315
330−345
360−375
Table 5.4: Calculations table (λ = s−1 , t 1 = s

2
A(acts/s) Ao /A ln(Ao /A) t(s)

7.5
37.5
67.5
97.5
127.5
157.5
187.5
217.5
247.5
277.5
307.5
337.5
367.5
Sample Calculations
T otal counts
1. Background (15 sec)= 8
=
Counts−Background
2. A = 15
=
3. Ao /A =
4. ln(Ao /A) =
5. t 1 =
2
Questions
1. For the p count rate versus voltage data consider the standard error αC and the square root of the
mean count C. According to nuclear statistical theory, those quantities should be approximately
equal. Calculate the percentage difference between them.
2. State the threshold voltage (voltage at which the counter begins to operate) for your Geiger tube.
3. On the semilog graph of the activity of 137 Ba, draw the best straight line that you can through the
data points. From the straight line determine the half-life of the sample. Indicate exactly which
points on the straight line are used to determine the half-life.
137
4. The accepted half-life of Ba is 2.6 min. Calculate the percentage error of each of your
determinations of this half-life. Show your work.
137
5. A physics professor purchased a Cs source in November 1992, which had an activity of
2.00 × 105 disintegrations per second at that time. What is the activity of that source today? The
half-life of 137 Cs is 30.2 years.
Experiment Six: Statisics of Nuclear Counting
Objectives
♠ To study the Poisson probability distribution as it is applied to counting statistics. ,
♠ To study the Gaussian probability distribution as a special case of the Poisson distribution applied
to measurements with a large mean value.
♠ To learn some statistical analysis techniques using a spreadsheet to analyze, graph, and compare
results.
Apparatus
♣ A radioactive source 204 Tl.
♣ A Geiger-Mueller tube with stand and source holder.
♣ A scaler to count the radioactive decays.
♣ A Pasco 750 Science Workshop data acquisition interface.
♣ Pasco DataStudio software.
♣ Computer with Excel spreadheet program.
Figure 6.1: Apparatus and setup for performing the Poisson Statistics experiment.
Theory
Radioactive decay is a random process in which the emission of radiation depends on the number
of atoms that can decay and a probability function that is characteristic their natural lifetimes. The
6.3 Theory – 44 –
detection of particles is random and any two measurements of the particles over equal periods of time
will most likely be different. For large numbers, the difference between the measurements will be a
small percentage. The probability of detecting a specific number of events for a given measurement is
given by the standard normal or Gaussian distribution as was studied in the experiment on statistical
analysis. However, for the measurement of a small number of events, the probability distribution for
detecting a specific number of events is different and is given by a Poisson distribution. For example,
in a small period of time, the number of particles that are detected may only be about 5 on the average.
A change of 1 or 2 detected events is a significant percentage of the average number.
For rare events, the average number detected might also be much less than one, The Poisson distribution
applies to these measurements and is useful for determining the probability of detecting a single event
or more than one event in the same period. The Poisson distribution is a special case of the binomial
distribution, similar to the Gaussian distribution being a special case. The Poisson distribution is given
by
nn e−n
P (n) = (6.1)
n!
where P(n) is the normalized probability that in a given time interval n events will be observed and
n is the average number of events that are observed when many samples are taken. P(n) is said to be
a normalized distribution so that when it is summed over all possible values of n, it is equal to unity.
P(n) is normalized to one sample and is therefore given by
XN
P (n) = 1. (6.2)
n=0
If M samples are measured with each yielding some number mj , (j=1 to M), the average number for a
sample will be n given by
PM
j=1 mj
n= . (6.3)
M
If some fraction of the values of mj have the same value ni and there are N possible values of ni , (i=1
to N), then
N
X M
X
f i ni = mj (6.4)
n=1 j=1
where fi is the frequency that the same number ni occurs. By making this substitution into equatien
(6.3),
PN
fi ni
i=1
n= (6.5)
M
N
X fi
n= ni (6.6)
i=1
M
fi
The term M
is just the probability of measuring a value ni , P(ni ), so that
N
X
n= ni P (ni ). (6.7)
n=1
By dropping the subscripts
X
n= nP (n). (6.8)
When the average number of events is a large number, Poisson0 s equation is very difficult to deal with
because of the large values of n! For large values of n!, the binomial distribution is better characterized
with a Gaussian distribution. Recall from the previous experiment on statistical analysis that the
Gaussian distribution is given by
1 (x−x)2
P (n) = √ e− 2σ2 (6.9)
σ 2π
where x is the mean value about which the distribution is centered, σ is the standard deviation from the
mean, and P(x) is the normalized probability of measuring a value x. P(xi ) is a continuous function
and must be multiplied by an increment in x, ∆x, in order for it to represent a finite number. Therefore,
the mean value is given by
N
X
x= xi P (xi )∆x. (6.10)
i=1
The value of σ is given by the square root of the variance, σ 2 ,
N
2
X (x − x)
σ = . (6.11)
i=1
N −1
Since, the distribution is normalized,
N
X
P (xi )∆x = 1. (6.12)
i=1
For integers, the smallest increment in x, ∆x= ∆n , is 1, so when the continuous function P(x) is
changed to an integer form P(n), equation (6.9) becomes
1 (n−n)
P (n)∆n = √ e− 2σ2 ∆n (6.13)
σ 2π
1 (n−n)
P (n) = √ e− 2σ2 (6.14)
σ 2π
sinse ∆n =1. The standard deviation can be approximatedy by the square root of the mean,
√
σ = n, (6.15)
and equation (6.14) can be approximated by
1 (n−n)
e− 2n .
P (n) = √ (6.16)
2πn
The standard deviation can be computed with equation (6.11). The standard deviation computation is
provided as a statistical function in the Excel functional operators and the Gaussian distribution can be
computed easily and more correctly as will be shown.
General Considerations
The procedure has two parts: (1) measurements where the average number of counts is low,
approximately 2-7 counts per period, and (2) measurements where the average number of counts is 100
to 200 counts per period. In the first case Poisson statistics apply, but in the second case, a Gaussian
distribution is applied.
The performance of the Geiger counter depends on the high voltage supply and that has been pre-set
for this experiment. Normally, an experiment would be run to determine the operating voltage, but that
process has been eliminated for this experiment to concentrate on the study of the counting statistics,
the Poisson distribution, and Gaussian distribution. Unless instructed otherwise, the high voltage for
the counter should be set at 900 volts.
The number of radioactive events that are detected by the Geiger counter depends on the geometrical
relation that the source has to the counter. The closer the source is to the counter, the more events will
be detected. The source can be located at various distances from the entrance window of the Geiger
tube, and this distance will need to be adjusted to give the desired counting rate for the study. Also,
because of the location of the radioactive source material embedded in the plastic disc,the orientation
of the source will affect the count rate. There will be a difference in detected events depending on
which side of the disc is closest to the Geiger window. In Part I, the source will need to be placed near
the bottom of the source holder and will need to be moved closer to the tube for Part II. The number of
counts that are detected in a 0.2 second time interval in Part I needs to be approximately 2−7, while
for Part II the number needs to be approximately 100−200.
Part I−Poisson Distribution
Data Acquisition Setup for part I

1. From the desktop open the DataStudio program by clicking on the DataStudio icon.
2. Select Create an Experiment from the choices in the Welcome to DataStudio pop-up window.
3. In the Experiment Setup window scroll through the list of Sensors in the pull-down . Double
click on the Geiger menu to the Geiger Counter sensor icon, Counter sensor icon to add it to
Digital Channel 1. Check and make sure that the cable connected to the Nucleus scaler is plugged
into Digital Channel 1 on you 750 interface.
4. Double click on the Geiger Counter sensor icon connected to the 750 interface in the Experiment
Setup window. This brings up the Sensor Properties window. Under the general tab, click on
the Fast [>1 Hz] button to select it (if it isn0 t already selected), and change the sample rate to 5
Hz using the +/− (±) buttons. This setting will set the data acquisition system to count signal
pulses during 0.2 second periods. Click on the Measurement tab in this window. Make sure that
the Geiger Couuts, Ch1 (counts/sample check box is checked, and then click OK.
5. Click on the Options button on the Setup Toolbar and this will bring up the Sampling Options
window. This window can be used to control the starting and stopping of data collection. In the
Delay Start section, click the radio button to select None.
6. In the automatic stop section, select the radio button Time and set the time to 500.2 seconds. This
will allow 2500 measurements of the number of counts that occur in 0.2 second increments.
7. Under the Displays window double click both on the graph icon and the table icon. This will
display the data collected from the Geiger counter in a table and graph.
8. Arrange the graph and table windows to best display your results. You can hide the Displays and
Data windows by clicking on the small up and down arrow beside the Summary button on the
DataStudio toolbar.
9. When ready, click the Start button to start collecting the data. The data will be recorded in the
table and graphed on the graph. If for some reason data collection doesn0 t stop, you can stop data
collection by clicking on the Stop button.
10. On each of the windowâĂŹs Graph and Table there is a drop down menu beside the toolbar
button labeled Data. Select Clear Data from the drop down menu. This will allow you to run the
experiment again. Each data set is saved separately, so you can run as many trials as you want to
run so that you can then go back and compare your results.
Data Analysis for Part I
1. Start the Excel spreadsheet program either through the start menu or with a shortcut on the
desktop.
2. Return to the DataStudio program, and using the left mouse button, click on the area of Table 1
that has the title Geiger Counts, Ch1 and Run #x. This will highlight in yellow all the numbers
in the table. (As an alternative, click on the uppermost of the cells in the left column of time data
and while holding the left mouse button down, drag the cursor to the lowermost cell containing
data in the right, counts, column to select the entire data set of Geiger counts versus time. Then
select the Edit menu option from the top menu bar of the DataStudio program and then select
Copy.
3. Return to Sheet 1 of the Excel program and locate your cursor in cell A1 and click on this cell
with the left button of your mouse. Choose the Edit option from the top menu bar and then select
Paste. These operations should place your data from your run into the spreadsheet. Examine the
copied data to make sure that this has been done.
4. Add the column headings shown in the example for columns C, D, E, and F. These should be
labeled, Average, n, Frequency Distribution, and Poisson Distribution. Format the column widths
by selecting columns A through F and choosing Format from the Excel main menu bar. Choose
Column and Width from the pull down menus and type 15 in the Column WidthâĂŹs popup
window input box. Select the block of cells A1:F2 and choose Format from the Excel main menu
bar. Choose Cells from the pull down menu and click on the Alignment tab in the Format Cells
popup window. Click on the check box to choose the Wrap text option.
5. In cell C3 find the average count for the 2500 measurements. To do this, choose Insert from the
main menu bar and then choose Function. From the Paste Function window choose Statistics
from the Function category list and AVERAGE from the Function name list . Then click on
OK. Input B3:B2502 into the Number 1 input box and click on OK. You can check this result by
summing all the numbers in the B column and dividing by the number of numbers. The average
should be less than 5 in order to provide a good test for the Poisson distribution.
6. In column D, under the n label, insert numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 20. You can enter 0 in cell D3
and insert an equation in cell D4, and then use the copy and fill functions to enter the rest of the
numbers.
7. In cells E3 to E23 find the frequency (the number of times) each of the numbers n appear in 2500
measurements. In other words, how many of the measurements resulted with a 0 count, how
many resulted in 1 count, how many resulted in 2 counts, etc. To do this it is helpful to use a
subtle feature of the Excel spreadsheet that uses arrays to enter and extract data. Arrays must be
entered in a different manner than other entries. To begin, click on cell E3 and while holding the
left mouse button down, drag the cursor down to cell E23 so that cells E3 to E23 are selected.
Choose Insert from the main menu bar and then choose Function. From the Paste Function
window choose Statistics from the Function category list and FREQUENCY from the Function
name list . Then click on OK. Input B3:B2502 into the Data array input box and D3:D23 in the
Bins array input box. While holding the Ctrl and Shift keys down, click on OK. Numbers should
appear in all of cells D3 through D23. Check to see if these numbers seem reasonable.
8. Column E should now contain the number of times the measurements produced the value of n
listed in column D, i.e. columns D and E should contain the data for the frequency distribution.
A graph of the frequency distribution should now be made.
9. Select the data to be graphed in columns D and E. Choose Insert and then Chart. Choose XY
(Scatter) as the Chart type and the option of Scatter. Compares pairs of values. for the Chart
sub-type. You can click on Next and supply the information to format your graph in a meaningful
way or just press Finish and go back later to format your graph. You should make sure the Series
data assigns the values in the D column as the n values and the values in the E column as the
Frequency values.
10. Check your graph to make sure it is correct. The frequency of numbers n should be on the y-axis
versus the numbers n on the x-axis. Click on the graph and hold the mouse button down to drag
it to the desired location on your spreadsheet.
11. Add a title to the graph and label the axes This can be done by clicking on Chart on the top menu
bar and then choosing the Chart Options selection and supplying the information.
Save your Excel workbook frequently to prevent loss of your work.

