PDHPE PRELIMINARY STUDY NOTES

2019
Definition of health
- WHO: ​State of complete physical, mental, and social well being, and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Factor leading to perceptions of Health

- Social construct → society influence on an individual’s perception of health
- Our beliefs about our capacity to achieve good health
- Our environment
- Our health behaviours and lifestyle
- Our past level of health
- Messages about health conveyed by family, peers and the media
- The value we place on the importance of striving for and maintaining a
positive state of well-being.

Definition of social determinants

- WHO:​ ​The conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age.

Socioeconomic Education, Income, Employment

Sociocultural Family, Peers, Media, Religion, Culture

Environmental Geographical location, political

environment, social environment and
access to information and technology

Individual Knowledge, Skills, Attitude, Genetics

Sociocultural
Family
- Main source of education and role modelling
- Basic values, beliefs and habits learned before going outside the family unit
- Profound influence on health behaviours
Peers
- Greatest influence during teenage adolescent and young adult years
- Drug use, risk behaviours
Media
- Powerful and sophisticated influence
- Print, TV, Cinema, Internet, Phones, Radio, Advertising
- Coverage of health issues
- Images used
Religion
- Development of spiritual awareness
- Sense of belonging and fellowship
- May reject someone who is same-sex attracted
- Young people may feel guilt due to them not fulfilling their expectations
Culture
- Pattern of activity that includes the values and knowledge shared by a society
- Differences: Eating patterns, Daily rituals, Physical Activity, Family Structure
- Cultural identity can be a protective factor

Individual
Knowledge
- We can acquire knowledge → PDHPE, mass media campaigns, info. By health pros.,
use of the internet. (this reaches majority, not the whole population)
- Having knowledge is useful → carry them out with the right attitude to initiate and
maintain strategies. Eg. exercise
Skills
- Modelled by family or taught at school
- Influenced by personality
- Social groups have an influence.
- Being informed about health risks can motivate people to choose health-enhancing
behaviours
- Communication skills
- Assertiveness, decision-making
- Literacy
- Interpersonal skills, problem-solving
Attitudes
- Individual and societal
- Eg. Smoking, Alcohol
- State or mind plays a part, cumulative effects from a young age
Genetics
- Genetic disease effect 3% of the population. Eg. Cystic fibrosis, colour blindness
- Genetic trait + risk factors = bad effect on health. Eg. Fair skin and UV Radiation
- Heredity is determined by the chromosomal make-up (genes passed on by parents)
Eg. asthma, type-1 diabetes, heart disease, cancers
Socioeconomic
Education
- Education enables people to gain greater knowledge of health issues and increase
their understanding of health protective and risk factors.
- Research: Higher levels of education = less likely to smoke, be inactive and suffer
obesity.
- People can develop skills = assess health in information and products, and access
appropriate health services when required
- Enhances people's knowledge and skills
- Serves to develop within the individual a sense of empowerment over their lives.
- Increases the likelihood they will take action to improve their health
Employment
- Being able to secure satisfying, meaningful and regular employment = positive
influence on our health.
- Opportunities to be active; interact with others; a sense of control over our lives;
degree of financial security.
- Reports: Mortality rates are higher for unemployed Australians than for those who are
employed.
- Unemployment = loss of confidence; limited social contact; feelings of depression
and disempowerment = Affects a person’s emotional and social health.
Income
- Higher incomes = money to spend in health-related products and services: Sporting
or recreational activities; better quality food; private health insurance etc
- Poverty = exposure to risk behaviours likely to harm their health; restricting their
access to health services; reducing capacity to modify lifestyle.
- Tend to live in overcrowded conditions; Less transport and recreational facilities and
fewer support services

Environmental
Industry, roads and infrastructure
- Communication, travel, across to services
Geographic Location
- Rural residents - poorer access to health services and products, lower SES; Death
due to injury more prevalent in rural; Have better air and water quality, noise
- Urban residents - more access to services jobs; Increased stress and social
distribution
Access to health services
- A major impact in many studies, affect by:
- Availability (Breast screening for <50s)
- Proximity (small communities)
- Affordability (Specialists and medicines)
- Awareness and understanding (language)
- Appropriateness (gender, culture, age)
Technology
- Screening (MRIs, ultrasounds)
- Micro and robotic techniques (keyhole surgery)
- Databases and online tools (information)
- Communication and technologies (knowledge)
Protective Behaviours Risk Behaviours

Any action or inaction that reduces the risk or Any action or inaction that increases the
protects a person from disease, injury and risk of acquiring a disease, experiencing
death. Eg. Exercise, Sun-safe behaviours, injury or death. Eg. Illegal drug use, Lack
Balanced Diet of physical activity

Physical Activity Physical Activity

● At least 60 mins of physical activity a ● Looking at screens more than 2
day hours a day
● Add variety to the physical activity ● Sitting for too long
Healthy Eating Healthy Eating
● Reducing the intake of foods with high ● Eating processed snacks and soft
level of sugar and saturated fat drinks, ice cream, cakes
● People 14-18 should consume 5-5.5 ● Skipping meals
servings of vegetables, and 2 servings Body Weight
of fruit daily ● Poor dietary habits
Body Weight ● Passive transport options
● Work out BMI and changeup their Drug Use
lifestyle to fit in the healthy weight range ● Experimentation
Drug Use ● Binge drinking with lack of
● Assertiveness and refusal skills supervision and limits
● Supportive families Sexual Activity
Sexual Activity ● Having sex without protection
● Wearing protection which can lead to STIs and
● Be involved with someone trustworthy unwanted pregnancy
Social Networks and Support Social Networks and Support
● Limiting time on social platforms ● Staying on social networks for
● Not being overly influenced by extended periods of time
celebrities ● Being extremely influenced by
Safety influencers
● Driving under the speed limit Safety
● Driving responsibly according got the ● Speeding
law ● Careless driving
Acquiring Knowledge and Accessing help Acquiring Knowledge and Accessing help
● Actively seek help ● Avoiding interactions with others
● Asking others for knowledge or help ● Trying to deal with things
individually

Sun protection Sun protection

 ● Skin checks ● ​Exposure to UV in childhood and
● Sunscreen adolescence (outdoor activities)
Mental Health ● Fair skin
● Supportive family relationships Mental Health
● Coping skills and stress management ● Family history of self-harm
strategies ● Exposure to violence, family
● Connectedness with peers breakdown, homelessness etc.
Road-safety Road-safety
● Good planning for events ● Use of alcohol
● Good role-modelling by parents ● Inexperience and poor skills

Modifiable Health
Determinants that can be changed or controlled so they have a different level of
influence on health.
Examples:
- Knowledge, skills, attitude (individual)
- Peers, Religion (sociocultural)
- Employment, Education, Income (socioeconomic)
- Geographical location, access to health services and technology
(environmental)

Non-modifiable health
Determinants that cannot be changed or altered.
Examples:
- Genetics (individual)
- Family, media, culture (sociocultural)
- Environmental factors (environmental)