12. Test the data to check that it follows the Poisson distribution given by equation (6.1)
n
P (n) = e−n .
n!
D
13. In cell F3, enter the formula, = C3 3/F ACT (D3) ∗ EXP (−C3)∗2500. Recall that P(n) is a
normalized distribution and that N
P
n=0 P(n)=1. Therefore each value of P(n) that is computed
must be multiplied by 2500 to correspond to the frequency distribution of 2500 measurements.

14. Copy the formula in cell F3 and copy it to the other cells, F4 through F23.
15. Compare the values of the frequency distribution in column E with those of the Poisson distribu-
tion computed in column F. The values should be about the same.
16. Add the data for the Poisson distribution to your graph. To do this click on your chart near its
edges to select it and then select Chart from the main menu bar. Choose Add Data from the drop
down menu and input =Sheet1!F3:F23 into the Range input box. Click on OK and this should
add the calculated values for the Poisson distribution to your graph.
17. Examine the Frequency and Poisson distributions and determine how well they agree.
Part II−Gaussian Distribution
Acquisition of Data for Part II

1. Move the source closer to the Geiger tube to increase the count rate. Click on the Start button of
DataStudio and observe the number of events detected in each of the 0.2 second time intervals.
Adjust the source to a position that yields an average number equal to 100-200 counts.
2. Click on the Stop button to stop the data acquisition. Select Experiment from the DataStudio
main menu bar and then Delete All Data Runs from the pull down menu. Click on OK and the
experiment is again set to take data.
3. Click on the Start button and collect data for the next 500 seconds. Observe the data as it is being
accumulated in the table. If the data collection isnâĂŹt meeting the criteria that is desired, stop
the experiment, clear out the results, readjust the parameters, and begin again. The accumulation
of data should stop automatically.
Data Analysis
1. Open the Excel workbook used in Part I and go to a new worksheet, Sheet 2.
2. Return to the DataStudio program, copy the data in Table 1, and paste it into the Excel spreadsheet.
Examine the copied data to make sure that this has been done.
3. Add the column headings shown in the example for columns C, D, E, F, and G. These should
be labeled, Average, n, Frequency Distribution, Gaussian Distribution using Approximation, and
Gaussian Distribution using Standard Deviation. Format the column widths to a width of 15.
Center the labels and entries in the cells and use the wrap text option for the labels.
4. In cell C3 find the average count for the 2500 measurements. The average should be 100−200 n
order to provide a good test for the Gaussian distribution.
5. Type the text Minimum and Maximum in cells C5 and C8 respectively. In cell C6 enter the function
for finding the minimum count for all 2500 measurements, =MIN(B3:B2502), and in cell C9
enter the function for finding the maximum count for all 2500 measurements, =MAX(B3:B2502).
This will give lower and upper limits on the range of values measured and will eliminate graphing
a large number of zeros.
6. In cell D3, under the n heading, insert an integer that is approximately 50 less than an integer
close to the nearest integer value to the average count for the 2500 measurements. Enter the
formula =D3+1 in cell D4 and use the fill function to copy this formula in cells D5 to D103.
Check to see if the range of values between the minimum and maximum values for n is covered
by these numbers in column D. If not, add numbers to the beginning and end to cover the range.
7. In cells E3 to E103 find the frequency (the number of times) each of the numbers n appear in 2500
samples. Remember that arrays must be entered in a different manner than other entries. Click
on cell E3 and select the cells down to cell E103. Type =FREQUENCY(B3:B2502,D3:D103)
and while holding the Ctrl and Shift keys down, hit the Enter key.
8. Column E should now contain the number of times the measurements produced the value of n
listed in column D, i.e. colums D and E should contain the data for the frequency distribution. A
graph of the frequency distribution should now be made.
9. Select the data to be graphed in columns D and E. Choose Insert and then Chart. Choose XY
(Scatter) as the Chart type and the option of Scatter. Compares pairs . You can click on Next and
supply the of values. for the Chart sub-type, information to format your graph in a meaningful
way or just press Finish and go back later to format your graph. You should make sure the Series
data assigns the values in the D column as the n values and the values in the E column as the
Frequency values.
10. Check your graph to make sure it is correct. It should look something like the plot of data points
shown in Figure 6. The frequency of numbers n should be on the y-axis versus the numbers n on
the x-axis. Click on the graph and hold the mouse button down to drag it to the desired location
on your spreadsheet.
11. Add a title to the graph and label the axes This can be done by clicking on Chart on the top menu
bar and then choosing the Chart Options selection and supplying the information.
Save your Excel workbook frequently to prevent loss of your work.

12. Check the data to see if it follows the Gaussian distribution given by equation (6.16),
1 (n−n
P (n) = √ e− 2n
2πn
√
where σ has been approximated by n. Recall that P(n) is a normalized distribution and that
PN
n=1 P(n)=1. Therefore each value of P(n) that is computed must be multiplied by 2500 to
correspond to the frequency distribution of 2500 measurements. In cell F3, enter the formula,
= (1/(SQRT (2 ∗ P I() ∗ C3))) ∗ EXP (−((D3 − C3)2 )/(2 ∗ C3))∗2500 and copy it to the other
cells, F4 through F103.
13. Compare the values of the frequency distribution in column E with those of the Gaussian
distribution computed in column F. The values should be about the same.
14. Add the data for the Gaussian distribution to your graph. To do this click on your chart near its
down menu and input =Sheet2!F3:F103 into the Range input box. Click on OK and this should
add the calculated values for the Gaussian distribution to your graph.
15. Examine the measured frequency distribution and the calculated Gaussian distributions with the
√
σ = n approximation and determine how well they agree.
16. In cell C12 compute the standard deviation of the 2500 samples. To do this, insert the formula
=STDEV(B3:B2502). STDEV is a statistical function that can be inserted from the Insert option
on the main menu bar followed by choosing the Function selection. The standard deviation
function is available from the Function name list associated with the Statistical selection under
the Function category list.
17. Calculate the proper Gaussian distribution using the equation for the Gaussian distribution using
the standard deviation of the samples,
1 (n−n)2
P (n) = √ e− 2σ2
σ 2π
In cell G3, enter the formula, = (1/(C12∗SQRT (2∗P I())))∗EXP (−((D3−C3)2 )/(2∗C122 ))∗2500
and copy it to the other cells, G4 through G103. Remember that P(n) is multiplied by 2500 since
P(n) is a normalized distribution where N
P
i=0 P(ni )=1.
18. Add the data for this Gaussian distribution to your graph. To do this click on your chart near its
down menu and input =Sheet2!G3:G103 into the Range input box. Click on OK and this should
add this Gaussian distribution to your graph.
19. Compare this distribution with the measured frequency distribution and the Gaussian distribution
√
using the σ = n approximation. Which one is the best fit to the measurements?
20. Print the 2 spreadsheets and the 2 charts in your Excel workbook using the following instructions:
For each spreadsheet that you need to print, you will only need to print a portion of the spread-
sheet. Printing the entire spreadsheet will take a very long time and will consume more than 50
sheets of paper. You should only print the first page. To print only the first page, select File from
the main menu bar, and Print from the pull down menu. In the Print Range section, select the
Page(s) option and enter 1 in the From: input box and 1 in the To: input box.
Click on Preview to check to see if more than one page is set for printing. If only one page shows
up in the preview, then hit Print and then Close the preview. If more than one page shows up in
the preview, then hit Close to close the preview to readjust the parameters.
Charts may be printed by selecting the chart and then choosing Print from the pull down menu
under File from the main menu.
1. For nuclear counting experiments no true value of a given count is assumed. What quantity is
assumed to have a true value?
2. What is the exact statistical distribution function that describes the statistics of nuclear counting
experiments?
3. What statistical distribution function approximates nuclear counting statistics and is used because
it deals with continuous variables? For what values of the true mean σ is this distribution valid?
4. In a nuclear counting experiment a single measurement of n counts is obtained. What is the
approximate value for σ for the count n?
5. A single count of a radioactive nucleus is made, and the result is 927 counts. What is the
approximate value of σ?
Laboratory Report
Table 6.1: Data table

Run No. Operating Voltage Time (sec) Counts(ni )
¯ (V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
.
.
.
80
81
82
83
84
85
.
.
.
120

Run No. |n − n|/2σ 2 P(n)
1 ¯
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
.
.
.
80
81
82
83
84
85
.
.
.
120
Questions
1. Consider the shape of the histogram of your data. Does it show the expected distribution relative
to the mean of the data?
2. What is the most accurate statement that you can make about the count from the sample based
upon the data that you have taken?
3. The Stingy Salt Shaker Problem: Suppose after 1000 shakes of a stingy salt shaker, the average
number of grains of salt that comes out is 0.1 grain per shake. What is the probability that 2
grains of salt will come out for a given single shake?
4. On the average, there are about 2 major airline crashes per year. probability that in any month, 2
crashes will occur? 15 What is the
Experiment Seven: Absorptions of Beta and Gamma
Rays
Objectives
♠ To investigate the difference in relative absorption by different types of materials for different
kinds of radiation.
♠ To determine the absorption coefficient µ for gamma radiation in lead.
Equipments
♣ Geiger counter (single unit with Geiger tube, power supply, timer, and scaler)
♣ Absorber set (lead and polyethylene), two-cycle semilog graph paper
♣ Gamma source (60 Co, for example), beta source (90 Sr, for example)
Theory
Three different particles are emitted in the three types of natural radioactivity. In α-decay the
emitted particle is a twice-ionized helium atom called an alpha particle. In β-decay the emitted particle
is an electron or positron. For γ-decay the emitted particle is a high-energy photon. The different nature
of these particles accounts for the differences in their relative absorption in matter. The most important
characteristics that determine the interactions are the charge and the mass of the particles. Because
they are charged and have large mass, alpha particles interact very strongly, lose energy in a series of
interactions, and do not travel far in matter. For a typical α-decay the particle will not penetrate the
thin window of a Geiger counter. Therefore we will use no α-decay sources in this laboratory.
Because the γ-ray photons have no mass or charge, they interact with matter in a fundamentally different
way than charged particles interact. They interact less strongly with matter, and as a result are the most
penetrating type of radiation. They require a greater thickness of material to be completely absorbed.
Gamma rays interact with matter by the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and by positron-
electron pair production. In each of these processes a photon is effectively completely removed from
the beam in a single process, if it interacts at all. The consequence of this fact, that photons either do
not interact at all or else are completely removed by an interaction, means that γ-ray intensity decreases
exponentially with absorber thickness. Photons are the only particles from natural radioactivity to
7.3 Theory – 56 –
interact in this manner, and are the only ones to show an exact exponential decrease in matter.
It is found experimentally that when a beam of γ-rays of intensity I is incident on matter of thickness
∆x, the change in intensity ∆I of the beam as it passes through the matter is proportional to the
thickness ∆x and to the incident intensity I. In equation form this is
Figure 7.1: Interaction of γ rays with matter
∆I = −µI∆x (7.1)
where µ is a constant of proportionality called the absorption coefficient. The constant m has dimensions
of inverse length and is commonly expressed in cm−1 . If the limit is taken so that the finite changes
become differential, equation (7.1) can then be integrated to give
I = Io e−µx (7.2)
which is the characteristic exponential absorption described earlier. The term Io is the intensity at
thickness x = 0, and I is the intensity at thickness x. Equation (7.2) can be rewritten in the form
ln(Io /I) = µx. (7.3)
Equation (7.3) states that the quantity ln(Io /I) should be proportional to x with m as the constant of
proportionality. This relationship will be used to determine m. The relationship applies only to a source
of pure γ-rays. The 60 Co source emits both γ-rays and β-rays, but the β-rays can be absorbed first, and
the γ-rays that are left can be assumed to be a pure source of γ-rays.
The absorption of β-rays is completely different from the absorption of γ-rays. Beta rays are either
electrons or positrons. In either case, they are charged particles with mass equal to the mass of the
electron. As charged particles, they tend to lose their energy gradually in a series of collisions with
the electrons in the atoms of the absorbing material. Generally each collision results in a relatively
small energy loss, and a large number of collisions are necessary before all the energy of the incident
β-ray is lost. As a consequence of the nature of this process, a beam of electrons, all of which have the
same initial energy, has a definite range in a given type of absorber. Therefore, electrons do not exhibit
absorption that is an exponential function of the thickness of the absorber.
The situation for the case of natural β-rays is complicated because not all of the betas have the same
energy. Betas from a β-ray source have a spectrum of energy ranging from almost zero up to some
maximum energy characteristic of the isotope. If an absorption experiment is performed for the
spectrum of energies that is present for any β-ray emitter, often the intensity does in fact decrease in
a nearly exponential manner. This is simply a fortuitous result of the combined effects of the initial
energy distribution, of back scattering into the detector, and of the true range-energy relationship. We
will perform measurements on the absorption of β-rays from a 90 Sr source that we can assume to be a
pure beta source.
Figure 7.2: Geiger counter and set of standard absorbers described in procedure
Gamma Absorption
1. Consult your instructor for the operating voltage of the Geiger counter and set the Geiger counter
to the proper operating voltage. Once it is set, leave the voltage unchanged for the rest of the
laboratory. Place the 60 Co source in the third shelf position and place the empty absorber holder
in the second shelf position. Be sure that the source is not moved during the rest of the procedure.
For best results, let the Geiger tube stabilize for at least 10 min before proceeding.
2. Reset the scaler to zero and determine intensity I (the number of counts) from the source with no
absorber in the holder. Count for a period of 60 s.
3. Using lead absorbers, determine the intensity I (counts) in a 60 s period for the following values
of absorber thickness: 0.079, 0.159. 0.318, 0.635, and 0.953 cm. These choices assume the use
of a standard set of absorbers 1/32, 1/16, 1/8, and 1/4 inch thick. Any known values of thickness
that cover the stated range are satisfactory. Record in data table 7.1 the results of the count for
each absorber and the thickness of the absorber.
4. Using polyethylene absorbers, determine the intensity I (counts) in a 60 s period for the following
values of absorber thickness: 0.051, 0.076, 0.159, 0.318, 0.635, 0.953, and 1.27 cm. Again a
standard set of absorbers is assumed, but any known values of thickness that cover the range
are satisfactory. Record in data table 7.2 the count for each absorber and the thickness of the
absorber.
Beta Absorption
90
1. Remove the 60 Co source and place a Sr β-ray source in the third shelf position. With the
empty absorber holder in the second shelf position, determine the number of counts in 60 s and
record the results in data tables 41.3 and 41.4.
2. Using lead absorbers, determine the number of counts in 60 s for the following values of absorber
thickness: 0.079, 0.159, 0.318, 0.635, and 0.953 cm.
3. Using the polyethylene absorbers, determine the number of counts in 60 s for the following values
of thickness: 0.010, 0.020, 0.051, 0.076, 0.159, 0.318, and 0.635 cm.
1. What are the names of the three types of natural radioactivity? Describe the nature of the particle
produced in each.
2. Which kind of nuclear radiation undergoes a true exponential absorption as a function of absorber
thickness? What property of its interaction with matter causes this to happen?
3. Which kind of natural radioactivity produces particles with a continuous spectrum of energy?
4. Which type of natural radioactivity produces particles that penetrate matter the least? What
characteristics of these particles cause them to be stopped in less matter?
5. State the form of the equation for the absorption of γ-rays in matter. Define all the terms used in
the equation.
6. What type of radiation is the most penetrating? What properties of the particles from this radiation
cause them to penetrate matter so well?
7. A pure γ-ray source has a count rate of 5000 counts in one minute with no absorber between the
source and the detector. An absorber of thickness 0.375 cm is placed between the source and the
detector. The number of counts in the detector in 1 minute is now 3245. What is the absorption
coefficient µ of the material? Show your work.
8. In the experimental arrangement of question 7, if an additional 0.235 cm of the same material is
placed between the detector and source, what is now the count in 1 minute? Show your work.
Calculations
1. Although the 60 Co source has been referred to as a γ−ray source, it also has some beta activity.
In the data taken with the lead absorber, the betas from 60 Co are completely absorbed by the first
thickness of lead used. The rest of the data for count versus absorber thickness represents the
absorption of γ−rays alone. Let the count for the 0.079 cm thick lead absorber represent the
initial intensity Io of γ−rays alone. Record that intensity in the calculations table as Io . Calculate
the increase in thickness that each absorber represents relative to the first absorber. Call this
increase in thickness x1 where x1 = x − 0.079. For each of the absorbers beyond the first, record
the values of I and x1 in calculations table 7.1.
2. According to equation (7.3), the quantity ln(Io /I) should be proportional to x1 for the assumption
made in defining x1 above. Perform a linear least squares fit with ln(Io /I) as the vertical axis
and x1 as the horizontal axis. Record the slope as µ and record the correlation coefficient r in
calculations table 7.1.
Laboratory Report
Table 7.1: Data table γ−rays on Lead