Example Modifiable Non-modifiable

Cancer - Alcohol - Genes

- Smoking
- Dietary influences

Heart Disease - Physical activity - Age, Gender

- Smoking - Ethnic background
- Dietary influences - Family history

Mental Illness - Personality factors - Genetics

- Alcohol - Biological factors

Diabetes - Physical inactivity - Genes

- Sugar intake - Hormonal diseases
Dimensions of Health
Physical
- Refers to the bodily aspect of health.
- The efficiency of the functioning of the body; ability to prevent or be free of illness
and disease; capacity to carry out everyday activities.
- Affected by an individual’s lifestyle, habits and nutrition.
- It can affect other dimensions of health (Mental & Social):
E.g. A person who suddenly gets the flu → isolated socially as to not infect others.
Struggles to study → may feel sad as a result of their isolation.
Mental/Emotional
- Refers to the cognitive aspect of health, persons ability to use their brain and think.
- Linked to or includes emotional health:
Mental health = functioning of the brain. Emotional health = mood often connected to
their hormones.
- Mental health issues = Depression & Anxiety.
- It’s linked to other dimensions of health (Physical, Social & Spiritual):
Increase physical activity = good mental health → increase in self-esteem →
confidence in social situations → ask the larger questions about life → increased
spiritual health.
Spiritual
- Relates to our sense of overall purpose in life.
- People often find purpose from a belief or faith system, while others create their own
purpose.
- The person with the purpose to living → healthier that someone who doesn’t
- Very easily affects emotional and mental health
Social
- Refers to our ability to make and maintain meaningful relationships with others.
- Includes not only having relationships but behaving appropriately within them and
maintaining socially acceptable standards.
- Basic social unit of relationship = Family.
- Other key relationships: close friends, social networks, teachers, and youth leaders.
These impact a persons life the most.
- Affects the other dimensions of health (Mental, Spiritual, Physical):
A bad social life → questions their purpose in life or feels isolated and unwanted →
can demotivate people from physical activity → depression.

Dynamic Nature of Health

- Refers to the fact that the health status of anyone is continually changing and can 
change dramatically with little notice. 
- Example: 
An older person who used to go to the gym, played at an elite level, used to eat their 
vegetables or used to be fit, and have a vibrant social life, have lost their parents, or 
have simply let themselves go. 
- Some people develop lifestyle diseases, most of which slowly develop due to 
the dynamic nature of health 
Health as Social Construct
- Social construction is how we make meaning through our personal experience
- What health is and what it means to a person is based on:
-​ ​Age, gender
- Biology, environment
- Family, employment
- Health is socially constructed
- The determinants of health play a part in how we ‘construct’ our meaning and
perceptions of health.
They are closely interrelated and can occur together in the same person.
Eg: Smoking = Heart Disease
-----------------------
Individual and socioeconomic determinants
- Low SES = low ability to buy healthy products
- Influences diet and activity patterns
- Affect educational opportunities
Individual and environment determinants
- Low levels of literacy = inability to access info.
- Poor hygiene skills = poor living conditions
Individual and sociocultural determinants
- Individual interpretation and response to cultural background can affect mental health
- Tobacco use more accepted in some cultures
Environmental and sociocultural determinants
- Access to health services affected by language skills
- Outdoor lifestyle = skin cancer and injuries
Sociocultural and socioeconomic determinants
- Larger and extended families have more support and resources but less space
-------------------------
Individual focus on childhood obesity
- Parental and child’s behaviours
Social construct - the influence of the determinants
- Advertising, marketing,
- Taxation
- Parental working patterns and time
- Exercise facilities
------------------------
Things to consider:
- Socioeconomic status is very influential
- Health decisions are not made on their own
- Sharing responsibility is effective between individuals and government.
Health Promotion
- Achieving the best possible health for everyone
- Focuses on actions that prevent poor health from occurring or recurring
- WHO:​ enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health
- To achieve good health changes need to be made in Individuals and what is
around them:
Social, economic & environmental
- Individuals, groups and governments need to be working together
- Groups involved:
Individuals, Schools, Community, All levels of the government, NGOs, Media,
Private Sector
- Collaboration can mean:
Sharing resources
Sharing roles and responsibilities
Achieving common goals through shared understanding
Establishing sustainable programs

Individuals
- Responsibilities for themselves & family to promote good health
- Can keep well informed of new developments
- Active participants in health education
- Behave in safe and healthy ways
- Participate and support actions in their workplace
Community groups & Schools
- Prove services that are appropriate for their community
Eg. Walking clubs
- Provides focus on health services and education
- Giving locals the chance to express their needs
- Provide access to knowledge, resources & skills that promote change
- Promotes community actions
NGO’s
- Include lobby groups, special interest groups & political pressure groups
Eg. Cancer Council, Greenpeace
- Influences the government s and decision-makers
- Can work at all levels - local → international
- Collect info. And data from research
- Provide the public with the data → influencing them to make better decisions
Governments
Federal Government
- Steers & coordinates policies and directions
- Responds to international organisations
- National campaigns & strategies ​(Eg. National Drug Strategy, Active Aus Campaign)
- Design & implement health promotion initiatives and campaigns
- Support research, and provide funding for states
State Governments
- Deliver primary health services
- Implementation of HP initiatives
- Can be delivered through schools and local community agencies.
Eg. Dark side of tanning, NSW Tobacco Action Plan
Local Councils & Governments
- Implement the Federal and State initiatives
- Main duties in areas:
Sewage, Fencing, Food Safety, Reducing car usage, promoting physical activity
- Collaboration with all three levels are vital to ensure effectiveness of such programs
International Organisations
- WHO directs and coordinates health among UN countries
- Global data collection and analysis
- Sets standards for health and provides technical support
- Biggest concerns & initiatives → poverty in Africa