x (cm) I (Counts)
0
Table 7.2: Data table β−rays on Lead

x (cm) I (Counts)
0
Table 7.3: Data table γ−rays on Polyethylene

x (cm) I (Counts)
0
Table 7.4: Data table β−rays on Polyethylene

x (cm) I (Counts)
0

Io = counts, µ = cm−1 , r =
x (cm) I (Counts) x1 (cm) ln(Io /I)
Sample Calculations
1. x1 = x − 0.079 =
2. ln(Io /I) =
Questions
1. For the semilog graph of the data of table 7.1, at what thickness are all the betas absorbed? After
the betas are absorbed, does the graph of absorption of gammas show only a linear behaviour?
2. For the semilog graph of the data from data table 7.2, does the absorption of the betas take place
over several absorbers? At what thickness are all of the betas absorbed? After the betas are
absorbed, does the graph of absorption of gammas show only a linear behaviour?
3. Comment on the data in data table 7.3 for the intensity of 90 Sr radiation versus the thickness of
lead absorber. What is your conclusion about the absorption of betas in lead?
4. Comment on the semilog graph of the data from data table 7.4 for the intensity of 90 Sr radiation
versus thickness of polyethylene absorber. Is the graph approximately linear? If it is not linear
over the whole range, is it at least linear over some portion of the range?
5. For gammas of the approximate energy of the 60 Co gammas in lead, the approximate value of the
absorption coefficient is µ = 0.65 cm−1 . Considering this as the accepted value, calculate the
accuracy of your measurement of µ.
Experiment Eight: Zeeman Effect
Objective
♠ To investigate the fine structure lines of mercury and the Zeeman splitting of one or more of these
lines as a function of magnetic field
♠ To identify the difference between the experimental splitting with theoretical splitting
Equipments
♣ A laser and a beam steering mirror for rough adjustments
♣ A discharge lamp placed in an electrically powered magnet
♣ A condensing lens assembly
♣ A collimating lens assembly
♣ A linear polarizer
♣ A Fabry-Perot interferometer
♣ A photomultiplier (PMT) detector unit
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1: Equipment lists
8.3 Theory – 63 –
Table 8.1: Name of the equipments in figure 8.1 which ared represented by numbers.
Included Items Model Quantity
Zeeman effect experiment SE-9654 1
1. CMOS Camera 1
2. Camera Lens 1
3. Fabry-Perot Interferometer 1
4. Interference Filter
1 5. Polarizing Filter 1
6. Collimating Lens 1
7. Tunable DC (Constant Current) Power Supply SE-9656 1
8. Electromagnet with Pole Shoes SE-9655 1
9. Pen Type Mercury Lamp 1
10. Connection Block 1
11. Optical Track, 600 millimeters (mm) 1
12. Post 3
13. Adjustable Post Holder 3
14. Optical Carrier 3
15. Connection Cable, Red 1
16. Connection Cable, Black 1
17. Precision Kinematic Optical Mount 2
18. One-dimensional Horizontal Adjustable Holder 1
Power Cord (not shown) 1
USB Camera Cable (not shown) 1
Storage Case (not shown) 1
PASCO Capstone Software Single License (not shown) 1
Flash Drive labeled ZEEMAN EFFECT (not shown) 1
Zeeman Effect Experiment Information Sheet (not shown) 1
Theory
The experimental observation of the quantisation of orbital angular momentum in a uniform
magnetic field is called the normal Zeeman effect. The total angular momentum J~ of an atom is given
by
J~ = L
~ +S
~ (8.1)
where L~ and S
~ are the total orbital and spin angular momentum, respectively. For a single electron
~ is associated with the orbital angular momentum quantum number l as
atom, the magnitude of L
p
L = l(l+)~. (8.2)
Assume that, the spin angular momentum of the electron is neglected, or that the total net spin is zero.
Thus, the total angular momentum is due to the orbital angular momentum of the atom. The magnetic
moment of a single orbital electron of the atom is given by
→
− e ~ Q e
µl = − B, I = = v (8.3)
2m t 2πr
8.3 Theory – 64 –
where I the magnetic current, Q charge and v the speed. Here, µl is quantised since L is quantised. The
magnetic potential energy of an atom in a magnetic field is; therefore,
Vm = −→ −
µ l .B~ = e L. ~ B ~ (8.4)
2me
when combined equation (8.4) with equation (8.3), it is given by
e ~ ~
Vm = L.B (8.5)
2m
~ B
L. ~ = LB cos θ and L cos θ = Lz , the magnetic potential energy becomes
e
Vm = Lz B. (8.6)
2m
Since Lz = ml ~, hence we get

e~
Vm = ml Lz B. (8.7)
2m
e~
The quantity, 2m
is called Bohr magneton, µb . Since L has (2l + 1)-fold degeneracy, i.e., for a given
value of l, ml can take (2l + 1) different values: -l, −(l − 1),...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,...,(l − 1),l; therefore, from
equation (8.7), Vm can also take (2l + 1) values. Thus, a state, that is in a quantum state l with energy
Eo when placed in a magnetic field, will split into (2l + 1) substates with their energies given by the
expression
E = Eo + Vm = Eo + ml µb B (8.8)
When l = 2, ml = −2,-1,0,1,2; E will take the following values
E = Eo − 2µb B, E = Eo − 2µb B, E = Eo , E = Eo + µb B, E = Eo + 2µb B.
Here, it may be noted that the levels are equally spaced.
In actual practice one can not observe the resulting new levels. The only way to get information about
the levels is to observe the transitions between the levels. In the absence of the magnetic field, the
photon energy hνo is
hνo = Eoi − Eof . (8.9)
In a magnetic field, B, the expressions for the energies take the form
E i = Eoi + Vmi = Eoi + mil µb B (8.10)
E f = Eof + Vmf = Eof + mfl µb B. (8.11)
Therefore, the photon energy hν of the transition between the initial and the final states in a magnetic
field can be found by subtracting equation (8.11) from equation (8.10) as
hν = E i − E f = Eoi − Eof + ∆ml µb B (8.12)
where ∆ml = mil − mfl . Thus, the frequency of the transition is,
eB
ν = νo + ∆ml . (8.13)
4πm
Due to the selection rule, only those for which the change in magnetic quantum number is 0 or ±1, i.e.,
∆ml = 0, ± 1. (8.14)
8.3 Theory – 65 –
Combining equations (8.13) and (8.14) will show that the original transition frequency νo is replaced
by these transitions with the following frequencies,
e e
ν = νo − B, ν = νo , ν = νo + B. (8.15)
4πm 4πm
As an example, the normal Zeeman effect for the transition between the 51 D2 state and 51 P 1 state of
Cadmium (Cd) is shown in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.2: The Normal Zeeman Effect of a transition between 51 D2 and 51 P1 .
This specific transition gives off a red line with a wavelength of 6438 , which is studied in our
experiment. Here, it may be seen from the term symbol of these states that the total spin angular
momentum is zero in both levels; therefore, the total angular momentum is purely orbital angular
momentum so the transition is studied under the normal Zeeman effect.
Although there are nine transitions, the magnitudes of the separations are such that show up as only
three groups of different frequencies, each containing a group of three lines. However, a doublet or
a triplet is observed when the transitions are viewed in the direction parallel or perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 8.3: Zeeman splitting of a line when viewed in the direction parallel and perpendicular to the direction
of an external magnetic field
~ and σ
In figure 8.2 the abbreviation π represents the vibrations parallel to the external field B
~ The nature of the light emitted in these transitions are
represents the vibrations perpendicular to B.
described as follows:
8.3 Theory – 66 –
~ only a doublet is
1. When the Zeeman Effect is viewed along the direction of the magnetic field B
observed. The view can be obtained through a hole in the pole face and only the two components
corresponding to right-handed and left-handed circularly polarised light are observed. The right-
handed components correspond to the transition ∆ml = 1 while the left-handed component
correspond to ∆ml = −1. This is because, light is transverse in nature and the electromagnetic
~ and B
field must always have the field vectors E ~ normal to the direction of propagation; thus,
according to figure 8.2, no light will be emitted in the x-direction parallel to the direction of field
~
B.
2. When the Zeeman Effect is viewed in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the a triplet is
~ plane polarised light
observed. Meanwhile, the other two lines are observed as magnetic field B,
with the electric field vector, which is perpendicular to the direction of the external magnetic
field. Meanwhile, the third line is observed in the same position of field free line and it is the
same as plane polarised light with the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave parallel
to the direction of the external magnetic field.
~
The polarisation values may be summarised as follows: (a) Viewed ⊥ to B
∆ml = ±1; ⊥ to B; ~ σ components, ∆ml = 0; ⊥ to B; ~ π components
~
(b) Viewed || to B
∆ml = ±1; circularly polarised ; σ components ∆ml = 0; forbidden ; π components
The two σ-components, or outer secondaries of the triplet, or the two lines of the doublets are shifted
as
e
∆ν = ±µb B = ± B (8.16)
4πm
Figure 8.4: Lummer−Gehrcke Plate
∆ν may be derived from the resolution of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate as follows: The Lummer−Gehrcke
λ

plate is a kind of interferometer with high resolving power R = ∆λ ≈ 50, 000 . As a result, ∆λ = 0.01
is measurable from the visible displacement of a spectral line. It is a parallel plate of quartz, provided
with the prism, at the left end as shown in figure 8.3, for introducing the light. The incident light is
multiply reflected internally at the plate surfaces, since both sides of the plate are coated with a thin
8.3 Theory – 67 –
metal providing high reflectivity, but low transmission for light. At each reflection, which is arranged
to be near the critical angle, a beam emerges from the surface of the plate at an almost grazing angle.
If the emerging beams are collected by a lens, the fringes are formed at the lens focus. For constructive
interference, the path difference between beam I and II in the figure will be