Health Promotion
- In the early 1900s, the disease prevention was about medical interventions.
- In the late 1900s, lifestyle diseases became an epidemic in developed
countries
- Development of the Lifestyle, Behavioural approach
Focus on specific disease, illness and injury prevention
- Towards the end of the 20th century, there was acknowledgement of
underlying social determinants of health
Resulted in Public Health Approach
Uses a range of strategies to address the many factors that determine health
of people.
Lifestyle/Behavioural Approaches (Health education, quit smoking programs)
- Based on the belief that giving knowledge and skills will improve people’s health
- Assumes:
Individual lifestyle behaviours determines health
Providing info. Will change attitude and behaviours
Individuals from different environments can equally control their own health ​Eg. Rural
vs Urban
- Relies on health education and public health messages to raise awareness
- Tries to improve lifestyle behaviours such as s​ moking, alcohol use, nutrition,
exercise.
 - Can focus on individuals, groups or populations
- Education can take place in​ schools, hospitals, workplaces.​
- Used together with self-help, self-care, policies.
- Successful programs:
Healthy eating programs for primary students
Quit smoking campaigns
Sun-safe programs for high schools
School-based road safety programs
- Focuses only on individual with no consideration of social and environmental factors.
Preventative Medical Approaches (Childhood immunisation and breast
screening)
- Treats and prevents disease at the biological level
- Popular and effective in developed nations. Eg. HPV vaccine
- Preventative approaches can be divided into:
Primary prevention - whole populations with no risk factors
Immunisation, hearing tests, health records for enrolment.
Secondary prevention - targets groups with risk factors
Cervical, breast screening, free health check for men 45+
Tertiary prevention - actions that target people who have developed the disease and
are trying to prevent a recurrence or chronic illness from developing
Rehabilitation, weight loss surgery, blood pressure medication.
Public Health Approaches (Health-promoting schools and workplaces)
- More recent trend in health promotion
- They are influenced by the policies of WHO
- They take a more holistic approach to health and recognise the role played by factors
outside the of the individual and the immediate health system
- Schools that take a broad, coordinated, whole of school approach to the health and
wellbeing of all students are called health-promoting schools
- This involves implementing health-promotion strategies through three interrelated
areas:
The Curriculum
School organisation, Ethos and environment
Partnerships with families and the local community.
- A health-promoting workplace recognises that a healthy workforce can benefit the
employees and employers b ​ y improving morale, reducing stress, decreasing staff
turnover, reducing absenteeism and increased productivity.
- Could include strategies such as ​physical activity programs, workplace counselling,
free flu vaccinations or quit smoking programs.
Ottawa Charter
- In 1977, WHO recognised that governments across the world should be
working towards attaining a level of health for all citizens that would enable
them to lead socially and economically productive lives by 2000.
- Ottawa Charter was developed in 1986.
- Known as the ‘Health for all’ strategy.
- It encompasses the five dimensions of health
- The charter advocates: ​good health is important for social, economic and
personal development and is an important dimension of quality of life.
Health Promotion Action:
- Building a Public Health Policy:
Legislation for better health, healthier goods and service, enjoyable environments
- Creating Supportive Environments:
Encouragement of reciprocal maintenance - take care of one another and the
environment
- Strengthening Community Action:
Encouraging self-help, social support, participating in health-related matters.
- Developing Personal Skills
Providing information and enhancing life skills, leading to greater control over life
- Reorienting Health Services
The health sector must look beyond providing clinical and surative services, but also
looking at health promotion.
Developing Personal Skills
- Personal and social development occurs through education for health, and
enhancement of life skills
- Examples:
Mandatory PDHPE curriculum (kindy-year 10)
Media campaigns for consequences of drugs
Online info. On how to quit smoking
Educating girls and women on performing self breast-examinations.
Creating supportive environments
- Focuses on where people live, and their ability to make positive health promoting
choices
- Examples of actions to create a healthy environment:
Sporting areas providing areas that are alcohol free
Manufacturing vehicles that run on unleaded E10 fuel
Providing access to counsellors in schools
Health canteens in schools
Building recreational facilities like cycleways and walking tracks
Quitline support and knowledge in many languages.
Strengthening community actions
- Focus is empowerment in communities to implement actions to address their health
concerns
- Group may seek to develop initiatives to address particular local issues like schools,
workplaces etc.
- Examples of this action area:
Health-Promoting Schools
Lions Club Driver Reviver stations
Action After-School communities
Reorienting health services
- Focuses on well-being of the whole person: promoting health, preventing illness
- Examples of the health services:
National Heart Foundation working with schools to implement the Jump Rope for
Heart Programs
Funding more for health promotions
NSW Health working in partnership with schools to deliver free school based
vaccination programs.
Building Healthy public policy
- Relates to decisions made at all levels of government.
- It includes policies, taxation and organisational changes like recreation, transport,
education and housing,
- Examples:
Reduce taxes on low-alcohol beer
Laws requiring fast food chains to display kilojoule information at the point of sale
School policies relating to sun safety
Occupational health and safety regulations

Principles of Social Justice

- Its a value that favours the reduction or elimination of inequity, the promotion
of inclusiveness or diversity and the establishment of environments that are
supportive for everyone.
- Individuals and group that are disadvantages are provided with sufficient
resources and support to empower them to improve their health.
Equity
- It's the allocation of resources according to the needs of individuals and populations.
- It means taking action to achieve fairness.
Health: by allocating resources and entitlements, including power, fairly across the
population
Diversity
- Is the variety, or difference, between individual and groups of people
- Australia is very diverse → ‘Varying social markers’: age, gender, sexuality.
Socioeconomic status, geographic location and levels of education.
- Initiatives targeted at people living in rural areas need to be designed and delivered
in different ways from those developed for urban residents.
- Sensitivity to a person's cultural background can affect health promotion
Supportive Environments
- The social environment of a person has significant influence on the person and their
ability to make change or improve their health.
- Good health in is achieved in environments that:
Opportunities for recreation
Free of factors that cause isolation
Low levels of poverty
Provide safe and interesting work
Good supply to thing sliek transport, shelter, clothing
Free of violence and pollution.
Social Justice and HP Snapshot
- Strategies need to address the social, cultural, physical and economic factors
present in people’s lives in order to create environments that are supportive of health.
- A person works a long distance from home in a sedentary job, with no public
transport available to them and few exercise facilities in their local area might find it
difficult to regularly participate in physical activity.
- The environment in which the lives and work creates barriers that make it harder for
them to choose to be active. Changes in work practices, a wider range of transport
and employment options, and improved local facilities are needed to create an
environment that is more supportive of their health
- Government Actions:
​Bans smoking in restaurants, government buildings, pubs, clubs and transport
services; laws around speeding in school zones; policies around healthy school canteens;
and occupational health and safety laws
- Incorporating principles of social justice in health promotion initiatives does not
inevitably mean improvements in health will take place. The allocation of additional
resources and support to particular individuals or groups does not necessarily result
in equity in terms of health outcomes, nor does the design of supportive
environments guarantee lifestyle changes.
- People may continue to engage in risk behaviours. Following these principles does,
however, provide all Australians with the opportunity to exercise greater control over
their own level of health in order to bring improvements.
 Body in Motion
Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy
- The study of the structures of the body and their relationships
- Descriptions of the body assume that the body is in a specific position, the
Anatomical Position
Physiology
- The study of how the body works and the various functions of the body parts.
- The Skeletal and the Muscular Systems = Musculoskeletal System

-----------------------------------
Skeletal System
- The human skeleton has 206 bones
- The arrangement of these bones enables five main functions including:
1. Support of the body, giving shape, forn and posture
2. Protective of vital organs and soft tissue
3. Assistance in movement by providing the attachment for muscles and
being able to serve as levers
4. Manufacture of blood cells in the narrow cavities
5. Provision of a storehouse for essential minerals
- Main types of bones
Long, Short and Flat
Long & Short - function as levers or to transfer forces
Flat - provide protection for vital organs,
- Bones:
The spongy tissue in a bone = Cancellous Bone
The center cavity and spaces in the spongy tissue is filled with Bone Marrow
The area where bones meet = Articular cartilage
Major bones involved in movements
- Pectoral Girdle
Consists of the Clavicle and Scapula. It is known as the collarbone

- Upper extremity
Consists of 60 bones
Each upper limb includes humerus, ulna and radius, Carpals (wrist),
Metacarpals (palm of the hand), Phalanges (fingers)
- Pelvic Girdle
Consists of a number of bones and provides support necessary for the weight
of the upper body.
Major Bones: Ilium, Pubis, Ischium

- Lower extremity
Has 60 bones
Each lower limb contains femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals (ankle),
metatarsals and phalanges (toes)
Location of Bones
1. Superior - towards the head
2. Inferior - towards the feet
3. Anterior - towards the front
4. Posterior - towards the back
5. Medial - towards the midline of the body
6. Lateral - towards the side of the body
7. Proximal - towards the body’s centre of mass
8. Distal - away from the body centre of mass

- The Body can be also be divided into planes

Sagittal plane​ - v​ ertical plane that divides the body left to right
Frontal plane ​- v​ ertical plane that divides body front to back
Transverse plane​ - ​horizontal plane that divides the body into top and bottom

------------------------------------
Structure and function of joints
- It is a point of contact between at least two bones.
- They allow movement to occur
- They can be categorised based on structure or by the type of movement they
allow
- Fibrous
There is no joint cavity and the bones are held together by fibrous connective
tissue making movement difficult
- Cartilaginous
There is no joint cavity and the bones are held together by cartilage allowing
some movement.
- Synovial
There is a joint cavity and the bones are surrounded by an articular capsule
and of the ligaments allowing for movements.
- Articular Cartilage: covers the end of the bone providing cushioning
and reducing friction during movement,
- Synovial Cavity: space that separates the two articulating bones
- Ligaments: join bone to bone
- Synovial Fluid: acts as a lubricant with the synovial cavity.
- Joint capsule: encloses the cavity and contains the fluid
- Fibrous capsule: encloses the bones and synovial cavity
- Synovial membrane: secretes fluid into the joint
- Meniscus: inward growing cartilage that absorbs shock, pressure and
enhances stability
- Bursa: saclike structures that are strategically places to alleviate friction
 - Tendon: join muscle to bone
Can be classified into 6 categories:
- Gliding Joint: Articulating bones are usually flat. Side to side and
back to forth movements are permitted. Includes carpals, tarsals
and vertebrae
- Hinge Joint: Convex surface of one bone fits into the concave
surface of another. Movement is in a single direction allowing
flexion and extension. Includes knees, elbow and ankle
- Pivot Joint: Rounded surface articulates with a ring formed partly
by another.
- Ellipsoidal (condyloid) joint: Oval shaped bone. Allows side to
side and back and forth movement. Includes the joint at the wrist
- Saddle joint: One bone is saddle shaped while the other is
shaped like a rider. Moviement is side to side and back to forth.
The thumb is an example
- Ball-and-socket joint: Consists of a ball-like surface that fits into
a cuplike depression of another. Allows flexion, extension,
adduction and abduction. Hips and shoulder are examples.

Joint action Definition Example Image

Flexion Decrease in the Bending elbow

angle of the joint

Extension Increase in the Straightening

angle of the joint elbow

Abduction Movement of a Lifting arm side to

body part away side
from the midline
Adduction Movement of a Returning arm into
body part towards the body
the midline

Circumduction Movement of the Drawing a circle in

end of the bone in a the air with a
circular motion straight arm

Rotation Movement of a Turning head side

body part around to side
the central axis

Pronation Rotation of the Palm facing down

hand so that the
thumb moves in
towards the body

Supination Rotation of the Palm facing up

hand so that the
thumb moves in
away from the body

Eversion Movement of the Twisting ankle out

sole of the foot
towards the midline

Inversion Movement of the Twisting ankle in

sole of the foot
away from the
midline
Dorsi flexion Decrease in angle Raising toes
of the joint between upwards
the foot and lower
leg

Plantar flexion Increase in the Pointing toes to the

angle of the joint ground
between the foot
and the lower leg

Elevation Movement of Shrugging

shoulders towards shoulders
the head

Depression Movement of Returning

shoulders away shoulders back to
from the head normal position

Muscular System
- There are more than 600 muscles
- Their role is to contract. When they contract, we move.
- To locate muscles:
Origin: the muscle point of attachment to the nearest bone
Insertion:​ The point of attachment at the moveable end
- Action
Refers to the movement made at the joint when the muscle contracts.
Muscle Relationship
- In producing a movement, a muscle performs one of three roles. It can act as
an agonist Antagonist, or stabiliser
- Agonist
(Prime movers) is the muscle causing the major action. Their are agonists for
all movable joints and usually more than one involved
- Antagonist
The muscle that must relax and lengthen to allow the agonist to contract, thus
helping to control action
- Stabiliser
(Fixator muscles) act at a joint to stabilise it, giving the muscle a fixed base.
The muscle shorten very little during its contraction, causing minimal
movement.

Types of muscle contraction

- Isotonic contractions occur when the muscle contracts (shortens) and
lengthens to produce movement
- Two types → Concentric, Eccentric, Isometric

- Concentric
The muscle shortens during the contraction and pills on another structure to
produce movement
Eg. Flexion phase of bicep curl
- Eccentric
The muscle lengthens during the contraction. They result in more delayed
onset muscle soreness that concentric contractions
Eg. the down phase of bicep curl
- Isometric
When muscle does not or cannot shorten, but the tension in the muscle
increases. No movement is produced and the length of the muscle stays the
same.
Eg. Plank
Respiratory System
- Uses oxygen as a vital ingredient free energy from food.

- Passage of air from the nose to the lungs:

 ​ outh ​or the n
1. Air enter through the m ​ ose. W
​ hen entering through nose, the nasal
cavities is warmed, moistened and filtered of any foreign material.

2. The ​pharynx ​or ​throat ​serves a passage for air to the trachea, or food to oesophagus.

3. The ​trachea ​is a hollow tube kept open by rings of cartilage. It divides into a right or
left bronchus which lead to the right or left lung respectively.

4. The ​inner lining of the air passages ​produces mucus that catches and holds dirt and
germs. It’s covered in cilia (microscopic hairs) that remove dirt and irritants.

5. The ​lungs ​consist of 2 bag-like organs (bronchi). They are enclosed in the thoracic
cavity by the ribs (sides), the sternum (front) and the vertebral column (back).

Lung Function
- Inspiration (air from the atmosphere into the lungs)
Diaphragm contracts and flattens as the external intercostal muscles lift the
ribs outwards and upwards.
- Expiration (air from the lungs to the atmosphere)
Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards as the internal intercostal muscles
allow the ribs and other structures to the return to their resting position.
Effect of Physical Activity on Respiration
- Body’s higher demand for oxygen triggers a response from our respiratory
system (sensory receptors → brain = need more oxygen)
- The rate and depth of breathing increase moderately, even before the
exercise begins.

Circulatory System
- Cardiovascular System
- ​Network that distributes blood containing oxygen and nutrients and collects
wastes
Components of Blood
- It's a complex fluid circulated by pumping action of the heart
- Average person contains around 5 litres of blood
- Main function:
Transportation: of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removal of CO2
Protection: of the body via immune system and by clotting to prevent blood
loss
Regulation: of body’s temperature and the fluid content of the body's tissues.
Structure of Blood
- Blood Plasma (55%) → contains waste products, nutrients, enzymes etc.
- Formed elements (45%):
Red blood cells (erythrocytes): Contain oxygen carrying haemoglobin
White blood cells (leukocytes). Responsible for fighting infection in the body
Platelets: Help repair damaged blood vessels and promote blood clotting.