δ = µ AB + BC − AD = nλ, (8.17)
AB = BC; AD = AC cos(90 − i), AC = 2AD sin r, AD = 2AB sin r sin i & t = AB cos r(8.18)
where µ=refractive index of the quartz plate (= 1.457), n=order number, t=thickness of the plate
(= 4.04mm), i=emerging angle of the beam & r=the reflection angle. Since the relationship between
i and r is:
sin i = µ sin r. (8.19)
Equation (8.17) becomes:
2µAB − 2AB sin r sin i = 2AB(µ − µ sin2 r) = 2ABµ cos2 r = 2µt cos r = nλ
or in terms of the angle i:
1
2t(µ2 − sin2 i) 2 = nλ (8.20)
taking the square of both sides:
4t2 (µ2 − sin2 i) = n2 λ2 . (8.21)
Differentiating with respect to i gives:
−nλ2
δi = δn. (8.22)
2t2 sin 2i
The change in angle ∆i corresponding to a change of a single order (δn = 1) is given by:
1
−nλ2 −λ(µ2 − sin2 i) 2
∆i = 2 = . (8.23)
2t sin 2i 2t2 sin 2i
Since sin2 i ≈ 1, then
1
−λ(µ2 − 1) 2
∆i = (8.24)
t sin 2i
The dispersion, which is the rate of i with λ is found by differentiating equation (8.19) with respect to
λ;

2 2 dµ di
n λ = 2t 2µ − sin2 i (8.25)
dλ dλ
di 2λµ dµ
dλ
− 2(µ2 − sin2 i)
= . (8.26)
dλ λ sin 2i
The wavelength range between the successive orders is given by equating δi with ∆i which gives ∆i,
the order separation as:
1
λ2 (µ2 − 1) 2
∆λ = (8.27)
2t µ2 − 1 − µλ dµ

dλ
dµ
by ignoring the dλ
, equation (42.24) becomes
1
λ2 (µ2 − 1) 2
∆λ = . (8.28)
2t(µ2 − 1)
In the experiment, spectral lines are always observed in several interference levels at the same time.
Instead of one line, a whole system of lines appear (figure 8.4).
Figure 8.5: Interference lines observed in the presence of a magnetic field and without a magnetic field
From the above figure, the distance, δa,of the split line from the original interference line is
proportional to ∆a, which is the distance between two interference lines without a magnetic field. If
the change in λ is small (e.g. δλ), the corresponding displacement also decreases:
δa
∆λ = ∆λ (8.29)
∆a
with equation (8.27)
1
δa λ2 (µ2 − 1) 2
∆λ = . (8.30)
∆a 2t(µ2 − 1)
Since ν = λc , the frequency shift is ∆ν = ± λc2 ∆λ,together with equation (8.29), the frequency shift
turns out to be
p
cδa µ2 − 1
∆ν = . (8.31)
∆a µ1 − 1
By equating (relating) equation (42.30) with (8.16), the me value can be found as
p
e 4πcδa µ2 − 1
= . (8.32)
m 2tB(µ2 − 1)
Table 8.2: Magnetic field strength associated with a current passing through the coils
I(A) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
B(T) 0.050 0.105 0.163 0.223 0.279 0.336 0.421 0.445 0.494
1. Turn the cadmium lamp on. It takes about 5 minutes for the red Cd line to be emitted sufficiently
strong.
Figure 8.6: (a) Picture of the setup and (b) the schematic diagram of the Zeeman Effect experiment
2. For pre-adjustment, remove the eyepiece. Turn the whole optical system in a clock-wise direction
until a fine straight pattern can be seen on the Lummer-Gehrcke plate.
3. Adjust the height of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate until it reaches the Cd lamp (screw it to the base
of the column of the optical system).
4. Set the position of the incident window relative to the Lummer-Gehrcke plate; to do this, loosen
the covering cup, either lift or lower these and then tighten the knurled screws again.
5. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until a bright and clear line pattern is seen above and underneath the Lummer-
Gehrcke plate.
6. Put the eyepiece back in, and by moving the eyepiece, focus the spectral line. Focus the graticule
by turning the eyepiece.
7. To measure the line pattern and the distance, ∆a, between them in the absence of a magnetic
field, align the cross-hair in the eyepiece with any line you have chosen the micrometer clockwork
to an initial reference value.
8. By turning the screw at the bottom of the clockwork, align the cross in the eyepiece with the next
line and then read the distance, ∆a, on the micrometer clockwork relative to the reference value.
Record it in table 8.2.
9. Turn on the power supply unit of the electromagnet in order to observe the Zeeman splitting of
the lines. Set the coil current of the magnet to 19 A, observe the splitting of the lines into three
components. Before turning on the magnetic current, make sure that the poles of the magnet are
firmly screwed on. When the magnetic field is turned on, do not come close to the spectral lamp
with ferromagnetic objects. Treat the Lummer-Gehrcke plate very carefully so that the smooth
surface of 1/100 mm remains intact.
10. Take one triplet that you can see clearly, but do not lose the position of that triplet until the
8.5 Pre-Laboratory Assignment – 70 –
experiment is over. Since the lines generated by the Lummer-Gehrcke plate are not equidistant
(figure 8.4), ∆a and δa distances must be measured on the same triplet.
11. Align the cross in the eyepiece with the lower component of the triplet, and then take the
micrometer clockwork position as a reference point. By going through the upper component of
the triplet, measure the distance 2δa relative to the reference point obtained before. Record it in
table 8.2.
12. Repeat step 11 to obtain, 2δa, for lower values of the current passing through the coil. And then,
tabulate your data on table 8.2. It will be necessary to observe the decrease in splitting, since the
magnetic field strength is directly proportional to the splitting distance, or in other words, to the
frequency shift.
Pre-Laboratory Assignment
1. Why does the magnetic field force the magnetic dipoles of atoms to precess, instead of aligning
with the field?
2. In which cases does the classical description fail? Which observations cannot be explained?
3. Why do completely filled shells not contribute to the total angular momentum J of an atom?
4. Why is a normal Zeeman effect expected for the transition 51 D2 ←→ 51 P1 ?
5. Why is the general Zeeman effect also known as ‘anomalous’ Zeeman effect?
Calculations
e
1. Using the slope of the best line, find the ratio m
.
2. Using the slopes of the worst and best lines, calculate your error in (e/m).
3. Obtain the magnetic field strengths from the corresponding currents passing through the magnet
by interpolating the data in table 8.1.
Laboratory Report
Table 8.3: Splitting of a spectral line under various magnetic field strengths
I (A) B (T) 2δa (×10−2 mm) δa (×10−2 mm) δa
∆a
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
Sample Calculations
1. Spacing between successive lines without a magnetic field ∆a = mm
2. The slope of the best line=
3. The slope of the worst line=
4. Spacing between 2 extreme lines 2δa =
5. Spacing between successive lines δa =
e
6. m
=
e

7. ∆ m
=
|Experimental value−true value|
8. % Error= true value
× 100% =
Questions
1. What is the most important general statement you can make after performing this experiment?
2. What do you think the spectral lines may correspond to?
3. In the measurement of the splitting, you measured 2δa instead of δa. Does this make any sense?
Why?
Experiment Nine: Photoelectric Effect
Objectives
♠ To verify that the light is composed of photons
♠ To determine the work function and the stopping potential of the cathode of the phototube.
♠ To demonstrate the particle behaviour of light and determine Plank’s constant h.
Equipments
♣ Vacuum phototube
♣ Wavelength of color filter: 700 nm, 635 nm, 540 nm, 460 nm
♣ Accelerator voltage
♣ Digital current and volt meters
♣ Light source
♣ Power supply: 220 v
Theory
In photoelectric emission, light strikes a material, causing electrons to be emitted. The classical
wave model predicted that as the intensity of incident light was increased, the amplitude and thus the
energy of the wave would increase. This would then cause more energetic photoelectrons to be emitted.
The new quantum model, however, predicted that higher frequency light would produce higher energy
photoelectrons, independent of intensity, while increased intensity would only increase the number
of electrons emitted (or photoelectric current). In the early 1900s several investigators found that the
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons was dependent on the wavelength, or frequency, and independent
of intensity, while the magnitude of the photoelectric current, or number of electrons was dependent
on the intensity as predicted by the quantum model. Einstein applied Plank’s theory and explained the
photoelectric effect in terms of the quantum model using his famous equation for which he received the
Nobel prize in 1921:
E = hν = KEmax + Wo (9.1)
where KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons; and Wo is the energy
needed to remove them from the surface of the material (the work function). E is the energy supplied
by the quantum of light known as a photon.

A light photon with energy hν is incident upon an electron in the cathode of a vacuum tube. The electron
uses a minimum W o of its energy to escape the cathode, leaving it with a maximum energy of KE
max in the form of kinetic energy. Normally the emitted electrons reach the anode of the tube, and can
be measured as a photoelectric current. However, by applying a reverse potential V between the anode
and the cathode, the photoelectric current can be stopped. KEmax can be determined by measuring the
minimum reverse potential needed to stop the photoelectrons and reduce the photoelectric current to
zero. Relating kinetic energy to stopping potential gives the equation:
KEmax = eV (9.2)
Therefore, using Einstein’s equation, hν = eV + Wo , When solved for V , the equation becomes:
V= (h/e)ν − (Wo /e).
Figure 9.1:
If we plot V versus ν for different frequencies of light, the graph will look like figure 9.2. The V
intercept is equal to, Wo /e and the slope is h/e. Coupling our experimental determination of the ratio
h/e with the accepted value for e, 1.602 × 10−19 coulombs, we can determine Plank;s constant, h. The
Mercury Vapor Light Source provides approximately 3,000 lumens of light in the mercury spectrum.
The 100 watt light source comes ready to use, with a built-in power supply. Cooling fins and air vents
on the sturdy aluminium case ensure cool, safe operation. In addition, rails on the front and rear of the
case can be used for mounting standard 2-inch by 2-inch filters, so that monochromatic light can be
obtained. Note: For maximum life of the mercury vapour lamp:
1. Always operate the light source in its upright position.
2. If you are going to use the light source more than once during the day, leave it on. Lamp wear
results more from turning the light source on and off than from steady operation.
1. One SRS power supply is adjust for +3V , +18V , and −18V . Note that one ground connection
between the power supply and apparatus is sufficient. The second ground connection is redundant.
A single supply is given that produces all these voltages. Check everything before running the
experiment.
2. The tungsten halogen lamp should be placed 4 inches above the top of the instrument where the
entracne aperture is. A filter is placed on the aperture.
The filters must be stored in their individual boxes and not left unprotected on the table. They
break easily if dropped.
3. Plug one of the wavelength color filters, in objective tube, turn the current multiplier knob to
‘X0.01’ or ‘X0.1’, accelerate voltage knob to 20 v accelerate voltage direction ‘+’, light intensity
adjuster knob to be middle range, trim the accelerate voltage adjuster, make the photoelectric
current increase gradually and be saturated at last.
Part A: The wave model of light versus the quantum model

1. Adjust the h/e Apparatus so that only one of the spectral colors falls upon the opening of the
mask of the photodiode. If you select the green or yellow spectral line, place the corresponding
colored. filter over the White Reflective Mask on the h/e Apparatus.
2. Place the Variable Transmission Filter in front of the White Reflective Mask (and over the colored
filter, if one is used) so that the light passes through the section marked 100% and reaches the
photodiode. Record the DVM voltage reading in the table below. Press the instrument discharge
button, release it, and observe approximately how much time is required to return to the recorded
voltage.
Figure 9.2: Full setup for photoelectric effect experiment
3. Move the Variable Transmission Filter so that the next section is directly in front of the incoming
light. Record the new DVM reading, and approximate time to recharge after the discharge button
has been pressed and released.
4. Repeat Step 3 until you have tested all five sections of the filter.
5. Repeat the procedure using a second color from the spectrum.
6. You can easily see five colors in the mercury light spectrum. Adjust the h/e Apparatus so that
only one of the yellow colored bands falls upon the opening, of the mask of the photodiode. Place
the yellow colored filter over the White Reflective Mask on the h/e Apparatus.
7. Record the DVM voltage reading (stopping potential) in the table below.
8. Repeat the process for each color in the spectrum. Be sure to use the green filter when measuring
the green spectrum. Note: While the impedance of the zero gain amplifier is very high (↑ 1013 )
is not infinite and some charge leaks off. Thus charging the apparatus is analogous to filling a
bath tub with different water flow rates while the drain is partly open.
Part B: The relationship between energy, wavelength and frequency