- Red blood cells → formed in bone marrow

- White blood cells → formed in bone marrow & lymph nodes
Two types:
Phagocytes: engulf foreign material and harmful bacteria
Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to fight disease
- Platelets → fragments of cells found in blood
Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries
- Heart has 4 chambers
- The 2 superior chambers are called the left and right atrium.
- The 2 inferior chambers are called the left and right ventricle
- The atria: t​ hin-walled; deliver blood to the ventricles
- Right ventricle: ​pumps blood to lungs
- Left ventricle: p​ umps blood around the body → Hence, LV is x4 as thick as
RV.
Blood flow within the heart
1. RV → receive deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body via the
superior and inferior vena cava.
2. Blood travels to the RV → pumped via the pulmonary artery to the lungs
3. Gas exchange occurs within lung → new oxygenated blood travels back via
the pulmonary vein to the left atrium.
4. Oxygenated blood then travels to the LV where it is pumped around the body
via the aorta

Heart-beat
- Initial low pressure sound → caused by the atrioventricular valves closing.
- Ventricular contraction (systole) after blood has filled the ventricles
- High pressure sound → caused by the valves closing the exits to the hearts,
occurs after blood has been pushed from the ventricles at the end of the
systole phase
- Unusual heart sound → Valves may not be working properly
Blood supply to the heart
- Arteries → blood vessels; carry oxygenated blood away from heart
- Veins → carry deoxygenated blood from body tissues back to the right atrium.
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
- Capillaries → smaller blood vessels; they exchange oxygen and nutrients for
waste
Arteries
- They have thick strong elastic walls containing smooth muscle to withstand
the pressure of the blood forced through them
- They deliver oxygen-rich blood to the tissues
- They branch into arterioles, which divide into capillaries
Veins
- Walls are thinner than arteries
- Valves at regular intervals in the veins prevent the backflow of blood during
period when blood pressure changes.
Capillaries
- Walls are extremely thin
- They allow oxygen, nutrients and hormones from the blood to pass easily
through the interstitial fluid, then into the cells of the body's tissues
- Blood pressure helps to force fluid out of the capillaries
- Diffusion of oxygen and other nutrient from the capillaries into the cells and
CO2 wastes from the cells into the capillaries = Capillary exchange.
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
- Pulmonary = Flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
- Systemic = flow of blood from the heart to the body tissue and back to heart
- Both side of the heart work together
- Right side → receives blood that is low in oxygen content from all part of the
body and pumps it to the lungs
- Left side → receives blood high in oxygen from lungs and pumps it around the
body
Blood Pressure
- Refers to the force exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels
- Flow and pressure of blood in the arteries rise with each contraction of the
heart and falls when it relaxed and refills.
- Can be recorded by Sphygmomanometer.
- Has two phases:
Systolic → ​the highest peak pressure recorded when lodo is forced into the
arteries during contraction of the left ventricle
Diastolic → l​ owest pressure recorded when the heart is relaxing and filling.
- Relaxed state of Systolic pressure = 100-130 mm.Hg
- Relaxed state of Diastolic pressure = 60-80mm.Hg
Cardiac Output
- Any increase in cardiac output results in an increase in blood pressure
Volume of blood in circulation
- If blood volumes increases due to increase water retention, blood pressure
increase
Eg. When salt intake is high
Resistance to blood flow
- If the stickiness of blood is increased, resistance increases.
- Diameter of the blood vessels also affect blood flow
- The elasticity of the arterial walls acts to maintain blood flow
- As deposits build up on the walls, the arteries become less elastic and harder
(arteriosclerosis)
Venous Return
- Since this affects cardiac output, it also affects blood pressure.

Physical Fitness, Training and Movement

Efficiency

Health Related Components of Physical Fitness

- Physical fitness is important in establishing and maintaining total body health
- Any variation in one or a number of three components can significantly affect
our total health and wellbeing
- Necessary for everyday health and wellbeing
1. Cardiorespiratory Endurance
2. Muscular Strength
3. Muscular Endurance
4. Flexibility
5. Body Composition
Benefits
- Reducing the risk of disease that have low physical activity levels as a risk
factor
Eg. Cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity
- Increase muscle and joint flexibility and more freedom of movement
- Positive effect on mental health due to increased self-esteem endorphin
release and lower risk of mental health issues
Anxiety, Depression

Cardiorespiratory Endurance
- HR - easily accessible means of measuring the intensity of training
- Measuring the amount of oxygen a person can absorb or draw into the
working cells of the body.
- Oxygen uptake → VO​2 ​(measured in mLs/kg/min)
- Athlete’s greater oxygen uptake → the harder and longer they will be able to
exercise aerobically.
Muscular Endurance
- In activities, the certain muscle group must contract repeatedly to perform the
skill effectively.
- If the muscle group tires, the ability to continue to perform the skill is
adversely affected.
Flexibility
- Maintenance of joint flexibility not only helps sport performance, but
contributes significantly to the quality of life.
- Muscle length decreases with age, progressively decreasing our range of
motion.
- Increasing mobility:
Help prevent injury, improve posture, improve blood circulation, decrease
chance of lower back pain later in life, strengthen the muscle if combined with
isometric exercises.
Body Composition
- Essential fat and surrounds vital organs such as kidneys, heart, muscle, liver
and nerves
- Absence of fat in these areas will lead to chronic health problems because fat
in these regions help protect, insulate and absorb shock to these organs
- Additional fat is called storage fat (source of stored energy)
Skill Related Components
- Other fitness components relate more specifically to skills required for sports
performance:
Power, Speed, Agility, Coordination, Balance, Reaction time
Eg. Effective rebounding in basketball requires us to jump high. That depends
on leg power
Power
- Muscular Power = ability combine strength and speed in an explosive action.
- Speed-dominated power → generated through a greater emphasis on speed
Eg. Sprinting & Throwing
- Strength-dominated power → generated through a greater emphasis on
strength
Eg, Weight-lifting, shot put
Speed
- To perform movements quickly
- Genetic predisposition - determined by fibre type
- Not as responsive to training as other fitness components
- More of a genetic trait (naturally quick)
Agility
- Ability to move the body from one position and direction to another with speed
and precision
- Combines number of fitness components
- Any test that measure this will be performed at speed and will reflect a degree
of balance and coordination
Coordination
- Ability to harmonise the messages from the senses with parts of the body to
produce movements that are smooth, slo;gil and well controlled.
- Well-coordinated players are more ready to acquire new movements and can
adapt quickly to new sports and activities
- Coordinated players are also prone to injuries.
Balance
- The ability to maintain equilibrium while either stationary or moving
- Two types of balance:
Static: maintaining equilibrium when body is still
Dynamic: maintaining equilibrium while body is moving
- If the centre of gravity falls outside the base of support, the balance is lost.
Reaction Time
- Time taken to respond to a stimulus
- Average reaction time in human beings is 170 milliseconds
Aerobic & anaerobic Training
- Short & sharp movements (jumping, lifting) → anaerobic pathway (oxygen is
absent) to supply energy.
- Movements sustained and of moderate intensity → aerobic pathway (with
oxygen) supplies bulk of energy needs
Aerobic
- Aerobic = ‘with oxygen’
- Aerobic exercise → exercise dependant on oxygen utilisation by the body to
enable muscular work
- FITT (frequency, intensity, time, type) principle to provide guidance to
developing an aerobic program to suit our needs.
Frequency - more occasions in a week to training
Intensity - amount of effort required by a person to accrue a fitness benefit.
Time - time spent on exercise
Type - Type of exercise targeting specific muscle group
Anaerobic
- Anaerobic = ‘in the absence of oxygen’
- Requires specialised training to generate adaptations necessary for muscular
work without oxygen.

Aerobic & anaerobic Training

- Lower the resting heart rate → the better the cardiovascular system
Heart rate
- Heart rate increases when we exercise → working heart rate
- Heart rate increases according to the intensity of the exercise
- In a fit person, heart rate levels off during protracted exercise, reaching a
steady state.
- Heart rate → good indicator of the intensity and may be used as a
fundamental measure of cardiovascular fitness
Ventilation rate
- Ventilation rates are measured over a time period, usually one minute
- Minute Ventilation → the amount of air that can be breathed in one minute.
Average is about 6 litres.
- Once exercise starts, the rate and depth of breathing intensifies
Stroke Volume
- Determined by → ability to fill ventricles by blood volume; ability to empty the
ventricles as a result of ventricular contractions
- Stroke volumes increases during exercise
- As intensity increases to a high level, there is les change in stroke volume
Cardiac Output
- Increases with exercise in the same way as stroke volume
- Cardiac Output (OC) = heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV).
- While the heart rate of the trained athlete is lower, their stroke volume is
substantially higher.
Lactate Levels
- Lactate = a salt formed around lactic acid that accumulates during intense
anaerobic activity
- Formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates in absence sufficient oxygen,
- Vigorous physical exercise causes increases in levels of lactate.
- Lactate is produced when we exercise and there is insufficient oxygen
available to the muscle cells.
- Lactate is a source of energy at low to moderate levels of intensity
- Lactate contributes to fatigue because it can’t be removed from the
bloodstream faster than it enters

Biomechanics
- It’s a science concerned with forced and the effect of these forces on and
within the human body
- It is very important to understanding techniques used in sport
- It helps choose the best technique to achieve our best performance with
consideration to our body shape
- The understanding of the biomechanical principles that affect athletic
movement, can improve the efficiency with which these movements are
made.
- Reduces risk of injury by improving the way you move
Motion
- It’s the movement of a body from one position to another
- Types of motion:
Linear, angular and general motion
Linear: ​takes place when a body and all parts connected to it to travel the
same distance and direction and at the same time.​ Eg - swimming, sprints
Velocity
- It’s equal to displacement divided by time
Speed
- It’s equal to the distance covered divided by the time taken to cover the
distance.
Acceleration
- It’s the rate at which velocity changed in given amount of time
 First Aid
Situational Analysis
- You may be alerted to a potentially life-threatening situation by instances such
as:
Noise of a car crash
Smoke
Scream if a person is bitten by a venomous spider/snake
- In situations like this, it is important to know that you don’t hurt yourself,
therefore, you should approach the situation being alert.
- Royal Life Saving Society Australia → all first aid treatment are based on
commonsense and knowledge
- Two factors that go hand-in-hand in the preservation of life
-Check for danger
-Take steps to remove or limit the danger or remove the victim from the
danger.

Priority Assessment Procedures

- In emergency situations, it is important to act quickly and calmly.
- If the passage of air to the lungs is blocked or the heart has ceased, it can
shut down brain function
- RLSSA → ‘​the first person at the scene is responsible for the initial support
- Of the casualty’, ​including working through the DRSABCD action plan.
- The second person needs to support the first person by ‘​contacting
emergency services, protecting and interviewing bystanders and gathering
first aid equipment before helping with resuscitation’

- DRSABCD ​is one of the best procedures

​ nger, R
Da ​ e
​ sponse, S
​ e
​ nd help, ​A​irway, B
​ r​ eathing, C
​ P
​ R, D
​ e
​ fibrillation.
Priority Assessment Procedures
- The priority in any accident event is based upon the vital signs of the patient,
including:
Their level of consciousness
The danger they're in
The extent of their other injuries
- The analogy of the chain of survival can be used to help with decision-making.
The links in this chain are:
Early access​ - earlier professional help, the better
Early CPR
Early Defibrillator - U ​ sed to analyse the heart for a shockable rhythm.
Early ACLS​ - (Advanced Cardiac Life Support) gives better chance of
recovery
STOP
- For a victim who is responsive you can use the STOP regime. This involves:
St​ op, T
​ ​alk, O
​ b
​ serve, P
​ ​revent further damage
STOP​ the victim from moving and attempt to prevent further damage.
TALK​ about how the victim feels and if it hurts anywhere else and their history
of injuries
OBSERVE​ the victim and look out for anything that is not normal, such as the
way the victim is holding themselves.
Prevent ​further damage. For a major injury, support through RICER:
Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation, Referral

● For non-responsive patient → DRSABCD

● For responsive patient → STOP

Cuts and lacerations - bleeding

- Wounds are caused when the skin tissue is torn or cut
- Accepted type of wounds:
Abrasions
Amputations
Incisions
Lacerations
Punctures
Avulsion
Embedded objects
- In most cases, blood loss is minor but correct management is important
- Management of Bleeding:
Disposable glove
Avoid contact with blood, and use sterile materials on the wound.
Abrasion
- Described as those that are superficial and where bleeding ceases quickly
- Large abrasions can easily become infected, special care when cleaning and
dressing.
Incision & Lacerations
- These wounds can lead to major bleeding and need to be treated:
Direct pressure applied to the wound
A sterile dressing being applied with a pad elevation of the wound.
- Major wounds can lead the patient going into shock with the signs of:
Pale, cold, clammy skin, thirst, rapid weak pulse, rapid shallow breathing and
nausea and/or vomiting.
- Medical support should be urgently sought if your patient is displaying these
signs and symptoms
Avulsion & Amputation
- Avulsion: t​ he treatment here is to try and put the flap back into its normal
position and then apply a bandage
- Amputation: ​With the progress that has been made with surgery, especially
microsurgery, many amputated limbs can be successfully reattached as long
as correct first aid and management of the amputated limb is carried out.
- Firstly, the bleeding needs to be controlled with a sterile pressure bandage,
and the amputated limb needs to be in a sealed plastic bag
- Ensure the limb does not come into contact with either ice or water
- The limb needs to go to the hospital with the casualty
Puncture wounds & embedded objects
- With a puncture wound, the danger to the internal organ could be high and
can be associated with a high risk of infection.
- The object needs to be left in place, as it can cause further bleeding.
- Elevate the wound and apply pressure around the wound with a ring bandage
and dress around the wound without applying pressure to the wound.
Fractures
- Over 200 bones in the human body
- With ageing, the bones become much easier to break as they lose their
strength and become seemingly fragile.
- Three general types:
Complicated: where the fracture can damage other nearby organs or major
blood-carrying vessels
Open: where the bone is visible through skin
Closed: where there is no sign as to the extent of the damage to the bones.
 - Caused by different types:
Indirect force: where there is an impact on the body but the bone breaks away
from the point of impact
Direct force: the bone breaks at the point where the force was applied to the
bone
Spasm or muscular contraction: where a muscular spasm exerts that much
force that the bone breaks
Old age or disease: the bones become brittle and this can cause the bones to
break.
Fractures to the various bones of the body
- Leg: Immobilise the leg to the other leg bandaging above and below the
fracture and ensuring the ankles are tied together to minimise movement of
the leg
- Arm/Collar Bone: The rule here is to support the fracture in the most
comfortable position possible for the patient, whether this is with a sling or
support bandage. Use a sling for the place of the fracture.
Dislocations
- If there is a distal pulse (one further from the heart than the point of
dislocation) then urgent medical attention is required
- Can be caused by a twisting movement, weak ligaments or direct force and if
not carefully managed, can lead to damage of the nerves and blood vessels.
- Position more comfortable for the patient
- Don’t attempt to put the limb back if you don’t have the skills
- Symptoms:
Deformity at joint, tenderness, pain in the joint, or loss of movement or power
in the limb.