1. You can see five colors in two orders of the mercury light spectrum. Adjust the h/e Apparatus
carefully so that only one color from the first order (the brightest order) falls on the opening of
the mask of the photodiode.
2. For each color in the first order, measure the stopping potential with the DVM and record that
measurement in the table below. Use the yellow and green colored filters on the Reflective Mask
of the h/e Apparatus when you measure the yellow and green spectral lines.
3. Move to the second order and repeat the process. Record your results in the data tabl.
Calculations
Part A
1. Describe the effect that passing different amounts of the same colored light through the Vari-
able Transmission Filter has on the stopping potential and thus the maximum energy of the
photoelectrons, as well as the charging time after pressing the discharge button.
2. Describe the effect that different colors of light had on the stopping potential and thus the
maximum energy of the photoelectrons.
3. Defend whether this experiment supports a wave or a quantum model of light based on your lab
results. Explain why there is a slight drop in the measured stopping potential as the light intensity
is decreased.
Part B
1. Determine the wavelength and frequency of each spectral line.
2. Determine the slope and y-intercept. Interpret the results in terms of the h/e ratio and the Wo /e
ratio. Calculate h and Wo .
3. Report your values and discuss your results with an interpretation based on a quantum model for
light.
Laboratory Report
Table 9.1: Data report

Color # 1 % Transmission Stopping potential Approx. charge Wo (eV)
V(V) time (s)
100
80
60
40
20
Color # 2 % Transmission Stopping potential Approx. charge Wo (eV)
V(V) time (s)
100
80
60
40
20
Table 9.2: Data report

Light color Stopping potential (V) Work function (eV)
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Ultraviolet
Sample Calculations
1. For each recorded data; work function Wo =
V Wo
2. h/e = ν
+ eν
=
eV
3. Plank’s constant h = ν
+ Wνo =
|Result−T rue value|
4. % dif f erence = T rue value
× 100% =
Questions
1. What is the most important statement you can made from the results of your experiment?
2. Even if the bias voltage is zero, you can still measure a photo-current. Explain why?
3. When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, why doesn’t the current immediately rise
to its saturation value? What happens to electrons which do not reach the anode?
Table 9.3: Calculation table

Yellow: λ = ....nm Green: λ = ....nm Blue: λ = ....nm Violet: λ = ....nm UV: λ = ....nm
V (V) I (A) V (V) I (A) V (V) I (A) V (V) I (A) V (V) I (A)
4. What is the relation between the number of ejected electrons and stopping potential?
5. What will happen when the value of Wo be: < 0, = 0 or > 0? At which value of Wo will the
ejection of electrons started?
Virtual Nuclear laboratory
Introduction
Nuclear radiation techniques have become powerful testing tools in many disciplines including
Science, engineering and medicine. Nuclear physics lab is an essential part of the education experience.
Therefore, it is very important that students, trainees and specialists are properly educated in this field.
The associated expense, time, space and maintenance are major difficulties to make the teaching of this
course very effective. Such labs also require highly skilled technicians to run and maintain its equip-
ment. Although many universities have well-organized laboratories in nuclear physics but experiments
installed in these laboratories are not commonly accessible. Because of some misuse of radioactive
sources and the fear of losing radioactive sources, the nuclear national regulatory in some countries have
imposed restrictions in importing certain radioactive sources. This has created additional difficulties
for institutions to have the radioactive sources they require.
Nuclear and radiation physics courses are compulsory courses in all physics departments. In Saudi
Arabia, some new universities and colleges have lack in the facilities and licensure needed to offer a
nuclear lab. Ideally, students are required to perform about eight to ten experiments in the nuclear and
radiation lab. Many diverse concepts are covered in these experiments. It is always a challenge for
instructors to cover these concepts in one semester and at the same time, it is always very difficult for
students to grasp the concept to the required level of understanding. The amount of work required and
limited time available to perform a full experiment is always problematic. In addition, many female
students are afraid of performing nuclear experiments because of the misconception of the radiation
hazards that they may be exposed to. Expanding the nuclear and radiation laboratory to cover advanced
experiments and projects would therefore be impractical.
The available advanced educational technologies, powered by the recent advances in the Internet,
provide an opportunity to present the material of nuclear and radiation laboratory in a new way where
many difficult concepts can be made more tangible and easy to understand. This should have a huge
impact on students? level of comprehension whether the virtual lab is used as a standalone course or
as a supportive material for the traditional lab.
After learning most of the concepts in nuclear and radiation courses, usually, students have to prac-
tice a great deal on different problems to master these concepts and their applications in new different
10.2 Simulation – 79 –
settings. This is an essential part of the learning process, not only for passing the examinations but also
for applying these concepts in innovative ways in the students? future fields. Usually the lectures or
recitations do not offer enough of this kind of practice. A virtual lab, on the other hand, can be designed
to provide enough practice and conduct the experiment and facilitate the process of supervising many
students who do their share on their own paces.
A virtual lab (sometimes is labeled as simulation-based lab) can be designed to provide ample
opportunities for students to learn from their mistakes without the embarrassment of doing it in the
traditional lab. Good communications and feedback with instructors and among students themselves
also can be available. This should encourage more students to have an active role in the learning process.
Another important aspect of the virtual nuclear lab, if designed carefully, is that it does not allow
students to jump to a new material before mastering the old material. This is especially important in
nuclear science in which many concepts are built on each other. Making sure that the knowledge base
for students is solid before introducing new material because this is usually very difficult to accomplish
in a traditional class setting. Also, if it is used effectively, the online technologies should reduce the
burden of managing the affairs of a large number of students.
Simulation
A simulation is an imitation of a situation or process that can be used to provide a visual ex-
planation. The two simulation systems (PhET simulations and Gizmos Activities) are well known in
Physics. But PhET simulations within classroom in order to increases the students? understanding
of the science concepts is better. ?The Physics Education Technology (PhET) project creates useful
simulations for teaching and learning physics and makes them freely available from the PhET website.
The simulations (sims) are animated, interactive, and game-like environments in which students learn
through exploration. In these sims, we emphasize the connections between real-life phenomena and the
underlying science and seek to make the visual and conceptual models of expert physicists accessible
to students. “PhET sims can help: introduce a new topic, build concepts or skills, reinforce ideas, and
provide final review and reflection. Sims are unique in the way they can blur the boundaries between
lecture, homework, in-class activities, and laboratory, because one sim can be used in similar ways
in all of these. They also can provide a common visualization between students and teacher that can
facilitate all communication and instruction".
Virtual laboratories provide simulated versions of traditional laboratories referring to a learner-

centered approach in which the learner is provided with objects that are virtual representations of real
10.3 Guideline and designing of PhET Simulation – 80 –
objects used in traditional laboratories. Virtual laboratories may contribute to teaching and learning
processes by giving students the opportunity to learn by doing, providing them with intriguing and
enjoyable activities urging them to discover, and guaranteeing an active classroom interaction by means
of discussions and debates. The use of virtual laboratories can offer students the opportunity to in-
vestigate situations that cannot be tested in real time by speeding up or slowing down time. They
are also beneficial to study advanced concepts such as relativity and experimentation that would not
be studied or realized in traditional laboratory settings. Virtual laboratories offer a visual context for
numerous abstract concepts and provide notable visualization and graphical analysis abilities. Virtual
lab instruments are used to save space and time. They can be more easily assembled and more properly
used than real laboratory equipment, and therefore are more time efficient than traditional hands-on
laboratories. They may resolve the problem of crowded groups and help the non-visual or auditory
learners to interact with their learning environment. In addition, they are cost effective since up-to-date
lab equipment and supplies, in addition to their shortage, can have high operational cost in traditional
laboratories. Dangerous experiments can be safely conducted through virtual laboratories. Despite all
advantages, some researchers highlighted certain disadvantages such the lack of students? hands-on
approach, the lack of lab partner which may facilitate peer−learning.
PhET Simulation Physics Education Technology (PhET), are one example of the virtual laboratories0
software and was established by the University of Colorado that covered the curriculum of introductory
physics. All simulations are gratis, and can be accessed online or by downloading for off-line use. PhET
simulations create a highly-interactive atmosphere when it comes to user control, active feedback, and
use of multiple representations. The simulations are scientifically accurate, and offer highly illustrative,
dynamic representations of principles of physics. At the same time, these simulations play a role in
building links between students0 daily understanding of the real world and the underlying principles
of physics, by making clear the physical models. They also offer balanced challenges and embedded
puzzles that are achievable according to the level of student, thus promoting students0 inquiry.
Guideline and designing of PhET Simulation

The PhET simulations are specifically designed and tested to support student learning. However,
what students do with the sims is as important as the simulations themselves. PhET sims may be used
in many different types of activities but we believe the sims are most effective when integrated with
guided inquiry activities which encourage students to construct their own understanding. We suggest:
1. Define specific learning goals: The learning goals need to be specific and measurable. Many of
the sims are complex and students can become overwhelmed; align the lesson with your goals.
10.3 Guideline and designing of PhET Simulation – 81 –
2. Encourage students to use sense-making and reasoning: The activity should be geared towards
encouraging the student to operate in learning mode not performance mode. What can they
discover about the physics? What connections do they find? How does it make sense? How do
they explain what they discover?
3. Connect and build on students0 prior knowledge & understanding: Ask questions to elicit
their ideas. Guide students’ use of the sims to test their ideas and confirm their ideas or confront
any misconceptions. Provide ways for them to resolve their understanding.
4. Connect to and make sense of real-world experiences: Students will learn more if they can
see that the knowledge is relevant to their everyday life. The sims use images from everyday life,
but the lesson should explicitly help them relate to their lives. As you write the questions and
examples, consider their interests, age, gender, and ethnicity.
5. Design collaborative activities: The sims provide a common language for students to construct
their understanding together. More learning happens when they communicate their ideas and
reasoning to each other.
6. Give only minimal directions on sim use: The sims are designed and tested to encourage
students to explore and make-sense. Recipe-type directions can suppress their active thinking.
7. Require reasoning/sense-making in words and diagrams: The sims are designed to help
students develop and test their understanding and reasoning about things. Lessons are most
effective when students are asked to explain their reasoning in a variety of ways.
8. Help students monitor their understanding: Provide opportunities for students to check their
own understanding. One way is to ask them to predict something based on their new knowledge
and then check the prediction with the simulation.
10.4 Ways to Run the free Physics Education Technology (PhET) simulation – 82 –
Ways to Run the free Physics Education Technology (PhET)