Types of Slings
Folding a triangular bandage
- Generally used for fracture collarbones, shoulders
Arm Sling
- Used to support a fractured forearm and wounds to the arm
Collar and Cuff sling
- Used to elevate the arm when the hand or forearm are bleeding. It is also
used when the humerus in injured.
Elevation Sling
- Used to stabilize the arm and upper body region in case of collarbone and
shoulder injuries. It is also used to elevate bleeding hands to help slow the
bleeding
Management of medical conditions
Legal Implications
- The manner in which first aid is administered needs to be orderly and in
accordance with one’s level of training.
- First aiders have a moral responsibility to perform first aid for fellow human
beings in a time of crisis
- Sometimes, duty of care exists that requires first aid to be offered. RLSSA
clarifies: ​‘A duty of care arises, when, at law, there is a sufficient relationship
between one person and another.’
- A first aider should communicate with the victim wherever possible and clearly
outline the type of treatment or management they intend to perform.
- If the victim is unresponsive or unable to communicate, the law assumes that
consent would have been given.
- If the victim is a child, consent for first aid must be obtained from a parent or
legal guardian.
- First aiders should document written records of exactly what happened should
they be involved in providing emergency first aid.

Moral obligations
- It would be considered a responsible action to help people involved in an
accident, it would be irresponsible not to help people unable to help
themselves.
- The ability to empathise with others or try to feel as they feel in that particular
situation is important when confronted with moral dilemmas.
- Responsible citizenship suggests that we should help and provide assistance
to the best of our abilities to a victim.
Debriefing
- Involves obtaining information about the circumstances of the incident that
resulted in first aid being administered.
- It’s important to take time to ensure that the full picture is gathered, make all
descriptions as accurate as possible, remain impartial and describe the
incident exactly as it occurred.

Counselling
- Help is available from various counselling organisations including hospitals,
medical support centres and state government organisations such as NSW
Health.

Fitness Choices
Meanings of Exercise & it as a form of Physical activity
- People engage in physical activity everyday and are motivated to do so for a
variety of reasons.
- Some activity occurs incidentally (eg. walking up the stairs)
- Movements are repeated with the intention of improving selected components
of fitness
Push ups - muscular strength and/or endurance
- Exercise intensity can be determined by using the ‘Talk Test’
Low intensity- ​a person is able to sing while doing the activity
Moderate - ​Normal conversation can be held
Vigorous - ​Insufficient breath to carry on conversation
- Athletes can monitor cardiorespiratory fitness improvements using heart rate
response to exercise
- This can be done through chest strap heart rate monitor
- Exercise causes your heart rate to increase in proportion to your exercise
intensity.
- In between resting and maximal values heart rate is a zone called the ‘Target
Heart Rate (THR)
- Used to help you train at a level of intensity where performance benefits are
maximised.
- Calculate your maximal heart rate, which is (220-age)
- Child and Youth recommendations (up to 15 years)
Frequency: ​Everyday
Intensity: ​Moderate
Time: ​60 minutes and up to several hours.
Type: ​Range of activities. Body weight exercises recommended
 - Adult daily recommendations
Frequency: ​Most if not all day per week
Intensity: ​Moderate
Duration: ​30 mins
Type: ​A range of activities
- Fitness is dynamic and each individual is different

The value that people place on exercise and fitness

- As people’s lifestyles became more sedentary, lifestyle diseases increased
- The fitness boom in the 70s and 80s resulted from an increase in community
concern about the morbidity and mortality rates associated with lifestyle
diseases
- Fitness boom and health promotion programs have led to an increased
awareness about the importance of physical activity and fitness
- Statistics → half of adults in NSW are still insufficient active. Females are less
active than males.

Changing attitudes to fitness

- The prevalence of sufficient physical activity is lower now as there are more
old people now due to the decrease in the population growing. Old people
don’t really engage in much physical activity, hence a lower global average.
- Changes in active commuting behaviours → more people walking to work,
increase in petrol prices → increase in physical activity levels.
- People’s attitude to fitness determines whether they participate in regular
physical activity. This is influenced by a number of factors:
Age - ​Older age groups have lower levels of adequate activity and are more
sedentary
Gender - M ​ ales are more active than females
Family - A ​ dolescents who have active parents can support their kids to do
more fitness
Peers - ​If peer group doesn’t value exercise, they person is most likely not to
value it either. People are generally pressured into doing things the same as
their peers
Media - ​Awareness raising of the benefits of fitness and the types of activities
can positively impact a mass population
Past experience - ​Children’s experiences with activity is fun and foster skill
development, they are more likely to adopt physical activity as a lifelong
behaviour
Cultural - S ​ ome cultures don’t like to see women participate in sport, hence
they don’t receive that social support.
 Socioeconomic status - P ​ eople with lower education and money can make it
unlikely for them to participate in sports and activities and the benefits of
them.

Fitness as a commodity
- The commodification of exercise and fitness became increasingly apparent
during the fitness boom of the 1970s
- Companies recognised teat fitness could be a profit-making commodity,
hence there are some many fitness centres now.
- Advertisements often depict male and female bodies that mirror society’s
perception of a perfect body
- The use of special deal, a range of activities, extended hours and child
minding facilities further appeal to the consumers.
- The availability of exercise heart rate monitors, computerised exercise
equipment and body fat monitors/scales furthers supports the individual in
their quest for improved fitness

Individual Fitness Activities

- The challenge for the individual is to find an exercise type that meet their
fitness needs and that is enjoyable
Power Walking
- Brisk walking for 30 minutes a day at a pace around 4-6kph improve fitness
and overall health
- Safe cheap and convenient
- More walking = :
Control your weight better
Stronger bones
Be less likely to develop diabetes in middle age
Les likely to have a heart attack/stroke and recover better in the event of one
- Recommended form of exercise for people recovering from heart disease
because it is low impact
Running
- Can be done only at moderate or vigorous intensity
- Running on grass surfaces to reduce stress on the joints
Swimming
- Uses various strokes and improves cardiovascular efficiency
- The popularity of swimming as a fitness activity has led to the emergence of
Aquarobics
- It i san effective conditioning activity low impact but uses both upper and
lower body, giving a total body workout
Cycling
- It’s an activity people enjoy in their youth but stop doing as they get older
 - Provides a good cardiovascular workout
- Cycling at a vigorous intensity, more than 16kph, has beneficial effects on
fitness
Weight Training
- Programs can be isometric, isotonic or isokinetic
- It can improve specific fitness components of strength and muscular
endurance
- Isometric → m ​ uscles develop tension but don't change length
Best gains are made using 6 to 8 reps each lasting 6 seconds.
Doesn’t need a specific environment
- Isotonic → w ​ eights through a full range of movement
Requires the use of free weights and can incorporate weight machines
- Isokinetic →​ ​use of elaborate machines that allow maximum muscle
tension through the full range of movement
The machines are designed so that the muscular force exerted by the body is
equalled by the resistance of the machine.
The strength gains are constant through the full range of movement because
the level of resistance in constant.
Tai Chi
- One of the martial arts systems
- It’s incorporating movements with your mind and respiration
- It is a great exercise option for people seeking a holistic approach to improved
health
Pilates
- Focuses on the development of core muscles, resulting in improved body
balance, posture and alignment
- Also provides added strength and flexibility to torso muscles
Yoga
- It is holistic in nature emphasising the body’s energy flow
- It is designed to be a total mind and body experience where you improve your
flexibility, increase strength and relax your mind while learning proper
breathing techniques
- It improves flexibility and muscle tone, and improves immunity.