simulation
Table 10.1: The three Ways to run the free PhET simulations.
PhET provides fun, interactive, research-based simulations of physical phenomena for free. We
believe that our research-based approach- incorporating findings from prior research and our own
testing- enables students to make connections between real-life phenomena and the underlying science,
deepening their understanding and appreciation of the physical world.
To help students visually comprehend concepts, PhET simulations animate what is invisible to
the eye through the use of graphics and intuitive controls such as click-and-drag manipulation, sliders
and radio buttons. In order to further encourage quantitative exploration, the simulations also offer
10.4 Ways to Run the free Physics Education Technology (PhET) simulation – 83 –
measurement instruments including rulers, stop-watches, voltmeters and thermometers. As the user
manipulates these interactive tools, responses are immediately animated thus effectively illustrating
cause-and-effect relationships as well as multiple linked representations (motion of the objects, graphs,
number readouts, etc).
To ensure educational effectiveness and usability, all of the simulations are extensively tested and
evaluated. These tests include student interviews in addition to actual utilization of the simulations
in a variety of settings, including lectures, group work, homework and lab work. Our rating system
indicates what level of testing has been completed on each simulation.
All PhET simulations are freely available from the PhET website and are easy to use and incorporate
into the classroom. They are written in Java and Flash, and can be run using a standard web browser as
long as Flash and Java are installed.
Experiment One: Photoelectric Effect
Objectives:
> To determine the limit frequency of the metal.
To get the accelerate voltage−photoelectric current characteristic curves of the phototube at
different frequencies of the incident light.
> To observe the relationship between the saturation current and intensity of the incident light.
> To determine the stopping potential at different wavelengths of light.
> To find the minimum energy required to release electron (work function of the metal).
> To visualize and describe the photoelectric effect experiment.
> To predict the results of experiments of the photoelectric effect: e.g. how changing the intensity
of light will affect the current and the energy of electrons, how changing the wavelength of light
will affect the current and the energy of electrons, how changing the voltage of light will affect
the current and the energy of electrons, how changing the material of the target will affect the
current and the energy of electrons.
> To describe how these results, lead to the photon model of light: e.g. argue that only a photon
model of light can explain why, when light is shining on the metal but there is no current,
increasing the frequency will lead to a current, but increasing the intensity of light or the voltage
between the plates.
Apparatus:
♣ Computer
♣ Vacuum phototube
♣ Wavelength of color filter: 700nm, 635nm, 540nm, 460nm
♣ Accelerate voltage
♣ Current and voltage meter
♣ Light source
♣ Power supply: 220 V
11.3 Theory: – 85 –
Theory:
This important experiment, which provided the first convincing experimental verification of the
quantum theory, was suggested by Einstein in 1905. He was later awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for
his theory. The actual phenomenon of photoemission of electrons from metals was observed by Hertz
in 1887. Lenard in 1900 positively identified the liberated particles as electrons (discovered 3 years
earlier by Thomson) and studied the energies and numbers (i.e. the current) of the photoelectrons as a
function of the wavelength of the incident light and its intensity as best as he could with the equipment
available.
(a) (b)
Figure 11.1: (a) Ejection of photo electron from metal surface. (b) Model of virtual lab for photoelectric effect.
Under the right circumstances light can be used to push electrons, freeing them from the surface
of a solid. This process is called the photoelectric effect (or photoelectric emission or photoemission),
a material that can exhibit this phenomenon is said to be photo emissive, and the ejected electrons
are called photoelectrons; but there is nothing that would distinguish them from other electrons. All
electrons are identical to one another in mass, charge, spin, and magnetic moment.
The photocathode is irradiated by light of approximately only one wavelength or color, and a voltage
is applied between the anode and cathode so that it opposes the energy of the emitted photoelectrons.
The electrical potential energy gained (or kinetic energy lost) is eV where e is the charge of the electron
and V is the potential difference or voltage between the anode and cathode. The voltage required to
“just" stop the current flow Vs will thus be proportional to the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron.
KEmax = eVs . (11.1)
Einstein postulated that light consists of a stream of discrete bundles of energy, called photons. He
suggested that each photon possesses an energy, E, given by
E = hν = φ + KEmax (11.2)
11.4 Procedures: – 86 –
Figure 11.2: The stopping potential (Vs ).
where h is Planck0 s constant, ν is the frequency of the light, λ is the wavelength of the light, and c is
the velocity of light in vacuum. Following this assumption, the photoelectric effect is then the result of
each photon transferring its entire energy to an electron in the metal. Some of the energy is used to tear
the electron loose from the metal (known as the work function, while any excess is used to give kinetic
energy (motion) to the ejected electron. Using our previous results for the maximum kinetic energy
and accounting for the energies.
hc
eVs =−φ (11.3)
λ
where φ is the work function and varies from material to material.
Procedures:
1. Observe the structure of the phototube: Turn of the power, loose the block screws and then
open the receiving dark box carefully, and observe the structure of the phototube. Turn the current
multiplier knob to ‘x1 ’ position, plug the black piece in the objective tube, switch on the power,
and preheat five minutes before experiment.
2. Limit frequency of metal (red limit): Plug the 700nm color filter in objective tube, observe
the change of current meter when rotate the accelerate voltage adjustor knob clock wise to reach
the max or hold the max accelerate voltage but rotate the light intensity adjustor knob to reach
the brightest at the same time, no changes occur under these two conditions. Replace the 700
nm color filter by a 635nm, redo the above experiments, the finger of the current meter distinct
changed. So, we can get the result: there presence a limit frequency of metal (red limit), only the
frequency of incidence light more than red limit can the photoelectron of metal escaped.
3. Fast response of photoelectric effect: Turn the current multiplier knob to ?X0.01?or ‘X0.1 ’,
accelerate voltage knob to ‘20 V’, accelerate voltage direction knob to ‘+’, light intensity adjustor
knob to middle range, remove black piece or color filter, rotate the accelerate voltage adjustor
knob clock wise to make the finger of the current meter stay a position which can be prone to
observe. Cover the objective tube by hand or black piece, the finger of the current meter go
down to zero immediately and as soon as you remove hand or black piece, photoelectric current
produced at once. The results explain the fast response of photoelectric effect.
4. Voltage−current characteristic curve of phototube: Plug one of 635nm,540nm,460nm color
filter in objective tube, turn the current multiplier knob to ‘X0.01’or ‘X0.1’, accelerate voltage
knob to ‘20 V’ accelerate voltage direction to ‘+’, light intensity adjustor knob to middle range,
trim the accelerate voltage adjustor, make the photoelectric current increase gradually and be
saturation at last. Take down the accelerate voltage and the corresponding photoelectric current
while the accelerate voltage is varied and plot the phototube?s voltage- current characteristic
curve at some incident frequency. With the same method, do the experiment with other filters;
one can get different curves at different incident frequency.
5. Relationship b/n saturation current and the intensity of incidence light: Find the saturation
photoelectric current, hold the accelerate voltage, increase the light intensity, the saturation
photoelectric current will increase also. That is to say saturation photoelectric current is directly
proportional to light intensity.
6. How to determine the stopping potential: Plug one of 635nm, 540 nm, 460nm color filter in
objective tube, turn the current multiplier knob to ‘X0.001’, accelerate voltage knob to ‘2 V’,
accelerate voltage direction knob to ‘−’, light intensity adjustor knob to the strongest, trim the
accelerate voltage adjustor, make the photoelectric current decrease gradually and return to zero
at last, take down the accelerate voltage value, it is the so called stopping potential. With the
same method, do the experiment with other filters; one can get different potential at different
filter. You will find the stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency of incidence
light.
Data collection for photoelectric effect
Table 11.1: Current on voltage at intensity=100%, taget=zinc and wavelength=235 nm.

Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Current (µA)
Voltage (V) -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
11.5 Questions: – 88 –
Table 11.2: Current on intensity at voltage=8.00v, taget=zinc and wavelength (λ)=235 nm.
Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Current (µA)
Intensity (%) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Table 11.3: Voltage on intensity at a given frequency or wave length (λ)=235 nm, target=zinc.
Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Voltage (V)
Intensity (%) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Table 11.4: Current on voltage at intensity=100%, taget=zinc.

Trails 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Current (µA)
Voltage (V)
wavelenght (λ) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Table 11.5: (I) Photoelectric current (I)−Accelerate voltage (V) for 635 nm, 540 nm and 460nm.
V in V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I in µA
Table 11.6: (II) Stopping Potential (Vs ) Wavelength (λ).

Color filter (λ) 635 nm 540 nm 460 nm
Stopping potential (Vs )
Data recording:
Questions:
1. What is the limit frequency of the metal in this experiment?
2. Plot the graph of each table and discuss.
3. What is the relationship between (a) the photoelectric current and the intensity of the incident
light and (b) the saturation photoelectric current and the intensity of the incident light?
4. Find the minimum energy required to release electron (work function of the metal).
5. What is the relationship between Vs and λ?
Experiment Two: Alpha Decay
Objectives:
> To explain alpha radiation in terms of alpha particles tunneling out of the nucleus.
> To express the nuclear decay equation of polonium-211 nuclide.
> To explain the concept of half−life.
> To determine mean time of polonium−211.
Apparatus:
♣ PhET simulation, Bucket of Polonium nucleus, neutron, proton, alpha particle and computer.
Theory:
As it has been pointed out in the last section one of the ways in which nuclides decay is by
emitting α−particles. The α−particles are generally emitted by very heavy nuclei containing to many
nucleons to remain stable. The emission of such a nucleon cluster as a whole rather than the emission
of single nucleon is energetically more advantageous because of the particularly high binding energy
of alpha-particles. Alpha decay involves the spontaneous emission of an alpha particle from an atomic
nucleus. The alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and is the same species as the
nucleus of a helium (2 H) atom. The parent nucleus (Z,A) is transformed as
A
ZY −→ A−4
Z−2 X + α + Qα
where Qα is the total energy released in the reaction known as disintegration energy.
In a magnetic spectrograph a magnetic field is used to make the α-particles move in a circular path. By
measuring the radius of the circular path, the velocity of the α-particles and hence their kinetic energy
is determined.
In their circular path, the α-particles satisfy the relation
Mα v 2 q
= Hqv −→ v = Hr
r Mα
1 2 1 q2 2 2
E = Mα v = H r (12.1)
2 2 Mα
12.3 Theory: – 90 –
Figure 12.1: The four radioactive decay series of the heavy elements. Solid lines indicate naturally occurring
decays, while dashed lines indicate decays from artificially produced radioactive isotopes
In spontaneous α − decay reaction given by the following as

My vy = Mα vα conservation of momentum
1 1
Qα = My vy2 + Mα vα2 − 0 conservation of KE
2 2
2
1 Mα vα 1 2 1 2 Mα
Qα = My + Mα vα = Mα vα +1
2 MY 2 2 My

1 2 4
= Mα vα +1
2 A−4
12.3 Theory: – 91 –

A
Qα = Kα (12.2)
A−4
Where Kα = 12 Mα vα2 is the kinetic energy of α − particles.
Since A is large Qα ≈ Kα = 12 Mα vα2 . i.e. the alpha particle carries away most of the disintegration
energy.
Theoretically, the α − particle emission process was first explained by Gamow and others as the
tunneling of the α − particle through the potential barrier of the nucleus. Alpha particles therefore
show a mono energetic energy spectrum. Since barrier transmission is independent of energy, most
α − sources are generally limited to the range ≈ 4 − 8M eV with the high energy sources having higher
transmission probability and thus shorter half life. As alpha-particles pass through matter, they lose
energy almost entirely by collisions. Bremsstrahlung is negligible while radiative loss may not always
be negligible. The number of collisions and the amount of energy loss in the α’s is subject to statistical
fluctuations and so all members of initially mono-energetic beam may not have identical ranges as they
pass through an absorber.
Figure 12.2: Path length of monoenergetic α from 210

84 P o in a cloud chamber
Alpha decay is simply the decomposition of a nucleus of an element into a new nuclei of a different
element and an alpha particle. The parent nucleus loses 2protons and 2neutrons.This will result in a
smaller nucleus, which is often the more stable arrangement. If we have a sample of N radioactive
nuclei, the probability for anyone them to decay at a given time independent of the stable of the other
elements in the sample S. The decay rate of a radioactive substance was found to decreases exponentially
with time.
dN number of nuclei decaying
A=− = λN = Ao e−λt Activity (disintegration rate) −→
dt time
(12.3)
where Ao = λNo is the initial activity of the material at time t=0. The SI unit of activity is Becquerel
(Bq). Curie (Ci ) is the most commonly used unit of activity.
1 Bq = 1 decay/s and 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq = 3.7 × 1010 decay/s.
In equation (12.1), the negative sign indicates that the number of radioactive nuclei are decreased
exponentially as the time increase.
The number of decays taking place in a given timeinterval is directly propertional to N(t).
dN
i.e − = λN
dt
by separating variables and then integrating, one obtains
Z N Z t
dN
− = λdt
No N 0
N (t) = No e−λt (12.4)

where equation (12.2) is exponential law of radioactive decay with λ is decaying constant Where, N(t)
is radioactive nuclei present after time t and No is the original number of nuclei at t=0.
No −λt 1
N.B: At half life time N(t)= 2
=No e . Thus,
2
ln2 0.693
t1 = = (12.5)
2 λ λ
where t 1 is half-life time (the time for half of the nuclei to decay). Note that the mean life time is the
2
reciprocal of the decay constant.
Procedures:
1. Use an on-line simulation from the University of Colorado PhET group to study alpha decay.
Link to the simulation http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/alpha-decay. Click “Run Now!".
2. Explore the interface: You can Pause the simulation and then use Step to incrementally analyze.
After the Polonium nucleus decays to Lead, click Reset to start over with a new Polonium nucleus.
3. Click the ‘Single Atom’ tab: Watch the Polonium-211 nucleus until it decays. Click ?Reset
Nucleus? and watch it again. Repeat this at least 10 more times. Inspect the Decay Time Chart
on the top of the screen. It displays the decay times of all the nuclei you observed. Do you
observe a pattern? Can you predict the decay time for the next nucleus?
12.5 Data collection: – 93 –
Figure 12.3: Alpha decay of a single nucleus.
4. Click the ‘Multiple Atoms’ tab: Quickly empty the Bucket of Polonium by rapidly clicking the
‘Add 10’ button until the bucket is empty. Observe the decay of the nuclei and inspect the Decay
Time Chart on the top of the screen. Click ‘Reset All Nuclei’. Do you observe the same pattern
on the Decay Time Chart as in your previous trial? Repeat this experiment a few times to be sure
of your answer. Describe any similarities and/or differences in pattern on the Decay Time Chart.
Figure 12.4: Alpha decay of a single nucclei.

12.5 Data collection: – 94 –
Trials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Decay time (year)
Data collection:
Questions:
1. Write the nuclear decay equation of polonium−211 nuclide
2. The half−life of the Polonium-211 nucleus is approximately 500 ms. The nucleus decays by
emitting an alpha particle. How does this alpha particle make it out of the nucleus? (Watch what
happens in the bottom-half of the display in “Single Atom" mode.)
3. Calculate the following parameters for polonium−211 nuclide.
i) mean time τ ii) half−life iii) decay constant λ iv) percentage error if the accepted half-life of
the Polonium-211 nuclide is 500 ms.
4. If we add 80 polonium-211 nuclei from the bucket in PHET simulation experiment for multiple
atoms, how many polonium-211 nuclei will remain at half life time?
5. After the Polonium-211 nucleus has decayed; a lead-207 nucleus is left behind. Why does
lead-207 not decay by emitting an alpha particle?
6. In "Single Atom" mode switch to a custom nucleus. What can you do in the bottom-half of the
display to build a nucleus with a half-life of a billion years?
7. The half-life of the Polonium-211 nucleus is approximately 500 ms. What do you observe in
"Multiple Atoms" mode?
8. If you would start out with 8000 Polonium-211 nuclei at t=0, approximately how many Polonium-
211 nuclei would you have left at t=2 s?
Experiment Three: Beta Decay
Objectives:
> To study the half-life of hydrogen-3, carbon-14, and a custom nuclide and the nature of their
β − −decay behavior.
> To compare the stability of hydrogen-3, carbon-14, and any custom nuclide by using PhET
simulation.
Apparatus:
♣ Computer, PhET simulation, hydrogen-3, carbon-14, and a custom nuclide.
Theory:
The portion of the radiation, emitted from radiatioactive source that was strongly deflected by
perpendicular magnetic field was termed as beta radiation. There are modes of beta radioactivity
namely negatron emission, orbital electron capture and positron emission. Negatron emission is much
more common than other decay process. Beta rays are easily distinguished from alpha particles by
their considerably greater range in matter. When a radio elements emits beta particle, the product has
the same mass number as the parent,. But its atomic number is greater by one unit. Similarly when a
positron is emitted the mass number is still unchanged but the atomic number if the product is now one
unit less that that of the parent. Then the ratio of neutrons to protons is low, another type of decay is
known as orbital electron capture process has been found to occur. In this process instead of a proton
being converted into a neutron with an emission of a positron, electrons are captured by the nucleus
from the first or any other quantum level, which combines immediately with a proton to form a neutron.
The product of this type would have the same number as its parent but its atomic number would be one
unit lower as in the case of positron emission.
How do we acquire this decay with the hypothesis that nuclei contain only neutrons and protons? A
solution is to imagine that the electrons are created at the time of emission similar to the photons from
excited atoms. The three modes of beta radioactivity can be shown by the following reactions and by
f igure 13.1. Another way in which nuclides decay radioactively is by the emission of β particles.
There are three types of beta decays.
A. Negatron (β − ) emission ⇒ n → p + β − + ν̄
13.3 Theory: – 96 –
Figure 13.1: Beta decay processes
Examples of nuclides that decay by the emission of β − - particles are: 27 50 130 209 237
12 M g, 20 Ca, 50 Sn, 80 Hg, 92 U ,
245
94 P u.
B. Positron (β + ) emission ⇒ p −→ n + β + + ν
Examples of nuclide which decay by the emission of β + particles are 84 B, 30 54 100 192
15 P , 27 Cu, 47 Ag, 80 Hg.
C. Electron capture (EC) ⇒ p + e− → n + ν

When unstable nuclide have a high p-value (proton number) the coulomb barrier tends to prevent the
emission of positron. However, transforming prtoton into a neutron is affected by the capture of orbital
electron by the nucleus. In other words, the neutron-proton ratio in the nucleus is equal to one ( np = 1
n
except 11 H) for stable nuclei. But for the unstable nuclei it is not true because of p
6= 1. During this
time, electron capture is increased the unstability of nuclei by transfer proton to neutron. Another way
is, when the γ-rays interact with the orbital electron (photoelectric effect), the electron goes to excited
state. During this time the ground state has vacancy of electron and so that it needs electron from its
neighbor shell and it takes electron in the process of electron capture and fill its free space (p + e−
n)
and increases the unstability of nuclei.
The ν is the antineutrino and ν is the neutrino. The neutrino a particle which has zero rest mass and
no charge like a photon. It does not interact much with matter and so it is difficult to detect. It was
first postulated that it is emitted during the emission of β + . Because there would not be conservation
of energy with out the emission of a particle of the mass of a neutrino just as with the emission of
α-particles the energy of the particles and the range of the particles are two quantities of importance
associated with β-decay.
Beta spectroscopy
The energies of β-rays emitted by radioactive substances are measured by means of a β-ray
spectrometer. The kinetic energies of the negatrons and positrons in beta decay cover a continuous
range from zero up to a maximum kinetic energy E0 corresponds closely to that expected from the exact
13.3 Theory: – 97 –
rest mass energies of the parent and daughter atoms. There is a possibility of the daughter nucleus being
created in an excited state, which might decay subsequently by γ-emission. Rutherford suggested that
part of radiation is absorbed by the outer electrons of the same atom and as a result of this secondary
β-ray electron are ejected. The electron is ejected with kinetic energy hν − EK , hν − EL , where
EK , EL are the binding energies of the electrons in the K, L,..., shells respectively and hν the energy
difference between the other two nuclear states. This process is called internal conversion by analogy
with the ordinary photoelectric conversion of the energy. In this way in addition to continuous primary
spectrum several sharp lines are sometimes seen on the plate at positions characteristics of the emitting
substance. These lines form a line spectrum, observed for many, but not for all β-emitters.
A typical β-ray spectrum is shown in the f igure 13.2. This type of spectrum shows that β-rays have
Figure 13.2: A typical β−ray spectrum
a maximum energy Emax below which there is a continuous spectrum with average energy usually less
than half the maximum. Every continuous β-spectrum has a definite maximum, the height and position
of which depend on the nucleus emitting the particles. There is also a definite upper limit or end point
of energy for β-particles emitted by the nucleus, which is different for different β-emitting nuclides.
Due to uncertainty of the measurements on the low energy particles, the shape of the curve at low
energy and is not known correctly. The maximum kinetic energy varies over a wide range throughout
the list of beta unstable nuclei smallest 18 KeV for tritium and largest 13 M eV for isotope B 12 .
β − -emission
The process of β − - emission can be expressed by the generalized equation
A −
ZX −→A
Z+1 Y + β + ν
Just as with α-particles, the velocity and thus the energy of β particles is measured by using a magnetic
field to make the β particle through a circular path. Basically the relation for the velocity is then the
same, except that, because the beta particles move with high velocity (≈ 0.99c). The mass of the β
particles is not taken to be constant. Thus qfrom the relation
2 Hqr Hqr Hq r 2
Hqv = mvr ⇒ v = m = rmoe = moee 1 − vc2 .
2
1− v2
c
From the measurement of r the velocity then is determined from this equation. From the velocity the
13.3 Theory: – 98 –
2
is given by E = (m − mo )c
energy
E = qmoev2 − moe c2 = moe c2 q 1
2
−1
1− 1− v2
c2 c
Where m = qmoe and mo = moe .
2
1− v2
c
Beta decay Q-Values

If the mass-energy conservation law is applied to β − decay where a nucleus of mass 1Z M to 1Z+1 M
one obtains:
1 2
ZMc = 1Z+1 M vβ2 + mo vo2 + Mν vν2 + Tβ + Tν + TM 1 + Tγ
= 1Z+1 M vβ2 + mo vo2 + (Tβ + Tν ) + Tγ
= 1Z+1 M vβ2 + mo vo2 + Emax + Tγ .
Add the mass of Z electrons in both sides of the above can be written in terms of atomic mass as
2
Z M vp = Z+1 M vβ2 + Emax + Tγ .
Beta minus (β − ), decay involves the emission of an electron and electron antineutrino:
A
ZX → A Z+1 Y + e− + νe .
The Q value for β − decay is given in terms of nuclear masses M and nuclear binding energies BV by
Q(β − ) = [M (A, Z)−M−1 (A, Z+1)−me ]c2 = [M (A, Z)−M (A, Z+1)]c2 = B(A, Z+1)−B(A, Z)+δnH
(13.1)
where me c2 = 0.511 MeV is the mass of the electron, M−1 (A, Z + 1) = M (A, Z + 1) − me is the
mass of the final nucleus with one electron missing, and δnH = δn c2 − δH c2 = 0.782M eV comes from
the mass difference between the neutron and the Hydrogen atom. In these expressions we assume that
the mass of the neutrino is zero and we ignore the electronic binding energy.
Beta plus (β + ), decay involves emission of a positron and electron neutrino:
A
ZX → A Z−1 Y + e+ + νe .
The Q value for β + decay is given in terms of nuclear masses M and nuclear binding energies BV by
Q(β + ) = [M (A, Z) − M+1 (A, Z − 1) − me ]c2 = [M (A, Z) − M (A, Z − 1) − 2me ]c2 (13.2)
In terms of the binding energies of the parent and daughter nuclide, the Q-value of (β + ) can be written
as
Q(β + ) = B(A, Z − 1) − B(A, Z) − 2me c2 − δnH (13.3)
Where M+1 (A, Z − 1) = M (A, Z − 1) + me is the mass of the final nucleus with one extra electron.
Another form of beta decay that competes with β + decay is electron capture (EC) in which one of the
atomic electrons is captured by the nucleus and an electron-neutrino is emitted:
A
ZX + e− → A Z−1 Y + νe .
13.3 Theory: – 99 –
The Q value for electron capture decay is given by

Q(EC) = [M (A, Z) − M (A, Z − 1)]c2 = B(A, Z − 1) − B(A, Z) − δnH (13.4)
Double beta decay

Nuclear double-beta decay takes place in situations where a nucleus is energetically stable to
single-beta decay but unstable to the simultaneous emission of two electrons (or two positrons). For
100 100
example, for the nuclei with atomic mass number A = 100, Mo → Ru double-beta decay may
occur.
There are two types of double-beta decay: the standard (2e, 2ν) type in which two neutrinos are emitted:
A
ZX → A Z+2 Y + 2e− + 2νe .
A
ZX → A Z−2 Y + 2e+ + 2νe .
and the (2e, 0ν) type in which no neutrinos are emitted:
A
ZX → A Z+2 Y + 2e−
Beta Ray Spectrum

Both positive and negative electrons (positrons and negatrons) are emitted spontaneously from
radioactive nuclei. This phenomenon is called beta-decay. The reverse process is the electron capture
where the nucleus absorbs one of its own orbital electrons. This also comes under β-decay.
Now, the β-particles ejected from a radioactive source possess a range of velocities and hence a range
of energies. The distribution or spread of these energies of β-particles is called the β-ray spectrum of
the given nuclide. This distribution can be studied experimentally by deflecting them in a magnetic
field. Such an arrangement is known as β-ray spectrometer and described below.
β-ray spectrometer: this apparatus, as conceived and used by Rutherford and Robinson, is shown
schematically in f igure 2.7. The source of β-rays, a thin wire coated with radioactive material is
placed at A under a slit S, in the same horizontal plane as that of the supported photographic plate
P on a lead block. The chamber housing these parts is highly evacuated. A uniform magnetic field
is maintained over the region and is at right angles to the plane of paper. Under its influence, the
β-particles emitted from A would describe circular tracks, to be received finally on the photographic
plate P .
Like alpha decay, in beta decay particles(radiations) are created inside the nucleus. There are 3
types of beta decays. These are: β − −decay, β + −decay and electron capture. But in this experiment,
we will focus on negatron decay. Negative or negatron beta decay (β − −decay). Characteristics of beta
decay are:
less ionizing than alphas due to decreased mass of negatrons.
Figure 13.3: Beta ray spectrometer
changes the identity of the nucleus but not the mass.

the Z number is increased due to the conversion of neutrons in to protons.
they are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
they can photo graphic plate & artificial radio activity.
Figure 13.4: Beta decay
Procedures:
1. Go to the PhET simulations at http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/ and choose “Chemistry",
“Quantum Phenomena", and Run the Beta Decay program.
2. Go to the “Single Atom" Tab. Hit the “Reset Nucleus" button. Observe the behavior of the
tritium (hydrogen-3) nucleus carefully. Repeat this several times.
3. Hit the “Clear Chart" button. We will now conduct an experiment to determine the average
half-life of hydrogen-3
4. Hit “Reset Nucleus" and record in the table below the time it takes for the hydrogen-3 nuclide to
decay.
5. Hit the “Single Atom" Tab and toggle the “Custom" button under “Choose Nucleus".
a. Conduct several experiments and observe the results of the decays.
Figure 13.5: the beta decay of single nucleus.
b. Adjust the half-life and conduct several additional decay experiments.