Group Fitness Activities

- They provide the individual with the opportunity for a social game without
being part of a formal competition
Aerobics
- Aerobic classes incorporate various conditioning exercises performed to
music
- Class can be designed to be either low or high impact
- It improves cardiovascular efficiency, strength, flexibility and agility.
 - A variation is the ‘fat burner’ → combination of a high and low impact class
- The exercises THE to between 130-140 beat per minute to promote greater
kilojoule expenditure
Aquarobics
- As water is much more resistant than air, aquarobics provides a good whle
body workout
- It is an excellent fitness option for:
People with back or joint problems.
The elderly, pregnant and overweight due to the cushioning effect of water.
The use of hand weights can increase the intensity of exercise.
Pump Classes
- Uses barbells to improve muscle tone, strength and endurance
- Suited for people who would like an introduction to weight training and wish to
improve muscle tone and body shape
- Participants target specific areas such as the abdominals, buttocks and upper
legs
- The movements are slow and lead to improved muscle tone, strength and
muscular endurance.
Step Classes
- Incorporates aerobic moves to music using a stepped platform
- Improve cardiovascular fitness and muscular endurance
- The platform is adjustable to suit the individual’s fitness level
- Suitable to all levels of fitness
Spin Classes
- Known as cycle classes or RPM that stimulate outdoor cycle training
- Spin excellent for improving cardiorespiratory fitness
- Beneficial as a form of exercise for people who experience joint injuries and
tendonitis.
Circuit Training
- Can be used to improve both fitness components and skill levels
- It involves oprogressive use of a circuit of different types of exercise
- Each exercise is performed for a specified number of reps or for a prescribed
time period before moving to the next exercise
- Circuits can be anaerobic and aerobic in nature, depending on the type of
exercise.
Team Games
- PThe social aspect of exercising with others is very appealing to some
opportunity to develop new friendships
- Indoor sports benefit of being able to play all year round regardless of the
weather conditions.
- It is important to be clear about the commitment required
Exercise for Specific Groups
- It is important for all people to exercise regardless of their personal
circumstances
Pregnant Women
- Maintenance of healthy heart and blood vessels
- Improved muscular strength (particular upper body and abdominal strength)
can aid in posture and carrying the baby.
Children
- The age of children impact on their:
Capacity to learn skills
Level of motivation to be active
Physiological capabilities
Susceptibility to injury
- They have lower levels of motor control and are unable to process much
information at one time.
- Skill development and activity not competition and ‘win at all costs’.
- If children enjoy activity when they are young and are taught how to perform
fundamental movement skills correctly, they are more likely to continue
exercising as they get older.

People training for fitness

- For athletes to maintain a high level of fitness so that they can be competitive,
it is essential that a specific training program be followed
- This program includes fitness activities that reflect the sernergy system
utilised in competition and needs to be of high intensity
- People who train for fitness need to be constantly challenged so that they
continue to improve as they train towards their peaks.
Aged
- As we age, there is a gradual decline in our physiological capabilities, reduced
heart/lung capacity, bone density and muscular strength
- However, if people remain active as they age the rate of htre decline can be
decreased and delayed
- Modified low to moderate exercise can be beneficial to older people. The
physical, social and psychological benefits lead to improved well being.
Settings for Exercise
- The environments in which people exercise vary according to their fitness
needs, facilities available and cost of activities.
- People who prefer to exercise in a group, exercise clubs and cultural groups
provide a range of physical activities.
- It is important that the setting chosen to exercise in is an enjoyable and
convenient environment that meet the individual's needs. If not, the likelihood
of the person continuing the exercise is reduced.
Community Facilities
- The likelihood of finding a fitness activity that suits your needs is greater for
people who live in large towns and cities.
- Equipment is generally of all-weather construction, and has a soft, rubber
ground cover with shade cloth or trees for sun protection.
- Community leisure centres provide the convenience of a large number of
activities at one venue.
- Most communities recognise the importance of regular exercise and
encourage participation by providing facilities and keep costs relatively low
compared to commercial facilities.
Fitness Centre & Personal Trainers
- Most fitness centres provide a range of fitness classes and weight training
facilities.
- Each class varies intensity in the exercise and level of choreography and
there is generally a class suitable to every ability level.
- Commercially run fitness centres provide many services designed to aid
customers in their efforts to improve their fitness.
Exercise clubs
- It’s a great way to enjoy exercise on a regular basis in the company of friends.
- They provide organised activity and the opportunity to meet others with the
same exercise interests
- To focus on a form of exercise to improve health and fitness is highly
beneficial
Cultural Groups
- The establishment of a variety of cultural groups provides many benefits not
only to people of that culture but to every Australian.
- It’s an opportunity to participate in culturally based forms of physical activity
and exercise.
Advertising
- Powerful tool → can be very persuasive
- Ads on fitness and exercise services can be found in TV, commercials,
internet, print media
- Commercial fitness centres do letterbox drops of flyers and social media to
promote their facilities.
Advertising and Promotion
- Promotions aimed at enticing the consumer to buy a product or service can
often sound too good to be true
- It is important that consumers take the time to investigate the product or
service before purchasing it.
How do you know who to believe?
- Generally, well-recognised brands and products endorsed by Australian
fitness industry or health organisations such as Heart Foundation are reliable.
Promotional techniques
- Targeting specific groups and offering limited offers are some promotional
techniques used.
- Don’t be fooled by the advertisements and make sure you do your research.
Accuracy of information
- Promotion of products through glossy, attractive advertisements that appeal to
the senses of the consumer are common techniques
- It’s wise to talk to serve providers and ask questions regarding their expertise
and qualifications before using that service.
Ethics of advertising
- The claims made in advertising can be misleading and may even be false
- It is important that people understand that there is a range in the quality of
service and product available.
Account  Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an 
account of: narrate a series of events or transactions 

Analyse  Identify components and the relationship between 

them; draw out and relate implications 

Apply  Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation 

Appreciate  Make a judgement about the value of 

 

Assess  Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, 

results or size 

Calculate  Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or 

  information 

Clarify  Make clear or plain 

Classify  Arrange or include in classes/categories 

Compare  Show how things are similar or different 

 

Construct  Make; build; put together items or arguments 

Contrast  Show how things are different or opposite 

Critically (analyse/evaluate)  Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge 

  and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and 
  quality to (analyse/evaluate) 

Deduce  Draw conclusions 

Define  State meaning and identify essential qualities 

Demonstrate  Show by example 

Describe  Provide characteristics and features 

Discuss  Identify issues and provide points for and/or against 

Distinguish  Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or 

different from; to note differences between 

Evaluate  Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the 

value of 

Examine  Inquire into 

Explain  Relate cause and effect; make the relationships 

between things evident; provide why and/or how 
Extract  Choose relevant and/or appropriate details 

Extrapolate  Infer from what is known 

Identify  Recognise and name 

Interpret  Draw meaning from 

Investigate  Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about 

Justify  Support an argument or conclusion 

Outline  Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features 

of 

Predict  Suggest what may happen based on available 

information 

Propose  Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, 

argument, suggestion) for consideration or action 
 
 

Recall  Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences 

Recommend  Provide reasons in favour 

 
 

Recount  Retell a series of events 

Summarise  Express, concisely, the relevant details 

Synthesise  Putting together various elements to make a whole