6. Go to the “Multiple Atom" Tab and conduct at least three experiments with custom nuclides, each
with different half-life. What general observation can you make about the number of remaining
original nuclides over a set amount of time and its half-life?
Figure 13.6: the beta decay of multiple nuclei.
Note that: Beta decay offers a route to nuclear stability when the neutron-to-proton ratio is high.
When the opposite is true, that is, there is a high proton-to-neutron ratio, two possible reactions,
13.5 Data Recording – 102 –
linked to energy parameters, may occur: a positron emission (β + emission) or an electron capture.
Data Recording
Trials Decay time (year) for Decay time (year) for

Hydrogen−3 Carbon−14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Repeat the experiment at least nine more times, recording the decay time in the table, above.
Questions:
1. Write the nuclear decay equation for hydrogen-3:
.
2. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 for carbon 14. The estimate for the average time of decay for carbon-14:
.
3. Write the nuclear decay equation for carbon-14:
.
4. Calculate the mean time τ of: A) carbon−14 B) Hydrogen−3.
5. Calculate the half-life of: A) carbon−14 B) hydrogen−3.
6. Calculate the decay constant λ of: A) carbon−14 B) hydrogen−3.
7. From your experiment result carbon−14 or hydrogen−3 is more stable? why?
Experiment Four: Nuclear Fission
Objectives:
> To describe the nuclear fission of Uranium−235 and Uranium−238.
> To compare the stability of Uranium−235 and Uranium−238 by using PhET simulation.
> To make nuclear weapon by using PhET Simulation.
> To show the energy graph in the nuclear reactor.
Apparatus:
♣ Computer, PhET Simulation, Fire gun, control rod adjustment, Uranium−235, Uranium−238,
containment vessel, neutron.
Theory:
We know that, all elements which have atomic numbers Z83 are naturally radioactive except
209
83 Bi which is the only element that is stable which is found in the range we already defined (i.e,
Z83).
Nuclear fission is the reaction by which a heavy nucleus (that is one with a high value of Z) is hit with a
small particle, as a result of which it splits into two (occasionally more) smaller nuclei. The incoming
particle must be able penetrate right into the center of the atom, down to the nucleus, which limits the
choice of particle to be used.
A particle with a negative charge (such as an electron) will be repelled by the electrons of the
target atom, and never get anywhere close to the nucleus.
A particle with a positive charge (such as a proton) will be able to pass through the electrons of
the target atom, but will be repelled by the protons in the nucleus.
A neutral particle with no charge (such as a neutron) will not be repelled by either the electrons
or the protons, and will make it all the way to the nucleus. Neutrons are the choice for inducing
the fission reaction that we use to make a nuclear power plant.
As an example of fission reaction, let us look at the fission of 235 1
92 U by a 0 n. The total atomic number is
92, which must also be the total atomic number of the products, and the total atomic mass is 236, which
must be the total atomic mass of the products. However within these constraints there are a variety
of possibilities. As a rule of thumb the products usually consist of two relatively large fragments, the
14.3 Theory: – 104 –
Figure 14.1: Nuclear fission processes
nuclei of two new atoms, and a number of small fragments. One of the possible reactions is
1 ∗
0n + 235 U → 236 140 94 1
92 U → 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 20 n.
Note that the two nuclei produced by the fission reaction don’t have to be Xe and Sr. In principle
any two nuclei can be produced, providing the total atomic number and the total atomic mass remain
unchanged.
A fission reaction such as the one above must produce energy. And to produce energy it must lose
mass. To calculate how much energy is produced we can perform the same calculation as we did for the
radioactive process, with the one exception that we now have to include a neutron in the initial mass;
for the reaction above the masses (in amu) are
Neutron Uranium Total Xe Sr 2 Neutrons Total
1.008665 235.0439 236.0526 139.9216 93.9154 2.0173 235.8543
Fission and 238 U

Naturally occurring Uranium contains two major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.3%) and uranium-235
(0.7%). As it turns out, the only isotope of uranium that undergoes in fission process is uranium-235.
When struck by a neutron a 235 U nucleus readily will split into two parts. The same is not true of a 238 U
nucleus. To see why, lets look at the fission process again, in a bit more detail. The first event is the
absorption of the neutron by the 235 U nucleus, which is then followed by the actual fission. Another,
nuclear fission equation is
235 ∗ −14
92 U + 10 n → 236
92 U after 10 seconds, the excited nuclide splits to different nuclei as;
236 ∗
92 U → 92 141 1
36 Kr + 56 Ba + 3( 0 n) + EN ERGY.
14.3 Theory: – 105 –
Fifty (50) possible sets of fission products (sum of atomic numbers= 92) 3 neutrons (in most fissions)
released for one 235 235
92 U each neutron can split another 92 U .
If a neutron strikes a 238 U nucleus it will also absorb the neutron, but the chances of fission are very
much smaller. For the most part the resulting 239 U nucleus holds together, although it is radioactive,
being a β − emitter with a half life of 23.5 minutes. The daughter nucleus is also radioactive and also a
β − emitter, with a half life of 2.4 days. We then have a three step process resulting in the formation of
plutonium as
1 −
0n + 238 239 239 239
92 U → 92 U ⇒ 92 U → 93 N p + β
239 −
theref ore, 93 N p → 239
94 P u + β .
The failure of 238 U to split when bombarded with a neutron is a problem for nuclear power plants, it
leads to a loss of neutrons. It does have its upside though, being the means by which we manufacture
plutonium, another isotope which will split. Plutonium is just as good (perhaps better) a fuel as 235 U
because, it decays to uranium-235 by emitting α particle.
Nuclear Chain Reactions

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in the first fission produce an
additional fission in at least one further uranium nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and
the process repeats. Chain reaction is possible, if amount of 235
92 U is sufficient (critical mass) then the
number of neutrons generated is high enough to result in a nuclear explosion.
Critical Mass
Although two to three neutrons are produced for every fission, not all of these neutrons are available
for continuing the fission reaction. At the point where the chain reaction can become self-sustaining
14.4 Procedures – 106 –
Figure 14.2: Nuclear Chain Reactions
(chain reactions=critical mass), this is referred to as critical mass.
Figure 14.3: Critical mass
Procedures
Some nuclear reactions do not occur spontaneously, but require external sources of energy, in the
form of “collisions" with outside particles. “Activation energy" has to be provided before a much larger
amount of “reaction energy" is released. Nuclear fission can be “activated" when a slow neutron collides
with a fissionable nucleus. You will use an on-line simulation from the University of Colorado PhET
group to explore nuclear fission. Link to the simulation http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/nuclear-
14.5 Questions: – 107 –
fission.
1. Click “Run Now!" or download and then open it. Open a Microsoft Word document to keep a
log of your procedures, results and discussions.
2. Part-1: Click the Fission: One Nucleus tab.
(a). Before the gun is fired, is the material stable?
(b). What type of "bullet" does the gun fire?
(c). What happens to the nucleus when it is hit?
Figure 14.4: Nuclear fission of a single nucleus.
3. Click the Chain Reaction tab.

(a). Add some uranium-238. Is uranium-238 ?fissionable?? How does firing the gun on a
uranium−238 nucleus change it? (Note you can aim the gun.)
(b). Reset the simulation and add ∼50 fissionable uranium−235 nuclei. Fire the gun. Describe
what happens and why it happens.
(c). Naturally occurring levels of the U-235 isotope are about 0.72%, with the majority being
U−238. Round the level up to 1% U235 (one atom of U235 and 99 atoms of U238 ). Use the
simulation to find out if naturally derived uranium is able to start a chain reaction,
(d). Use the simulation to find a minimum ratio of U235 to U238 that can start a chain reaction.
Compare your mixture to “weapons-grade" enriched uranium (about 80%−85% U235 ).
(e). Use the simulation to make a nuclear weapon. What conditions are needed? (Check the
box “containment vessel", and determine the level of enrichment needed.)
4. Click the Nuclear Reactor tab.
14.5 Questions: – 108 –
Figure 14.5: Nuclear fission of multiple nuclei.
Figure 14.6: Formation of nuclear bomb.
Questions:
1. What is needed to start the nuclear reactor?
2. What does adjust the control rods accomplish?
3. Without the control rods in position, what happens?
14.5 Questions: – 109 –
Figure 14.7: Nuclear reator

References
[1] Amol Patil (Ph.D) (2010). Nuclear Science Experiments with Digital Electronics. In Nuclear
Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology.
[2] Krane, K. S. (1988). Introductory Nuclear Physics. United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[3] Knoll, G. F. (2010). Radiation Detection and Measurements (4th ed.). United States: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
[4] Gilmore, G. (2008). Practical Gamma Ray Spectrometry (2th ed.). United States: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
[5] Bevington, P. R.; Robinson, D. K. (2003). Data Reduction and Error Analysis for Physical
Sciences (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
[6] Berger, M. J., Hubbell, J. H., Seltzer, S. M., Chang, J., Coursey, J. S., Sukumar, R., Zucker, D. S., &
Oslen, K. (2010), XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database (Version 1.5) [Online]. Available from
National Institute of Standards and Technology: http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/xcom/index.cfm.
[7] X-5 Monte Carlo Team (2003). MCNP−A general Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code
(Version 5) [Software]. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Available from http://mcnpx.lanl.gov/.
[8] National Nuclear Data Center at Brookhaven National Laboratory. NuDat 2.6. [Data Base].
Available from http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/.
[9] Firestone, R. B., Baglin, C. M., & Chu S. Y. F. (1999). Table of Isotopes (8th ed.). United States:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[10] CANBERRA. (2012). Model S574 LabSOCST M Calibration Software: Technical Reference
Manual. Meriden, CT.
[11] CANBERRA. (2012). Geometry Composer: User0 s Manual. Meriden, CT.
[12] CANBERRA. (2012). ProSpect Gamma Spectroscopy Software: User0 s Manual. Meriden, CT.
[13] CANBERRA. (2012). OspreyT M Universal Digital MCA Tube Base: User0 s Manual. Meriden,
CT.
[14] CANBERRA. (2011). LynxT M Digital Signal Analyzer: User0 s Manual. Meriden, CT.

Department of Physics Laboratory Manual For Nuclear Physics (Phys2052)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Physics Laboratory Manual For Nuclear Physics (Phys2052)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Physics

Nuclear Physics Laboratory Manual

Tadesse Abate−MSc. In Radiation Physics

Getnet Tesema−MSc. In Nuclear Physics

Sitotaw Eshete−MSc. In Quantum Optics

1 Experiment One: Specific Charge of Electron 1

2 Experiment Two: Photo Voltaic Energy Conversion 10

3 Experiment Three: Hall Effect 20

4 Experiment Four: Demonstration of X−Ray Diffraction 25

5 Experiment Five: Study of Geiger Muller Counter 34

6 Experiment Six: Statisics of Nuclear Counting 43

7 Experiment Seven: Absorptions of Beta and Gamma Rays 55

8 Experiment Eight: Zeeman Effect 62

9 Experiment Nine: Photoelectric Effect 72

10 Virtual Nuclear laboratory 78

11 Experiment One: Photoelectric Effect 84

12 Experiment Two: Alpha Decay 89

13 Experiment Three: Beta Decay 95

14 Experiment Four: Nuclear Fission 103

Experiment and Laboratory

Accuracy and Precision

Precision of a Set of Measurements

Mistakes and Personal Errors

Percentage Error and Percentage Difference

Mean and Standard Deviation

a symbol of ‘α’, is defined by

Linear least Square Fits

( ni=1 x2i ) ( ni=1 yi ) − ( ni=1 xi yi ) ( ni=1 xi )

Safety in the Laboratory

Purpose of Laboratory Notebook

Guidelines for Laboratory Notebook

General Lab Report Format

GENERAL LABORATORY INFORMATION

Data Taking Procedures

Reading Measuring Scales

Precautions with Radioactive Sources

Thomson’s Bar Magnet Method

Figure 1.1: Cathode ray tube

earth’s magnetic field.

Table 1.1: Measurement of deflection y

Table 1.2: Determination of time period

Table 1.3: Calculations table

Figure 2.1: Sunlight to electricity

The fuel is renewable and free.

Figure 2.2: How a traditional PV cell is made

Table 2.1: Effect of color (wavelength) on cell current

Table 2.2: Effect of shading on cell current

Table 2.3: Effect of shading on cell current-PV cells in series

Table 2.4: Effect of shading on cell current-PV cells in parallel

Table 2.5: Effect of tilt angle on cell current

Table 2.6: Effect of temperature on cell voltage

Table 2.7: Effect of distance on cell current

Figure 3.1: Hall effect experiment (for +ve charge carriers).

~ = Ey ŷ along the y-direction. Force due to this electric

1. Keep the poles of the electromagnet apart by a distance of around 20 mm.

Table 3.1: Hall voltage VH as a function of Hall current IH , for B = 2 KG

Table 3.2: Hall voltage VH as a function of Hall current IH , for B = 2 KG

Table 3.3: Hall voltage VH as a function of Hall current IH , for B = 3 KG

Figure 4.1: Diffraction angle

Figure 4.2: Lattice constant a

Figure 4.3: Path difference

summarized by Bragg’s Law: