Body in Motion- Year 11 2015 notes

Skeletal System
 Major Bones involved in movement

-Long and short bones function as levers or to transfer forces. Flat bones usually provide
protection for vital organs.

Long bones- are longer than they are wide and they function as levers.
Short bones- have a short axis and are found in small spaces such as the wrist. They serve to transfer
forces.
Flat bones- have a broad surface and serve as places of attachment for muscles and to protect vital
organs.

Extras;
Cancellous bone is the spongy or porous inner structure of bone that often contains and protects
bone marrow.
Bone marrow is a soft, fatty vascular tissue in which blood cells are made, located in the interior
cavities of bones.
Articular cartilage is a firm, smooth, flexible connective tissue that covers the end of bones where
they form joints.
Anatomical terms for the body:

Anterior: Toward or on the front of the body

Posterior: Towards or on the back of the body: behind
Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure
Inferior: Toward the lower part of a structure
Medial: Toward or at the midline of the body
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body
Proximal: Closer to the origin of a point of reference
Distal: Further from the origin or point of reference

 Structure and function of Synovial Joints

Joint; a junction of two or more bones, commonly referred to as an articulation

Three types of Joints;

Fibrous Joint (immovable) - no movement is possible. E.g. the cranium
Cartilaginous Joint (slightly movable) - joint that permits limited movement. E.g. vertebral column,
where fibrous cartilage allow limited movement
Synovial Joint (freely movable) - allows maximum movement. E.g. hip joint

Most important structures of Synovial joints; ligaments,

tendons, cartilage and synovial fluid
Ligaments are;
 Well-defined, fibrous bands, that connect the articulating bones
 Designed to assist the joint capsule to maintain stability in the joint  this restrains
excessive movement + can control degree of direction of movement
 Relatively inelastic
 Able to be permanently lengthened from being excessively stretched
Tendons are;
 Tough, inelastic cords of tissue that attach muscle to bone
 Able to strengthen the joint, extending across the joint and assist ligaments to hold the joint
closed
Synovial Fluid;
 Acts as a lubricant keeps joint well-oiled and moving surfaces apart
  Forms a fluid cushion between two joint surfaces(bones) (no two joints fit together
perfectly)
 Provides nutrition for cartilage + carries away waste products
 Amount produced is dependent on amount and type of physical activity of the joint
 Is pumped into joint space when articular cartilage is under pressure (during movement)
 Varies in viscosity, becoming more viscous with temperature decrease (could cause joint
stiffness in cold weather)

Hyaline Cartilage;
 Is smooth, shiny cartilage that covers bone surfaces  allows bones to move freely over
each other (while synovial fluid acts as a cushion between articulating surfaces, cartilage
creates smooth movement of bones over one another also)
 Has a limited blood supply BUT receives nourishment via synovial fluid
 Is thicker in the leg joints, where there is greater weight bearing.

INCLUDE TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS E.G. BALL AND SOCKET, HINGE JOINTS

 Joint actions
Protraction: Moving a part forward (thrusting the chin forward).
Retraction: Moving a part backward (pulling the chin backward).
Elevation: Raising a part (shrugging the shoulders).
Depression: Lowering a part (dropping the shoulders).
Hyperextension: Excess extension of the parts at a joint, beyond the anatomical position
(bending the head back beyond the upright position).

Muscular System
 600+ muscles in the body, all attached to bones
 Role of Muscles; to contract  contraction of muscle= movement= muscle action
 Muscles don’t push, they shorten to cause joint movement then relax as opposing muscles
pull the joint back into position
 Attachment of the muscle is usually by a tendon at the movable end, which tends to be away
from the body’s main mass
Location of Muscles
 To locate muscles origin and insertion must be established
 Origin
- Is the muscle’s point of
attachment to the more
stationary bone, usually attached
directly or indirectly to the bone
via a tendon
- Most cases is nearer to the trunk
 Insertion
- Point of attachment at the
movable end, this end tends to be
away from the body’s main mass

 Major Muscles involved in movement

Palpation- feeling a muscle/muscle group (muscles just underneath the skin surface can usually
be palpated)

Following muscles are superficial muscles that can be palpated…

Muscle Origin Insertion Action

Deltoid Scapula, clavicle Humerus Abduction of arm
Biceps Bacchii Humerus, scapula Radius Flexion of arm and
forearm, supination
of forearm
Triceps Scapula, Humerus Ulna (proximal end) Extension of arm
and forearm
Latissimus Dorsi Spine Humerus (proximal Adduction,
end) extension and
rotation of arm
Trapezius Base of skull, Scapula (upper Adduction of
Vertebrae surface), clavicle scapula, elevation of
shoulders
Pectorals Sternum, clavicle Head of humerus Flexion and
adduction of arm
Erector Spinae Base of skull Sacrum Extension of back
(trunk)
Gluteus Maximus Posterior surface of Femur Extension and
pelvis, sacrum abduction of thigh
Rectus Abdominis Crest of Pubis Ribs 5,6,7 Flexion of trunk
External Obliques Lower 8 ribs Iliac crest Flexion and rotation
of trunk
Hamstrings Ischium, femur Tibia, head of fibula Extension of thigh,
flexion of lower leg
Quadriceps Iliac crest, femur Tibia (proximal end), Flexion of hip,
patella extension of lower
leg
Gastrocnemius Femur (distal end) Heel bone Knee flexion, plantar
(posterior) flexion of foot
Tibialis anterior Tibia Ankle, tarsal, Dorsiflexion and
metatarsal inversion of foot
Soleus Tibia and fibula Heel bone Plantar flexion of
(posterior) foot

 Muscle Relationship
-Muscles when producing particular movements act as an agonist, antagonist or stabiliser
Agonist (e.g. triceps in flexion movement)
- prime mover which is the muscle causing the major action
- exists for all movable joints, usually more than one being involved in a joint
movement
Antagonist (e.g. biceps in flexion movement)
- muscle that relaxes and lengthens to allow agonist to contract
Stabiliser
- Give muscles a fixed base
- Shortens very little during contraction minimal movement caused

 Types of Muscle Contraction

General:
- Muscles are stimulated and contract in three ways; concentric, eccentric,
isometric
- Concentric and eccentric are isotonic contractions  length of muscle
changes to either shorter or longer
- Isometric= form of static contraction as length doesn’t change despite
application of tension
Concentric
- Most common, muscle shortens during contraction causing movement at
joint
- E.g. contraction of the rectus abdominis to raise the trunk during a sit‐up, or
the biceps contracting to lift a weight
Eccentric
- Muscle lengthens while under tension, action happens often with gravity’s
assistance
- E.g. rectus abdominis extending to gradually lower the trunk during the
downward action of a sit‐up, or the biceps muscle fibres lengthening as the
weight is returned to its original position
Isometric
- Occurs when muscle fibres are activated and develop force, muscle length
does not change no movement takes place
- commonly seen in attempted movements where a resistance cannot be
overcome
- E.g. weight‐lifter trying to lift a weight that cannot be moved, or a person
pushing against a wall. In each case, the effort is being made, but the muscle
length does not change because the resistance is too great

Respiratory System
 Structure and function

Respiration: the process by which the body takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

-facilitates for exchange of gases between the air we breathe and our blood (C02 and O2)  done by
breathing – air movement in and out of lungs

-system made up of lungs and air passages ventilating them

1. Air with O2 from atmosphere enters
body through nose/mouth passes
through nasal cavities through nose and is
warmed, moistened and filtered of any
foreign material

2. Pharynx/throat- common passage for air

to enter trachea (windpipe)/food to
oesophagus  leads from nasal cavity to
larynx (voice box) at beginning of trachea

3. Trachea- hollow tube strengthened and

kept open by rings of cartilage. After
entering chest cavity/thorax trachea divides
into a right and left bronchus (bronchial
tube)  lead to right and left lungs

4. Inner lining of air passages produces

mucus  catches + holds dirt and germs,
covered with cilia (microscopic hairs) that
remove dirt, irritants and mucus through
steady and rhythmic movements

5. lungs consist of two bag-like organs (one

on either side of heart), enclosed in thoracic
cavity by ribs at the sides, sternum at front,
vertebral column at back and diaphragm at
base. Light, soft, lung tissue is compressed
and folded  composed of tiny air pockets like a
sponge

- Right + left bronchi delivering air to lungs

divide into many braches of bronchioles in each
lung

- bronchioles branch many times, eventually

turning into clusters of tiny air sacs called
alveoli/alveolus  walls of alveoli are extremely
thin with network of capillaries (tiny vessels
carrying blood) each like a string bag, oxygen is
exchanged here from the air we breathe for
carbon dioxide from the bloodstream
  Lung Function

Breathing: process which air is moved in and out of the lungs

Inspiration: is air movement from the atmosphere into the lungs; breathing in

-diaphragm contracts + flattens as external intercostal muscles lift the ribs outwards and upwards
-volume of chest cavity increases + pulls walls of lungs outwards
-air pressure decreases within lungs
-air from outside body rushes into lungs through air passages

Expiration: is air movement from the lungs to the atmosphere; breathing out

-diaphragm relaxes, moves upwards as internal intercostal muscles allow ribs and other structures to
return to their resting positions
-volume of chest cavity decreases
-air pressure increases within lungs
-air is forced out to make pressures inside and outside lungs equal
(Normal breath rate 12-18/min)

 Exchange of Gases

-During inspiration, alveoli are supplied with fresh air, high in oxygen content + low in C02
-Blood in capillaries arriving at alveoli is low in O2 and high in CO2, different concentrations of O2
and CO2 between blood and air result in pressure difference
TWO WAY DIFFUSION= EXCHANGE OF GASES (or gaseous exchange) -Gases
such as O2 and CO2 move from areas of high concentration/pressure to
low therefore O2 moves from air in alveoli across the alveolar-capillary
wall into the blood, where It attaches itself to haemoglobin in the red blood
cells…at the SAME TIME, CO2 is unloaded from blood into alveoli across
alveolar- capillary wall to be breathed out

-Exchange of gases also occurs between blood in the capillaries of the arterial
system and the cells of the body; for example, the muscle cells. Here, oxygen
is unloaded to the cells while carbon dioxide resulting from cell metabolism is
given up to the blood. Blood that is high in carbon dioxide content
(deoxygenated blood) is carried back to the lungs where it unloads carbon
dioxide.

 Effect of physical activity on respiration

-higher demand for oxygen triggers a response from respiratory
system
- increased rates of breathing combine with increased volume of air
moving in and out of lungs  delivering more oxygen to the blood
and removing wastes, blood flow to lungs is increased as a result of
circulatory systems response to exercise

What adjustments does it bring on working of respiratory system?

1. Rate and depth of breathing often increase moderately, even before the
exercise begins, as the body’s nervous activity is increased in anticipation
 of the exercise e.g. the thought of a jog can increase our demand for
oxygen!
2. Once exercise starts, rate and depth of breathing increase rapidly 
thought to be related to stimulation of the sensory receptors in the
body’s joints as a result of the movement, further increases during the
exercise result mainly from increased concentrations of CO2 in the
blood, which triggers greater respiratory activity.
3. 3. The increases in the rate (frequency) and depth (tidal volume or TV) of
breathing provide greater ventilation and occur, generally, in proportion
to increases in the exercise effort (workload on
the body)

Circulatory System
Background:

- Continual and fresh supply of oxygen and food that the

tissues of the body require is provided by the blood.
- Circulation: Blood flows constantly around body from the
heart, to the cells, and then returns to the heart
- Various structures through which the blood flows all
belong to the circulatory system/ cardiovascular system
(cardio — relating to the heart; and vascular — relating to
the blood vessels),  transport system delivers oxygen
and nutrients to all parts of the body and removes carbon
dioxide and wastes.
- It consists of: blood, the heart, blood vessels — arteries,
capillaries and veins

 Components of blood

Blood: a complex fluid circulated by the pumping action of the heart.

 Nourishes every cell of the body

 Average sized person contains about 5L of blood
 Blood’s main functions include:
- Transportation of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removal of carbon dioxide
and wastes
- Protection of the body via the immune system and by clotting to prevent blood loss
- Regulation of the body’s temperature and the fluid content of the body’s tissues
- Consists of a liquid component (55 % of blood volume) called plasma and a solid
component (45 per cent of blood volume) made up of red and white blood cells
and platelets.

Plasma - Plasma is a straw-coloured liquid mainly consisting of water (about 90 per cent).

 Substances; plasma proteins, nutrients, hormones, mineral salts and wastes are dissolved in
the plasma and are necessary for the nourishment and functioning of tissues, much of the
CO2 and very small amounts of O2 are also carried in a dissolved state in plasma
  Water is a significant component of the circulatory system  controls body heat through
sweating e.g. when we work hard, the blood transfers excess heat generated by the body to
the surface of the skin to be lost. If sweating is extreme, excessive loss of water from plasma
and tissues can decrease blood volume, making frequent hydration (replacement of water)
necessary
 Simple; plasma transports everything including water, nutrients, waste products, hormones,
nutrients (e.g. glucose and amino acids) and is 55% of blood volume

Red Blood Cells- The blood cells that carry oxygen (are part of 45% of blood volume with platelets,
white blood cells)

 Formed in bone marrow

 Main role: to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body.
 Contain iron and a protein called haemoglobinHaemoglobin readily combines with
oxygen and carries it from the lungs to the cells
 Outnumber white blood cells by about 700 to one
 Have a flat disc shape that provides a large surface area for taking up oxygen
 About two million red blood cells are destroyed and replaced every second, they live
for only about 4 months, On average, men have 16 grams of haemoglobin per 100
mL of blood (as a percentage of blood volume), while women average 14 grams per 100 mL
of blood Women, therefore, have lower levels of haemoglobin and a slightly lessened
ability to carry oxygen in the blood

White Blood Cells-

 Formed in the bone marrow and lymph nodes

 Provide the body with a mobile protection system against disease
 Can change shape and move against the blood flow to areas of infection or disease
 two most common types of white blood cells; phagocytes, which engulf foreign material and
harmful bacteria, and lymphocytes; produce antibodies to fight disease e.g. HIV/AIDS

Platelets- are fragments of cells found in blood and are responsible for clotting.

 tiny structures made from bone marrow cells that have no nucleus
 help to produce clotting substances that are important in preventing blood loss
when a blood vessel is damaged

 Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries

Heart- a muscular pump that contracts

rhythmically, providing the force to keep the
blood circulating throughout the body.

 It is slightly larger than a clenched fist and

is the shape of a large pear
 Lies in the chest cavity between the lungs
and above the diaphragm, and is
protected by the ribs and sternum
 Beats an average of 70 times/min at rest.
= 100 000 beats per day
 In one day the heart pumps approximately 12 000L of blood
 A muscle wall divides the heart into a right and left side. Each side consists of two chambers:
o Atria — the upper, thin‐walled chambers that receive blood coming back to the
heart
o Ventricles — the lower, thick‐walled chambers that pump blood from the heart to
the body
- A system of four one‐way valves allows blood to flow in only one direction through the
heart; that is, from the atria to the ventricles (the atrioventricular valves) and from the
ventricles into the main arteries taking blood away from the heart (the arterial valves).

Action of the heart:

- It is able to receive blood from the veins and pump it to the lungs and the body through a
rhythmic contraction and relaxation process called the cardiac cycle  consists of the:
o Diastole (relaxation or filling) phase
1. Muscles of both the atria and ventricles relax
2. Blood returning from the lungs and all parts of the body flows in to fill both the atria and
ventricles in preparation for systole (contraction)
o Systole (contraction or pumping) phase
1. Atria contract first to further fill the ventricles
2. Ventricles then contract and push blood under pressure to the lungs and all parts of the
body  as they contract, the rising pressure in the ventricles closes the atrioventricular
valves (between the atrium and the ventricle) and opens the valves in the arteries leaving
the heart (the aorta and the pulmonary artery)

Heartbeat: heart is made to contract or beat regularly by small impulses of electricity that are
initiated and sent out from a natural pacemaker in the wall of the right atrium.

o An initial low pressure sound is caused by the atrioventricular valves closing, occurs at
the beginning of the ventricular contraction (systole) after blood has filled the
ventricles high pressure sound that follows is caused by the valves closing at the exits
to the heart, and occurs after blood has been pushed from the ventricles at the end of
the systole phase
o Each time the ventricles contract (that is, the heart beats), a wave of blood under
pressure travels through the arteries, expanding and contracting the arterial walls
(pulse) It reflects the fluctuating pressure of blood in the arteries with each heartbeat,
it can be felt at various points where an artery lies near the skin surface, in particular the
radial pulse at the base of the thumb and the carotid pulse at the side of the neck

Blood supply to the heart:

o Heart (cardiac muscle) requires a rich supply of blood and oxygen to enable it to
contract repeatedly it receives this through its own system (coronary circulation)
of cardiac blood vessels that branch off the aorta and spread extensively over the
heart wall (myocardium)
o Heart muscle has a very high demand for blood (particularly during exercise) and
extracts more than 75% of the O2 delivered to it both at rest and during exercise.
 o During exercise when the heart’s extra demands for oxygen must be met, coronary
circulation accounts for up to approximately 10% of the total blood volume leaving
the left ventricle, compared to approximately 3% at rest
Arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart RED

o Carry blood away from the heart

o Have thick, strong, elastic walls containing smooth muscle to withstand
the pressure of the blood forced through them
o Blood pumped under pressure from the left ventricle passes through the
aorta (the largest artery) and throughout the body…at the same time,
blood from the right ventricle passes through the pulmonary artery to
the lungs where it collects O2 and then returns to the heart these
large exit arteries branch into smaller arteries that eventually divide into
tiny branches called arterioles. Arterioles in turn divide into
microscopic vessels (capillaries).

Capillaries: are the smallest of all blood vessels. They function to exchange oxygen and nutrients for
waste.

o Link between the arterioles and the veins, they re-join to form tiny veins called venules.
o In active tissue such as the muscles and brain, the capillary network is particularly dense
with much branching of very fine structured vessels provides a large surface area for the
exchange of materials between the blood and the fluid surrounding the cells (interstitial
fluid).
o Capillary walls are extremely thin, consisting of a single layer of flattened cellswalls allow
oxygen, nutrients and hormones from the blood to pass easily through to the interstitial
fluid, then into the cells of the body’s tissues.
o Blood pressure (due to the pumping action of the heart) helps to force fluid out of the
capillaries, meanwhile, carbon dioxide and cell wastes are received back into the capillaries,
diffusion of oxygen and other nutrients from the capillaries into the cells and carbon
dioxide and wastes from the cells into the capillaries is known as capillary exchange

Veins: carry deoxygenated blood from the body tissues back to the right atrium. Pulmonary veins
from the lungs differ in that they carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium BLUE

 Venules collect deoxygenated (low oxygen content) blood from the

capillaries and transfer it to the veins, as pressure in the veins is low,
blood flows mainly against gravity (blood flow in the veins above the
heart is, however, assisted by gravity)
 Walls of veins are thinner than those of arteries, with greater ‘give’ to
allow the blood to move more easily
 Valves at regular intervals in the veins prevent the backflow of blood
during periods when blood pressure changes
 Pressure changes created by the pumping action of the heart stimulate blood flow in the
veins and help to draw blood into it during diastole (relaxation phase), return of blood from
the body back to the heart (venous return) is further assisted by rhythmic muscle
contractions in nearby active muscles (muscle pump) which compress the veins, it is also
assisted by surges of pressure in adjacent arteries pushing against the veins
  Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary circulation: the flow of blood from the heart

to the lungs and back to the heart.

- Right side, receives venous blood (de-

oxygenated) from all body parts and pumps to
the lungs
- The closed circuit of blood to and from the lungs

Systemic circulation: the flow of blood from the heart to

body tissue and back to the heart.

- Left side of the heart receives blood

(oxygenated) from the lungs and pumps it
around the body

 Blood Pressure

Systolic pressure: the highest (peak) pressure recorded when blood is forced into the arteries during
contraction of the left ventricle (systole)
Diastolic pressure: the minimum or lowest pressure recorded when the heart is relaxing and filling
(diastole).
Blood pressure: refers to the force exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels, the flow and
pressure of blood in the arteries rises with each contraction of the heart and falls when it relaxes
and refills

It has two phases — systolic and diastolic

- Generally reflects the quantity of blood being pushed out of the heart (cardiac output) and
the ease or difficulty that blood encounters in passing through the arteries (resistance to
flow).
- It is determined by:
o Cardiac output, any increase in cardiac output results in an increase in blood
pressure
o Volume of blood in circulation, if blood volume increases because of increased
water retention, such as when salt intake is high, blood pressure increases
o Resistance to blood flow, If the viscosity (stickiness) of the blood is increased, such
as during dehydration, resistance increases
o Diameter of the blood vessels also affects blood flow through the vessels, with
narrowing of the vessels (for example, in atherosclerosis), resistance to blood flow is
increased.
- Elasticity of the arterial walls acts to maintain blood flow deposits build up on the walls,
the arteries become less elastic and harder (arteriosclerosis), thereby making it more
difficult for blood to flow, any increase in the resistance to blood flow consequently causes
elevated blood pressure
- Venous return, this affects cardiac output, it also affects blood pressure.
- Recorded with a sphygmomanometer

Health-related components of physical fitness

Physical fitness is important in establishing and maintaining total body health.
- Components, all contribute to total body fitness.
- Some fitness components have a direct impact on health a variation in one or a number of
these components can significantly affect our total health and well‐being.
- There is a range of well recognised tests available to measure each of the components.

Health‐related fitness components include:

• Cardiorespiratory endurance • Muscular strength •Muscular endurance • Flexibility •Body
composition
- Health‐related fitness components respond positively to physical exercise
- Improve personal health and lifestyle, including lowering the risk of hypokinetic disease (is a
term given to modern lifestyle diseases associated with inactivity). Hypokinetic disease
includes such conditions as:
•heart disease •obesity •high blood pressure •insomnia •diabetes •depression.

 Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Definition: refers to the ability of the working muscles to take up and use the oxygen that has been
breathed in during exercise and transferred to muscle cells.
Test: beep test
A well‐trained cardiorespiratory system ensures:
•the delivery of adequate quantities of blood (high cardiac output)
•a functional ventilation system (respiratory system)
•a good transport system (circulatory system) to ensure efficient and speedy delivery of oxygen and
nutrients to the cells.

 Muscular Strength
Definition: the ability to exert force against a resistance in a single maximal effort.
Test: Hand dynamometer grip test
Muscular Strength:
• High levels of overall body strength improve performance and reduce the risk of injury as well as
help maintain good posture
• When we increase our strength, there is also an increase in the size of the muscle =hypertrophy

 Muscular Endurance
Definition: the ability of the muscles to endure physical work for extended periods of time without
undue fatigue.
Test: Sit ups test (2 mins for boys, 1 min for girls)
Muscular Endurance:
• Local in that it is specific to a muscle or a group of muscles, it depends on the condition of the
muscle that is performing the repeated contractions e.g. the rectus abdominis during continuous sit‐
ups
• is improved by programs that focus on maximum repetitions with low to moderate levels of
resistance.

 Flexibility
Definition: is the range of motion about a joint or the ease of joint movement
Test: Sit and Reach Test
Flexibility:
• Helps sport performance, contributes significantly to quality of life
• Is joint specific; that is, the level of flexibility found in one joint will not necessarily be uniform
throughout the body
•Directly affects personal health and athletic performance, both now and in the future
•Is improved by safe stretching programs which, in addition to increasing mobility, also help prevent
injury, improve posture, improve blood circulation, decrease the chance of lower back pain later in
life, and strengthen the muscle if combined with isometric exercises

 Body Composition
Definition: refers to the percentage of fat as opposed to lean body mass in a human being
Test: Body fat measuring using skin fold callipers
Body Composition:
•takes account of the level of storage fuel required for muscle activity, having too little or too much
storage fuel (fat) can significantly affect health and physical performance
•people need a certain amount of body fat (essential fat) it surrounds vital organs e.g. kidneys,
heart, muscle, liver and nerves
•absence of fat in vital organs leads to chronic health problem as it helps protect, insulate and
absorb shock to these organs
• Additional fat (storage fat) is important as a source of stored energy used for fuel in times of rest
and sleep and extended exercise of >than 1 hr when supplies of blood glucose has exhausted
•Lean body mass (fat-free mass) is comprised of body’s non-fat tissue (bone, muscle, organs,
connective tissue)
•can be changed by diet and exercise e.g. a lifestyle that combines regular high activity and
resistance training with a well‐balanced, but not excessive, food intake will result in a significant
decrease in body fat and improved body tone
•recommended amount of body fat as a percentage of body composition is 15 to 20 per cent for
men and 20 to 25 per cent for women

Skill-related components of physical fitness

Other fitness components relate more specifically to skills required for sports performance. An
improvement in skill‐related components improves performance in activities that utilise that skill.

Skill-related fitness components include:

•Power •speed •agility •coordination •balance •reaction time.

 Power

Definition: Muscular power is the ability to combine strength and speed in an explosive action
Test: Vertical Jump Test
Muscular Power:
• determined by the amount of work per unit of time, people who are strong are not necessarily
powerful
•amount of power relative to the amount of strength varies according to the type of activity
•Speed‐dominated power is power generated through a greater emphasis on speed and is essential
in activities such as sprinting and throwing
•Strength‐dominated power is power generated through a greater emphasis on strength
•Effective programs aim to develop the required amounts of strength and power in each individual
according to the needs of the sport E.g. Javelin uses muscular power

 Speed
Definition: the ability to perform body movements quickly
Test: 30m sprint Test
Speed:
•is largely an inherited quality determined by fibre type, therefore speed is not as responsive to
training as other fitness components e.g. strength and power
•increase of speed can be achieved through improvement of reaction time at the start, form,
alignment, balance and the utilisation of energy for a powerful finish

 Agility
Definition: the ability to move the body from one position and direction to another with speed and
precision
Test: Illinois Agility run
Agility:
•combines balance, coordination and speed
•tests are performed at speed as balance and coordination is tested through components it is
comprised of
•Improved fitness in balance and coordination improves agility + ability to resist fatigue
•training to improve agility should include; ability to be aware of, and control body parts and
recognise patterns of skills and react + respond quickly to stimuli e.g. drills to improve footwork and
to start and change direction will be beneficial to develop agility
•agile players can; respond quickly to an opposing player, making agility equally as or even more
important than speed e.g. a soccer or hockey player

 Coordination
Definition: the ability to harmonise the messages from the senses (such as sight, feel and sound)
with parts of the body to produce movements that are smooth, skilful and well controlled
Test: Half-flip stick test

Coordination:
•requires good interaction between the brain and the muscles, resulting in efficient body movement
•is important in games, in movements that require throwing and activities such as dancing
•It is not a specific skill such as power or speed, it is seen in the way a motor skill is executed
•tennis players, exhibit excellent coordination
•contributes to the aesthetic quality of movement
•well-coordinated people acquire new movements readily as a result, adapt quickly to learning
new sports and activities
•Well‐coordinated players are less prone to accidents and injury when involved in physical activity

 Balance
Definition: the ability to maintain equilibrium while either stationary or moving
Test: Stork Stand test
Balance:
•depends on one’s ability to blend what is seen and felt with balance mechanisms (located in inner
ear)
•Type types: static & dynamic
Static: maintaining equilibrium while body is stationary
Dynamic: maintaining equilibrium while body is moving
•is used daily whilst walking, running etc. but used to higher degree for proper execution of some
skills e.g. gymnast performing a handstand, ballerina on her toes, skiers
•is improved by practice, when a person learns to control centre of gravity when moving and with a
narrow base of support (handstand), balance improves
•is lost when centre of gravity falls outside base of support with stationary activities

 Reaction Time
Definition: the time taken to respond to a stimulus
Test: Ruler drop test
Reaction Time:
•Important in sprinting, shooting and swimming
•a period of time between the mind realising presence of stimulus and the body responding to it
exists, stimulus such as starter’s gun, a movement, or a target fired into air require fast reaction time
•varies from person to person, can be improved with practice + concentration

Aerobic and Anaerobic training

Energy pathway: a system that converts nutrients to energy for exercise.
Anaerobic- means ‘in the absence of oxygen’
Aerobic- means ‘with oxygen’.

- Training programs aim to develop a range of fitness components together with skill
development, moves and strategies, to develop an effective training program it is necessary
to identify the correct energy pathway or body system that converts nutrients to energy
- If we perform short sharp movements as in jumping and lifting, the body uses the anaerobic
pathway (oxygen is absent) to supply energy.
- If movements are sustained and of moderate intensity, the aerobic pathway (with oxygen)
supplies the bulk of energy needs
- We therefore need to closely examine the exact type of movements that will be performed
in the game or activity for which we are training  allows us to select training activities that
develop the correct energy source, be it aerobic, anaerobic or a combination of both

Aerobic Training:
•refers to exercise that is dependent on oxygen utilisation for body to enable muscular work
•activity of low-moderate intensity, continuing for 90secs or more is generally termed aerobic as
oxygen is available to cells of working muscles for energy generation
•use the FITT (frequency, intensity, time, type) principle to provide guidance in developing an
aerobic program to suit our needs. The principle provides guidelines for individuals who aim to
improve cardiorespiratory fitness and some forms of resistance training.

Examples: Walking, marathon running and the 1500 metres in swimming are examples of activities
that require a high degree of aerobic fitness
To improve aerobic fitness we need to: engage in activities that are continuous and of long duration
e.g. cross‐country running, sand‐hill running, cycling and jogging are examples of activities that
develop our aerobic energy system.

Anaerobic Training:
•intensity level is much higher and effort period much shorter than required in aerobic activity
•generally activity lasting for 2 or less minutes and is of high intensity is called anaerobic as muscular
work takes place without presence of oxygen e.g. sprinting; muscles respond instantly and quickly
exhaust any fuel reserves in working muscles, increased breathing rate delivers more O2 to this area
but it takes time to arrive as there is a limit to speed of blood flow and therefore O2 transport
•muscles used a restricted amount of stored and other fuel until O2 becomes available
•requires specialised training to generate adaptations necessary for muscular work without O2
•generally requires aerobic foundation esp. in sprinting and swimming
Effect of anaerobic training: enhances ability of muscle cells to improve use of fuel reserves and
efficiency in converting blood sugar to energy in intense exercise
To improve anaerobic fitness we need to: work hard at performing and enduring specific anaerobic
movements e.g. lifting weights, throwing, practise the required movements at or close to
competition speed to encourage the correct adaptations to occur, use activities such as interval
training where periods of intense work are interspersed with short rests to train the anaerobic
system to supply sufficient fuel, utilise resistance (weight) training exercises to further develop the
muscles required for the movement, train to improve the body’s ability to recharge itself; that is, to
decrease recovery time after short periods of intense exercise, train to improve the body’s ability to
tolerate higher levels of lactic acid, a performance use crippling substance that builds up in the
muscles following intense exercise, gradually develop the body’s ability to utilise and/or dispose of
waste that is created by intense exercise

 FITT Principle
Frequency - For results, training at least 3-5x a week
(benefit gained from 5+ is minimal)
- Aim to sufficiently stress body systems
for an adaptation (adjustment made by
body from exposure to increase in
intensity training) response
- Resistance training, 3
sessions=sufficient 4=maximal as rest
days are needed for muscle fibres to
regenerate

Intensity - amount of effort required by an

individual to accrue a fitness benefit
- measuring intensity during aerobic
exercise is by calculating your target
heart rate and using this as a guide
- target heart rate together with the area
above and below is called the
target heart rate zone
- level of intensity needs to be sufficient
to keep the heart rate within the target
heart rate zone for the required period
of time
- level of intensity is established in terms
of heart rate which is calculated in
beats per minute (bpm)
Maximal heart rate= 220-age e.g. 16
therefore 204bpm
If fitness is poor= 50-70% MHR
Good= 70-85% MHR
Uncertain=work at poor and intensify

-Intensity can change by; varying load,

repetitions, sets, rest period
Time - for people in good health, session in
 THRZ should last 20-30mins, and
increase to 40 if possible
- don’t exercise longer than 60mins, or
to exhaustioncarries overtraining
risks and possible development of
injury
- beginners: low level of fitness, around
15mins (excluding warm up/down)
- 6weeks=minimal period for adaptations
to take place and results
- Resistance training: 30-45mins
depending on intensity of exercise
Type - best type= continuous exercise that
uses the large muscle groups e.g.
Running, cycling, swimming and
aerobics  draw heavily on oxygen
supply, causing increased breathing
rate, heart rate and blood flow to the
working muscles
- Aerobic fitness improves as the
cardiorespiratory system adapts in
response to the demands being made
on it
- resistance training: low resistance with
high repetitions, can be provided in
circuit training and resistance bands

Immediate physiological responses to training

These are the changes that take place within specific body organs and tissue during exercise

 Heart Rate
 Is the number of times the heart beats per minute (BPM)
 A low resting heart rate is indicative of a very efficient cardiovascular system
 Our heart rate increases according to the intensity of our exercise effort
 Maximal heart rates are observed during exhaustive exercise
 In a fit person, heart rate levels off during protracted exercise reaching a steady state
 For an unfit person, heart rate continues to rise gradually as exercise is prolonged

Heart rate is therefore a good indicator of the intensity of exercise and may be used as a
fundamental measure of a person’s cardiovascular fitness

 Ventilation rate
 Refers to our depth and rate of breathing and is expressed in litres per minute
 When we begin to exercise the demand for more oxygen by the muscles cells causes a
ventilation response
 During rest, the ventilation rate is about 12 breathes per minute, causing the lungs to
consume around 500 millilitres of air per breath
  Once exercise starts, the rate and depth of breathing intensifies. This is matched by an
increase in oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, triggering elevated
respiratory activity

 Stroke volume
 The amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during a contraction. It is measure in
mL/beat
 When exercise increases, the amount of blood that the heart dischargers (per beat)
increases considerably
 Stroke volume is determine by
o The ability to fill the ventricles by blood volume
o The ability to empty the ventricles as a result of ventricular contractions
 Stroke volume increases during exercise, with most of the increases being evident as the
person progresses from rest to moderate exercise intensity

Why is there such a difference? This large increase is the availability of oxygenated blood to the
working muscles explains their superior performance

It should be noted that the increase in stroke volume occurs as a result of more blood returning to
the heart. This promotes a more forceful contraction

 Cardiac output
 Increases the same way as stroke volume
 It is a product of heart rate and stroke volume
 Cardiac Output (CO) = heart rate (HR) X stroke volume (SR)
 Cardiac output increases in response to physical demands being made on the body
 Output for both trained and untrained is approx. 5 litres, because elite athletes have a lower
heart rate

The immediate response to training indicates noteworthy differences between the two groups.
While untrained people are able to increase cardiac output to around 20-22 litres per minute during
exercise, highly trained endurance athletes can increases it to 35-40 litres per minute. This is
achieved with a lower normal heart rate

 During exercise 84% of the blood goes to the muscles because it needs the oxygen

 Lactate Levels
 Lactate is a salt formed from lactic acid that accumulates during intense anaerobic
activity
 Lactate is a chemical formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates in the absence of
sufficient oxygen
 This lactate is continually resynthesised providing the body with energy
 Generally lactate flows freely in the blood and its concentration increases as the
workload is increased.
 High levels of lactate are produced when we exercise and there is insufficient oxygen
available to the muscle cells
 It accumulates rapidly when we exercise above the Lactate Inflection Point (LIP), which
occurs at about 80-90% MHR for trained athletes.
 This point is much lower for untrained athletes
 Lactate or lactic acid increases in the blood during exercise. If exercise is vigorous,
lactate increases rapidly and inhibits performance if levels rise to high
How do biochemical principles influence movement?
Motion – the application of liner motion, velocity, speed, acceleration, momentum in movement
and performance contexts

Biomechanics

 A science concerned with forces and the effect of these forces on and within the human
body
 Is very important to understanding techniques in sport
 It is of value to both coach and player because it is concerned with efficiency of movement

Motion

 Movement of a body from one position to another

 How motion is classified depends on the path followed by the moving object

Linear motion

 Takes place when a body and all parts connected to it travel the same distance in the same
direction and at the same speed
 Example – a person standing still on an escalator or in a lift
 The easiest way to determine if a body is experiencing linear motion is to draw a straight line
connecting two parts of the body for example, the neck and hips
 If the line remains in the same position when the body moves from one position to another,
the motion is linear
 Examples include swimming and sprint events where competitor race following a straight
line from start to finish.

Angular motion

 Angular momentum is shown in sports where bodies generate momentum, but they do not
travel in a straight line ; for example
o Tennis serve
o Football kick
o Golf swing
 In each of these cases, the body part of it, or an attachment to it such as a golf club or tennis
raquet, is rotating
 Angular motion is the quantity of angular motion in a body or part of a body
 When moving bodies do not travel in a straight line, it is called angular motion.

Velocity

 Velocity is equal to displacement divided by time

 Displacement is the movement of a body from one location to another in a particular
direction, or an ‘as the crow flies’ measurement
 Velocity is equal to displacement divided by time
 Velocity is used for calculation where the object does not move in a straight line
 An example is a runner in a cross country race.

Speed
  Speed is equal to the distance covered divided by the time taken to cover the distance
 Much of our potential for speed is genetic and relates to the type of muscles fibre in our
bodies
 However, individuals can develop their speed as a result of training and technique
improvements, the basis of which is the development of power and efficiency of movement.

Acceleration

 Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes in a given amount of time

 When a person or object is stationary, the velocity is zero. An increase in velocity is referred
to as positive acceleration. A decrease is negative acceleration
 The ability to accelerate depends largely on the speed of muscle contraction, but use of
certain biomechanical techniques, such as forward body lean, can improve performance.

Momentum

 Refers to the quantity of motion that a body possess

 Product of mass and velocity. M= mV

Balance and stability

Centre of gravity

 The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which all weight is evenly distributed and
about which the object is balanced
 In the human body, the position of the centre of gravity depends upon how the body parts
are arranged, that is, the position of the arms and legs relative to the trunk
Base of support

 The amount of ground that supports you is your base of support

 When you stand up with your feet straight together, you have a small base of support
 Standing with your legs apart gives you a larger base of support
 Balance and stability improve with a larger base of support

Line of gravity

 The line of gravity is an imaginary vertical line passing through the centre of gravity and
extending to the ground
 The closer the line of gravity moves to the outer limits of the base of support, the less stable
we become.

Fluid mechanics
 Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics that is concerned with properties of gases and
liquids. For example cycling, snowboarding and swimming
Flotation

 To float is to maintain a stationary position on the surface of the water

 Buoyant force is the upward force on an object produced by the fluid in which is fully or
partially submerged
 The density of a boy or object refers to its mass per unit of volume
  Our body floats readily on water when the forces created by its weight are matched equally
or better by the buoyant force of the water
 For an object to float it needs to displace an amount of water that weights more than itself
 If our weight density is high, that is we are relatively fat free, the body sinks in water.
Conversely if we have higher proportions of less compact tissue, such as fat, we tend to
float.
 The degree of density changes the buoyancy of an object or body
 Objects with densities higher than that of water (more mass) sink
 Object with densities lower than that of water (less mass) float
 It is common for people to sink non-uniformly from a horizontal stationary floating position
and this usually begins with the feet
 The positioning of tissues such as the lungs, relative to the legs impacts on flotation and
affects which parts sink first

What are the differences between moving on land and moving in air?

 Water and air environments are both fluid environments

 As our bodies move through these we are subject to various forces
 Immersed in water, there are two opposing forces actin on our bodies
 Gravity is a force pulling the body down
 Buoyant force is a force pushing up against a body
 When a body is wholly or partially submerged in a fluid, an upward buoyant force is exerted
on the body which is equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced
 Buoyant force > gravity = float. Buoyant force < gravity = sink
 The buoyant force and the force of gravity will remain constant. Density is the main force
acting on the body which includes bone structure, body fat.

 Fresh bone = most dense. Muscle = next, similar to water. Fat = least dense
 People with a greater amount of body fat float better
 Legs sink first as they are denser and are mainly muscle and bone
 The lungs when full of air, act like a balloon
 Centre of gravity and buoyancy are generally located around the same place
 Centre of gravity is located around the navel
 Centre of buoyancy is located around the chest cavity

Fluid mechanics – fluid resistance

 Drag is the force that opposes the forward motion of a body or object, reducing its speed or
velocity
 Drag forces run parallel to flow direction (airflow , water), exerting a force on the body in the
direction of the stream
 The amount of drag experienced depends on a number of factors including
o Fluid density: because water is denser than air, forward motion in this is more
difficult
o Shape: if a body or object is streamlined at the front, and tapered towards the tail,
the fluid through which it is moving experiences less turbulence and this results in
less resistance
o Surface: a smooth surface causes less turbulence, resulting in less drag
o Size of frontal area: if the front of a person or object (area making initial contact
with the fluid) is large, resistance to forward motion is increased
  Much has been done to try to minimise resistance forces that oppose movement in fluid
mediums
 For example
o Technique: cyclists, speed skaters and downhill skiers all bend forward at the trunk
o Tactics: distance runners and cyclists follow one another closely where possible
o Clothing: tight body suits made of special friction- reducing fabrics are won by
swimmers, cyclists and runners
o Equipment design: designs of equipment’s such as golf balls, golf clubs, cricket bats,
bicycle helmets and surfboards are continually being modified to make them more
aerodynamically efficient

The Magnus Effect

 Air effects flight of all projectiles
 When a ball spins there is a force perpendicular to the spin axis
 An outer layer of air sticks to the ball and rotates with it
 On the side of the ball that this outer layer collides with the air flowing past the ball, it
decelerates causing a high pressure area
 On the opposite side, the spinning ball moves in the same direction as the flowing past it,
which accelerates the ball creating a low pressure area
 As a result it curves in the direction of the low pressure area

Forces
 A force is something that causes or has the potential to cause, divert or slow the movement
of an object which it acts
 Force is measured in a unit called a Newton
 The muscles that contract to exert a force on the bones, cartilage and ligaments are an
example of internal force
 Any forces exerted outside the body (such as gravity, friction and air resistance) are external
forces
 The four common properties of forces are:
o Magnitude (an amount: how much is applied)
o Direction (the angle at which the force is applied)
o Point of application ( the specific point at which the force is applied to a body)
o Line of action (represents a straight line through the point of application in the
direction that the force is acting)

Newtons Laws
o First law: Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion
unless an external force is applied to it. Such as when a ball is rolled
o Second law: The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied
force F is F = ma. Acceleration and force are vectors in this law. The direction of the force
vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector. A golf ball being putted on a
green
 o Third law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Weights being lifted

Contact forces
There are six types of contact forces:

o Athletes are in contact with the ground, and the reaction force that applies to the
athlete is called the ground reaction force
o The force that two bones apply to each other across a joint is called the joint
reaction force
o Friction is the force that resists the motion of one surface across another
o In many sports, motion is affected by the fluid in which it is performed. This is called
fluid resistance
o Force of inertia affects movement
o When material changes its length when a force is applied to it, the force is said to be
an elastic force.

Summation of forces is the combined amount of forces action on the body or an object

o Summation of forces is affected by the:

o Number of body parts used in the movement
o Order and timing of their involvement
o Force and velocity generated
o Way in which body arts are stabilised for other body parts to act upon

Centripetal and centrifugal forces

o When objects move along a curved path, a centre-seeking force acts towards the centre of
the rotation. It is called the centripetal force.
o There is also an equal and opposite centre-fleeing force.
The momentum of the speeding body must be gradually decreased by joint actions, allowing forces
to be absorbed

Inertia
Inertia is the property of matter by which it retains its state of rest or its velocity along a straight
line so long as it is not acted upon by an external force.

Safety when colliding

o There is a number of simple precautions to ensure safer collisions and impacts between
ourselves and other bodies
o Use a large surface area
o Keep as great a distance as possible between the impacting players
o Use as much mass as possible when landing or catching
o Regulate the position of one’s centre of gravity
o Use materials other than body parts
o Protect projections of the body during impact
o ‘give’ with the impact
First aid- Year 11 2015 notes
 Setting Priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the
casualty
 Priorities
Minimising possible harm to…
1st= yourself
2nd= bystanders
3rd= casualty

-Important that when managing a first aid situation it is important that circumstances and eventual
outcome for the patient are improved as much as possible

Situation Analysis and Priority Assessment:

When being confronted in a first aid situation you must;
 Analyse the situation- observe what has happened and think of what is the best
thing you can do for the patient in relation to your personal skills
 Make a plan of how you will manage the situation; prioritise before taking
actions, dealing with the most important issues first
 o Main issue= You must NOT put the casualty’s safety before your own

 Principles of First Aid (4 P’s)

Preserve life- life of yourself, casualty and bystanders
Protect the casualty from further harm- by ensuring the scene is safe
Promote recovery- by ensuring the treatment you provide does not make the injury worse
Prove reassurance- this is just as important as the treatment you give

 5 main considerations to first aid;

1. Consent- Informed/Implied
2. Cultural awareness
3. Duty of care
4. Negligence
5. Recording and confidentiality (name, date, place, time, treatment)

DRSABCD
D check for DANGER
• to you
• to other people in the immediate area
• to the casualty
R check for RESPONSE
• is the casualty conscious?
• to check for consciousness ask questions, squeeze their hand
S for Send for help
•Call 000 for an ambulance OR ask another person to make the call
A check AIRWAY
• is the airway open and clear of objects?
• clear and maintain the airway
B check for BREATHING
• is the chest rising and falling?
• can you hear or feel air from the mouth or nose?
• if breathing is absent give two initial breaths
C give CPR
• if there are no signs of life – unconscious, not breathing and not moving, apply CPR
• CPR stands for cardiopulmonary resuscitation
• CPR involves giving 30 compressions at a rate of approximately 100 compressions per minute,
followed by two breaths
 D attach DEFIBRILLATOR (if available)
• follow voice prompts

STOP – Regime
Stop- the person from moving. It may be necessary to stop the sport or activity. Are there any
dangers?
Talk- to the injured person. Ask them questions to ascertain the type and severity of the injury.
Questions may include:
• What happened?
• Where does it hurt?
• Can you move the affected area or body part?
Observe- the patient and the injured area. Look for facial expressions of pain, look for swelling or
deformity and feel for pain or tenderness. Ask yourself questions such as:
• Does the patient look distressed?
• Is there swelling, bleeding or bruising?
• Are there any deformities?
Prevent further injury- by conducting a whole of body assessment and treating the injury with
appropriate first aid.

- Talk to the injured person and what they may have heard
- Observe- look at the injury – compare
- Touch- gently feel the area
- Active movement- ask if they can move the area
- Passive movement – gently try to move the area
- Skills test – ask them to perform a skill they were doing before.

 Crisis management
 Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
1. 30 chest compressions- designed to pump the heart to get blood circulating and deliver
oxygen to the brain until definitive treatment can stimulate the heart to start working again
2. 2 rescue breaths- provides oxygen to a person's lungs

 Bleeding
External bleeding is associated with wounds. Types of wounds include Abrasions,
Amputations, Incisions, Lacerations and Punctures.
1. Treatment is put on gloves
2. check wound for foreign matter
3. apply pressure to stop bleeding
4. bring sides of wound together
5. apply non-stick dressing and bandage
6. elevate the limb

 Shock
Life threatening and should be treated as a top priority. Mostly caused by loss of blood, but
can also be caused by abdominal injuries, loss of body fluids, heart attack, toxicity, spinal
injury or crush injury. Treatment is…
1. Asking questions about what happened, reassure, and treat any injury as normal.
  Spinal injuries: Very serious and can lead to quadriplegia or paraplegia. All head
injured and unconscious patients potentially have spinal injury. Treatment is if
airway not open…
1. use jaw thrust to open the jaw
2. Call 000, maintain head in line with shoulders and spine using manual support
3. apply cervical collar if trained
4. position on spinal stretcher and use head-immobilisation device
5. Treat for shock and other injuries, maintain body heat.

Cuts and lacerations: jagged-edge wound with associated tissue loss. Treatment is...
1. put on gloves, check wound for foreign matter
2. apply pressure to stop bleeding
3. bring sides of wound together, apply non-stick dressing and bandage
4. elevate the limb

Fractures: caused by direct force, indirect force or spontaneous. Symptoms are rapid or weak
pulse, pain at the site, tenderness, loss of power to the limb, associated wound or blood loss,
associated organ damage, nausea, deformity. Treatment is…
1. Check for warmth or pulse
2. treat any wounds
3. pad bony areas, apply adequate splint and secure
4. Reassess pulse, apply appropriate sling if required.

Dislocations: displacement of a bone from a joint. Symptoms are sudden pain in affected joint,
loss or power and movement, deformity and swelling of the joint, tenderness, may have
temporary paralysis of the injured limb. Treatment is…
1. RICE, support in a comfortable position, and seek medical aid.

Head injuries: always regarded as serious because they can inflict damage to the brain and
spinal cord as well as damaging the bone and soft tissue. Symptoms include head wounds,
deformation of the skull, altered level of consciousness, evidence of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
leaking from ears, unequal pupils, headache, racoon eyes, nausea/vomiting, confusion, double
vision. Treatment is call 000, apply cervical collar if trained, and treat any wounds, complete
rest, put in recovery position while supporting the spine, allow CSF to drain freely.

Eye injuries: consist of minor eye injuries, major eye injuries and welder’s flash. Treatment
of minor; irrigate the eye and wash, refer to medical aid, cover the affected eye if
appropriate. Major eye injuries; lay the casualty flat, call 000, over the affected eye,
reassurance. Welder’s flash; apply cool compresses and cover the eyes with pads, urgent
medical attention if pains or spots persist.

Nosebleed: put on gloves, pinch the fleshy part of the nose just below the bone, lean slightly
forward, ask them to breathe through their mouth, maintain pressure for atleast 10 mins,
apply cool compress to the nose, neck and forehead
 Teeth injury: hold the tooth by the crown not the root, rinse the tooth with saline solution or
milk or wrap in clingwrap, if the casualty is co-operative, replace the tooth gently in its socket,
bite down gently on a gauze pad to keep the tooth in place, if it cannot be re-inserted place
back in milk, use a gauze pad to bite down and control the bleeding.

Burns: are classified as either superficial, partial thickness or full thickness. Symptoms are red,
blistered, white or blackened skin, signs of shock, pain in superficial and partial thickness burns,
breathing difficulties. Treatment is ensure safety, call 000, put on gloves, cool only with clean
water for atleast 20 mins, cover with a clean non-stick sterile dressing, remove tight clothing
and objects, treat for shock.

Electrocution: difficult or absent breathing, absent weak or irregular pulse, evidence of burns,
evidence of fractures, entrance and exit wound burns, collapse and unconsciousness.
Treatment is to call 000, inform electrical authorities if high voltage involved, if no signs of life
commence CPR, cool and cover with non-stick dressings, reassurance
Chest injuries: difficult for the first aid provider to manage. Chest injuries include fractured
ribs, flail chest and penetrating chest wounds. Symptoms: history of trauma to the chest, pale
skin, pain at the site, rapid shallow breathing, guarding of the injury, blueish skin, object still in
place, open wound to the chest. Treatment for fractured rib: bind the upper arm on the injured
side of the body using a collar and cuff sling, seek medical aid. Treatment for flail chest: call
000, apply a firm pad over the flail section, apply a firm bandage in place, position the casualty
in a positon of comfort, if unconsciousness position on side, reassurance. Treatment for
penetrating chest wound: call 000, stabilise with pad around entry wound, put them in position
of comfort, reassurance, observe for breathing difficulties.

Abdominal injuries: can be caused by blunt trauma or penetrating trauma and involve bleeding
and exposure of internal organs. Can be either blunt or penetrating trauma, or evisceration.
Symptoms: history of the incident, pale skin, evidence of the wound, rapid/weak pulse, shock,
rapid/shallow breathing, abdominal rigidity, guarding of the abdomen, obvious protrusion of
organs, anxiety, nausea. Treatment for blunt trauma: call 000, stop any bleeding, stabilise any
object where it is and pad around the wound, if permitted lay casualty on back and elevate legs
bent at the knees, reassurance. Treatment for evisceration: call 000, cover organs with a non-
stick dressing, places supporting bandage over wound, place casualty flat with elgs bent,
reassurance.

Management of the following injuries

- Heart attack: call 000, rest the casualty in a position of comfort, usually sitting, assist them
taking medication if they have any, reassurance, monitor vital signs
- Stroke: perform the FAST test ( Facial weakness, Arm weakness, Speech problems, Time to
act) adopt position of comfort keeping airway open, reassurance, maintain body temp
- Diabetes: call 000, if conscious try to get them to eat 5-7 jelly beans or drink 150ml soft
drink, repeat if no improvement after 5-10 mins, assist with medication after recovery and
encourage carbs
- Epilepsy: protect from harm, place something soft under head, loosen tight clothing, roll
into recovery position when jerking stops, reassure.
- Asthma: sit them upright, be calm and reassuring, give them 4 puffs of ventolin 1 puff at a
time, with 4 deeps breathes between each puff, wait 4 mins, if no improvement, repeat. If still
not improvement, call 000
- Anaphylaxes: put on gloves, call 000, reassure, use epipen by stabbing them in the mid
thigh and hold in place for 10 seconds, observe further doses may be given if no improvement
after 5 mins
- Poisoning: if casualty collapsed call 000, ring poison information 13 11 26, rescue breaths
and compressions if required, remove contaminated clothing, flood skin with water for 15-20
mins.
- Bites and stings: ensure safety, reassure and rest the casualty, call ambulance, apply a
pressure immobilisation bandage starting from the bite site and then as far up the limb as
possible, apply a second bandage from the bottom of the limb to the top, immobilise with a
splint

Traffic Accidents
- Avoid danger from other traffic. Protect the scene by parking cars and use hazard lights. Get
bystanders to warn incoming traffic
- Light up scene with lights at night
- Avoid fallen power lines. Don’t touch vehicle if in contact
- Account for all occupants of each accident vehicle, some may be hidden
- Turn off engine
- Have fire extinguisher ready
- Continue with DRABCD

Water Environment
Factors to consider in an injury management plan for water rescue include
- The number of casualties
- Distance from shore or edge of a boat or pier
- The water depth and temperature
- What rescue equipment available
- The physical and psychological state of the casualty and their swimming ability
- Rips or currents at the beach
- Hidden dangers under the water

Electricity
Factors to consider in an injury management plan for electric shock include
- Approach the casualty with extreme care and determine the power source
- Turn off the power source, and where possible, remove the plug
- If unable to turn off the power, use a non-conductive power source, stand on a dry area and
attempt to move the power source
- Stand clear of high voltage power until the source is cut off
- Contact emergency services
 Infection control and protection
Infection can be transferred by
- Droplets- nasal, airway or throat secretions
- Bodily fluids and blood- vomit, saliva, urine, faeces or pus
- Infected needles of sharp objects
Precautionary methods prior and after treatment include
- Wash hands before treatment , if possible
- Cover any exposed wound
- Avoid touching potentially infected material
- Use disposable gloves
- Use a resuscitation mask
- Dispose materials in a secured plastic bag
- Wash hands

HIV/AIDS
- HIV is a virus that damages the immune system of the body by attacking the white blood
cells. When a lot of the white blood cells are removed, it turns into AIDS
- It is transferred through blood or bodily fluids
Blood-borne virus (hepatitis B and C)
- It is a blood borne virus transferred through contaminated blood
- It can be transferred through semen, vaginal secretion and saliva

Legal and Moral dilemmas

Legal implications
- Occupational health and safety (OHS) is a cross disciplinary area concerned with protecting
the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment
- The goals of occupational safety and health programs include; to foster a safe and healthy
work environment
- The minimum first aid requirements for first aid in the workplace
- Identification and training of first aider
- Provision of first aid facilities and equipment
- Records of all injuries and treatments
- Promotion of prevention procedures and safe practises in the workplace

Moral Obligations
- A first aider is not legally expected to stop and assist in an emergency, however most people
feel a sense of responsibility to help
- The legal system will tend to protect the first aider as long as they have administered aid
within their level of training
- Negligence is when you do the wrong thing. For negligence to be proven the casualty has to
prove.
 Support following first aid situations
Debriefing
- Involves the obtaining of information about the circumstances of the incident that resulted
in first aid being administered. Involves giving an account of what happened and describing as
much as possible about the situation
It is important to:
- Take the time to ensure that the full picture is gathered
- Make all descriptions as accurate as possible
- Remain impartial and describe the incident exactly as it occurred

Counselling
- Rescuers involved in emergency procedures where there are fatalities and serious injuries
may need counselling
- Providing emergency care, organising help and possibly watching life slip away can be very
upsetting for individual and result in personal pain
- It can lead to anxiety, depression and possibly and inability to cope
- Help is available from various counselling organisations such as hospitals, medical support
centres and state governments such as NSW health
- Counselling is beneficial as it provides the opportunity to ‘work through’ situations and
dispel feelings of blame and inadequacy

Better health for individuals- Year 11 2015 notes

Meanings of Health
Definitions of health
‘An active process through which people become aware of, and make choices towards a more
successful existence’ – US National Wellness Institute
‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity’ – WHO

Dimensions of Health
Physical
- Efficient functioning of the body
- Body’s capacity to participate in everyday activities
- Absence of diseases
- Body size; level of fitness, energy level, ability to recover from illnesses
Mental
- Ability to adapt to change and cope with adversity
- Involves thinking and communication skills, the ability to learn and relate to others
- Resilience and self-esteem
Emotional
- Ability to express emotions when they are appropriate, control them when they are not and
avoid expressing them inappropriately
- Ability to develop a good self-esteem, resolve conflict and maintain a realistic perspective of
situations to decrease stress levels
Social
- Ability to form and maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships
- Ability to relate to our parents, teachers, and friends in a way that is accepted by society
- Being able to follow accepted standards of behaviour and interacting positively in group
situations
Spiritual
- Belief in a supreme being or particular religion
- Believing in a greater scheme – assists in one’s decisions (ethics)
- Being in tune with one’s self
- Ability to understand purpose in life, maintain a sense of wonder and respect all living things

Relative and dynamic nature of health

Health is relative in relation to another period of time, your potential and others (comparison)
Health is dynamic – overall health depends on the difference dimensions, as they are interrelated
and they change over time
Health changes over time – it has the potential to change regularly, even from minute to minute
The Health Continuum measures our health status at any moment in time. We move along this
continuum continually each minute, day or year.
An individual’s circumstances can impact upon their health. They depend on heredity (body type,
illnesses, etc), experiences (sports as a child and habits developed), ability to make informed
decisions (education, self control), and opportunities to access health services (Socio-economic status
and location)

Perceptions of Health
Perceptions of health of the individual
Young People’s Perception of Health and Wellbeing
 Alcohol and Drugs
Biggest issue/impact on/for young people’s health – addiction and abuse; and wider community –
safety/exposure to drugs/alcohol (fear);
 Mental Health
Depression, suicide, self-harm – more of a problem as one gets older – stress, pressure, relationship
problems
 Access to services
Ability to access services, financially and geographically; prejudices (fear of being judged);
transport/medical facilities
 Obesity, general fitness and body image
Need greater participation in physical activity and better nutrition for young people; physical health
impacts other components of health
 Sexual Health
Unplanned pregnancy in young people & the stigma associated; abortion – lack of emotional
support; more accessible contraception; there is more need for encouragement of safer practices in
order to lower teenage pregnancies
Demographic Analysis
 Age
Young people – better understanding of the health system
Older people – feel that access to resources is more of an issue
Young – more people are starting to smoke (more access)
 Location
Urban areas – alcohol, drugs, mental health
Rural – access to services (health professionals for example), access to healthy recreation and leisure
activities
 Ethnicity
Developing nations – viruses and diseases (not enough awareness – e.g. AIDS)
Priorities of health – primary issues concerning drugs, alcohol and mental health
 Indigenous Australians
More likely to recognise issues and damaging effects on community

Why would my perceptions of health be similar or different to others?

Gender – whether a person is male or female
Beliefs – whether a person holds health as an important aspect of their life
Age – people of certain ages are more susceptible to particular diseases than those of other age
groups
Physical Environment – the environment where people live and the resources and facilities available
Lifestyle – people who live a lifestyle that works to prevent poor health (healthy eating & exercise)
Socio-economic status – the social and economic standing
Cultural background – Health is perceived differently in different cultures; behaviours and attitudes
Education levels – knowledge and education about healthy lifestyle
Geographic location – ability to access adequate health resources
Hereditary factors – inherited diseases or health conditions

How might an individual’s perception of health affect their behaviour and wellbeing?
 An individual who does not understand the impact of risk behaviours is unable to identify
the determinants of poor health is most likely to continue to put their own health and risk
 An individual who is well educated about health issues is more likely to be able to identify
the impact of risk behaviours
 Most individuals develop their understanding of health from family values and later from
peers and friends
 An individual with an optimistic outlook is more likely to have motivation to maintain good
health practices – resilience is a valuable quality for achieving this
 Having a social view of health can also be valuable because it can help an individual to
understand that health is relative, dynamic and therefore able to be changed

Implications of different health perceptions

- The way people view health contributes to the focus a community places on the health of its
people.
 - To view health as an absence of disease is to place the responsibility for an individual’s
health solely on that person. This notion disregards the fact that there are many hereditary
and environmental factors that influence health
- To view health as an absence of disease is a simplistic concept that does not allow for
community measures to improve the social environment and living conditions
- To perceive health as a complete sense of wellbeing, or to take a holistic view of health
provides a much broader concept of health involving the mind, spirit and physical body
working in harmony.
- When individuals perceive health in this way they can develop the attitudes required
advocating for change.

Health behaviours of young people

Protective Risk
Mental Being able to put things into perspective Blocking feelings and emotions
Making connections with supportive people Believing mental problems are a sign of weakness
Stress management skills Believing you can solve all your problems by yourself
Regularly expressing feelings Thinking you’re the only person in the situation and no-one
Knowing there’s help (and where) will understand
Positive environments Not seeking help
Taking time out Self-harm
Participation in activities Over-generalising
Avoid using drugs and alcohol Isolation
Engaging in high-risk activities
Food habits Enjoying foods without overindulging Overindulging
Making plans to eat healthy Drinking soft drinks
Establishing healthy routines Skipping meals
Bringing lunch to school/work; having home-cooked meals Not being fully informed/aware (nutritional value)
Talking to people about your food habits Eating meals in front of T.V or computer
Drinking plenty of water Regularly eating fast food
Learning to read food labels Always buying lunch and snacks
Laziness and bad habits
Physical Team sports Increased amount of time spent on sedentary activities
activity Limit amount of time spent on small-screen activities Always using cars/public transport
Walking/bike riding Finding excuses to avoid physical activity
Encouraging friends Belief that you are unable to change habits
Looking for ways to be physically active Being in a group that discourages physical activity
Make a list of personal benefits of being involved in physical Seeing it as an inconvenience rather than an opportunity
activity
Body image Looking for ways to develop positive self esteem Fasting and crash dieting/disordered eating patterns
Deconstruct stereotypical images of a ‘perfect body’ Excessive exercise
Being proud of yourself and your achievements Steroids
Good support networks Constantly comparing yourself
Knowing that it’s okay to have a balanced diet Believing there are ‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods
Wearing the right clothes for your shape Believing that having a different body will make you happie
Celebrating diversity
Drug use Positive influences Binge drinking
Practice positive peer pressure Accepting drugs from an unknown source
Stress management/relaxation Limited interests
Avoiding drinking games Drink spiking
Learning how to manage anger in a positive manner Minimal coping skills
 Having connections with a caring adult Not knowing where to seek help
Sexual health Abstinence Early initiation of sexual activity
Practicing safe sex Unprotected sex
Well developed communication skills Sex when intoxicated
Vaccinations against diseases/regular health checks Peer pressure
Emotional connection with an adult Not being well-informed
Respect Avoiding regular health checks
Road safety Being assertive Drinking and driving
Not assuming ‘it won’t happen to me’ Not following safety rules
Not drinking and driving Speeding
Stop revive survive Giving in to peer pressure
Seat belts Drink walking
Following road rules/laws Texting/use of mobile phone whilst driving

What influences the health of individuals?

The determinants of health

Individual Factors
Attitude
Begin at a young age and can be individually held or held generally across the wide sections of
society; state of the individual’s mind affects their capacity to make decisions in respect to health
Skills
Communication – empathise and express feelings (emotional wellbeing)
Assertiveness – personal health and safety
Literacy – information about health
Interpersonal skills – compromise relationships – social support
Decision making – decisions about health
Problem solving – producing strategies to solve issues about health
Coping strategies and stress management
Knowledge
Having the acquired information to make decisions about health; must also have the right attitudes
in order to successfully carry out these skills consistently and develop good habits in relation to
health
Genetics
Determined by our chromosomal make up; that is the genes that were passed on to us by our
biological parents; certain diseases are known to be inherited – e.g. type 1 diabetes, asthma, heart
disease, some cancers (Heredity is a risk factor for these diseases)

Socio-Cultural Factors
Family – affects income, education, resources, social support, and healthy/unhealthy habits
Peers – affects social and emotional health – acceptance and belonging; companionship, support,
approval and acceptance; may be a positive or negative influence. Affects behaviours, attitudes, and
habits; may lead to involvement in high-risk activities
Media – influences socialisation, values, development, opinions, and knowledge; effect is subtle, as it
affects us without us realising; exposes so much, contradictory and overwhelming
Religion – social support, sense of meaning, purpose, a belief system, moral code; stress – failure to
conform, fear of judgement, guilt, criticism, etc.
Culture – SES, Health status, language barriers, sense of identity, security, and sense of self.
Socio-Economic Factors
Education
High levels of education = high income, better employment prospects, knowledge and skills – these
all allow an individual to achieve a healthy lifestyle and access resources and health services.
People who are educated are less likely to invest time in short-term pleasures over long-term
benefits (e.g. stress – exercise instead of smoking)
Employment – unemployed – higher mortality, more illness, disabilities; lack of work – reduces
ability to buy health-related goods, strong psychological and social impacts (alienation, poor self-
esteem, stigma associated with unemployment)
Manual and low skilled jobs – poorer health, disability and higher mortality (due to risk of exposure
to hazards and psychological effects)
Income – access to goods and services that are beneficial to health, better housing and preventative
health measures

Income usually depends on employment, which is usually dependant on a good education, therefore
these factors are interrelated.

Environmental Factors
Geographical Location
- People living outside metropolitan areas vary in their ability to access health services and
information as specialist diagnostic and treatment services are often unavailable in those
areas
- Choosing not to use services due to fear of being judged (in close/small communities)
- Social pressures (rural young people) to involve selves in high-risk activities
- Areas that are geographically isolated – easier to access alcohol, cigarettes and drugs

Access to health services

- Some groups may be unable to access some services (due to language barriers for ethnic
groups for e.g.)
- Non-English speakers are not usually as well-informed on risky behaviours in respect to
health
Access to technology
- Some communities find it financially difficult to access the internet and information
technology
- Having to travel far away in order to obtain health services may be difficult for some people
as it may be infrequent, expensive or non-existent for local and out of town travel – greater
risk

The degree of control individuals can exert over their health

Modifiable Non-Modifiable
Obesity, income, values, peace, skills and Age, gender, family background, ethnic
abilities, access to health care, tobacco use, background, political conditions, heredity,
stress management, nutritional habits, drug race/ethnicity, social structure
use, alcohol consumption, lifestyle choices, SES,
exercise habits, employment, geographic
location

Factors that influence individual behaviours

Predisposing factors – factors that predispose us towards certain behaviours, making us more or less
motivated to act in a particular way
Enabling factors – skills and abilities that affect our physical, emotional and mental capabilities. They
may encourage positive behaviour change or work against the intention to change behaviours
(barriers)
Reinforcing factors – presence or absence of support and encouragement from important people or
bodies in your life.

Actions that individuals may take in order to modify determinants

- Self-monitoring
- Screening programs
- Behaviour modification
- Early intervention
- Developing new skills
- Medical intervention
- Education and increased knowledge
- Seeking support from established or new networks

The changing influence of determinants through life stages

Mothers and babies

 Social support and income
 Maternity leave – reduced income, social support
 Access to appropriate and targeted health services – early screening and vaccinations
 Use of drugs and alcohol – reduced birth weight, specific drug issues, developmental
problems
 Diet and exercise, dietary supplementation, breast feeding

Children and young people

 Increase in patterns of poor diet, low physical activity levels and excess body weight
 Family stability and connection
 More exposure to tobacco smoke and UV radiation
 A critical age where skills and habits are developed
 Families nutritional values, exercise, drug use, and relationships have long-term effects on
young people
 Drug use, sexual activity, driving motor vehicles, drinking alcohol
 Experimentation is highly involved in the transition of childhood to adolescence
 Image and social pressure may affect attitudes towards health
There is more of a degree of control for young people; however, there are still barriers that
prevent them from having full control.

Working age adults

 Career – income, access, time availability and social status
  Family – mental health, partnership, wealth and wellbeing can either be highly protective or
harmful
 Interaction between family and work will influence quality of life
 Dietary – contribute to levels of blood pressure and blood cholesterol
 Lifestyle choices at this point are the main determinants
 Habits and routines at this stage become difficult to change
 Protective factors – exercise, healthy eating, not smoking
 Chances of developing chronic disease increases
 Ability to access health professionals and ability to pay for health products
 Determinants – wealth, access, SES, autonomy
 Responsibility for raising children = pressure
Much more of a degree of control and more responsibility

Older People
 Impacts of previous life choices become evident – e.g. overweight, high blood pressure,
cholesterol levels
 Control over these determinants decrease
 Higher risk of diseases
 Social support available and health care services
 A time where one may evaluate/reflect on own life – may affect emotional health

What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?

What is heath promotion?

Health promotion is a process that enables people to improve or have greater control over their
health.
Aim – help an individual/group reach a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing
Makes it possible for people to increase control over the determinants over their health

Responsibility for Health Promotion

Individuals
 Caring for themselves and others
 Being able to make decisions and have control over one’s life circumstances and ensures
that the society one lives in creates conditions that allow all of its members to achieve
optimum health
 Health promotion includes and encourages individual responsibility and action
Community groups/schools
 Provided through the mass media
 Architects, engineers and urban planners – the way they develop the environment
 Schools – knowledge is gained, teachers, canteen, etc and school rules
NGOs
 Provide health services to research, workforce development and political advocacy
 E.g. the National Heart Foundation and State Cancer Councils
  Improve the quality and availability of human and financial resources directed at health
promotion

Government
 Local – decisions and policies affect community living, recreational activities, community
development environmental and heritage conservation, home care, child care and
community transport; waste management and food safety
 State – supervision of health protection functions such as food safety, environmental health
and use of drugs and poison; disease prevention and control – health education,
immunisation, refugee screening and cancer screening; strategic direction for health
promotion
 Federal – responsible for how well the health system serves the needs of the people, health
financing, policies and program implementation
International Organisations
 To assist and guide countries in achieving the best health for their citizens
 UN, WHO and United States Children’s fund
 UN – peace, security; develops friendly relations between countries based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self-determination of people – solve economic, social and
humanitarian problems; promotes respect for human rights

Health promotion approaches and strategies

Lifestyle/behavioural approaches – e.g. quit smoking programs, health education
Preventative medical approaches – e.g. childhood immunisation, cancer screening
Public health approaches – health-promoting schools and work places

The Ottawa Charter as an effective health promotion framework

 In November 1986, (130 nations) a meeting was held in Ottawa, Canada, and this was the
first real international conference on health promotion. They created a document with
strategies to achieve health
 The Ottawa Charter provides a framework for the implementation of health promotion
5 ACTION AREAS: (DADDY CAUGHT SIX ROUND BUGS)
1) DEVELOP PERSONAL SKILLS
Enable one to be able to control the determinants of their health
- Health education in schools
- Media campaigns encouraging healthy life choices
- Anti-smoking programs
- The work of non-government health agencies such as the Cancer Council and the National
Heart Foundation
2) CREATE SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Makes it easy to make healthy decisions
 - Health promoting schools
- Self-help groups, such as AA and CanTeen
- Lions Club Reviver Stations
- Gradual elimination by car manufacturers of the need to include lead in petrol
- The protection of old-growth forests

3) STRENGTHEN COMMUNITY ACTION

Getting communities together and involved
- Product recycling programs conducted by local councils
- In the home (e.g. smoke alarms and electricity cut-off switches)
- On the sporting field (e.g. padded areas, modified rules and protective equipment)
4) REORIENTING HEALTH SERVICES
Changing the direction of our health services (preventing unhealthiness)
- Increased funding for health promotion and research
- Doctors working with child-care centres to promote immunisation programs
- Pharmacists working with community health centres in order to engage in improved
preventative strategies
- Police working with schools to address issues such as drinking and crime
5) BUILD HEALTH PUBLIC POLICY
Legislation, laws, regulations, etc to prevent unhealthy behaviour
- Legislation to restrict the advertising of cigarettes
- Smoke-free workplaces and public buildings
- Reduced taxation of unleaded petrol and low-alcohol beer
- Compulsory swimming pool fencing
- Government employment programs, such as centrelink

Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use

- Don’t rush road safety campaign (encourages individuals to make - Quit Coach and Quit Helpline – enables people to have the
Developing good decisions based on consequences) willpower to quit (encourages them)
Personal Skills - 120 hours of driving (Developing driving skills) - National Tobacco Campaign – gives information, reasons to
quit, strategies, steps, etc; coping and planning skills
- RAA – Road Worker Safety – allows a safe environment on the road - Non-smoking areas – Smoke Free Environment Act 2003; e.g.
by enabling safety skills for road workers offices, children’s playgrounds, pubs, in cars with small
Creating - By making laws and creating awareness of drink-driving/walking, it children, etc.
Supportive creates safer roads These create supportive environments as they decrease the
Environments - 40km school zones chances of passive smoking and the amount of cigarettes people
- Stop revive survive smoke during their day in public places
- Dragon teeth, pedestrian crossings, etc
- Driver’s awareness courses - ‘World No-Tobacco Day’
Strengthening - Lion’s club – stop revive survive - Self-help groups
Community - Wheelchair basketball - Arrive Alive
Action These strengthen community action as they encourage communities They allow society to experience not smoking and encourage
to come together to create strategies to make the roads safer quitting by raising awareness
- Governments funding money in educating students on road safety - Educating children on the dangers and risks of smoking
Reorientating (rather than putting money into healing injuries from accidents) This lessens the chances of children beginning to smoke,
Health Services - Double Demerit points therefore hopefully preventing having to find cures for cancer
These are in place in order to encourage drivers to make positive and other effects of smoking.
choices about driving and their behaviours towards the roads
- Extending hours of driving for learners - Making it compulsory for students to learn about the dangers
- School zones of smoking
Building Public - Speed cameras - Illegal/non-smoking areas (the Smoke Free Environment Act
Health Policy - Laws on drink driving 2003)
 These laws are meant to prevent civilians from making poor health These laws are intended to prevent people from making poor
choices in respect to the road health choices in reference to smoking and tobacco use.
Explain how health promotion based on the action areas of the Ottawa Charter have contributed to
positive health outcomes

Principles of Social Justice

Equity- is the allocation of resources according to the needs of individuals and populations, the
goal being to achieve equality of outcomes
Health equity means that everyone has access to the health services and support they need, when
they need it and in a place that is accessible. It involves making sure resources and funding is
distributed fairly and without discrimination. E.g. providing housing, employment to socially
disadvantages, providing money for areas that need it
Groups:
 ATSI’s
 Socioeconomically disadvantaged
 Overseas born people
 Disabled
Diversity
 Concerns multicultural groups as well as age, gender, sexuality, socioeconomic status,
geographic location and levels of educational achievement
It helps to eliminate prejudice and discrimination. It is a commitment to encouraging men and
women of diverse racial, social and economic groups to play major roles and in a spirit of mutual
respect, come to understand and appreciate what each brings to the whole
Accepting Diversity Involves…
 Recognising the cultural and social diversity of society and examining and evaluating diverse
values, beliefs and attitudes.
 Recognising the contribution of social, cultural, economic and biological factors to individual
values, attitudes and behaviours.
 Exploring different views about issues such as gender roles, physical activity, peer-group
relationships, sexuality, cultural beliefs and what constitutes a healthy environment
 Exploring conflicting values, morals and ethics for well-being when making decisions.
e.g. “close the gap” attempting to make the life expectancy of ATSI’s longer
Collaboration and partnership (get NGO’s, Government, Community, Individuals)

Supportive Environments
The aim is to ensure all community members have equal opportunity to achieve good health.
Supportive environments require that physical, social, economic and political environments are
supportive of health rather than damaging to it. The principle is also concerned with ensuring people
have access to resources and opportunities for empowerment that will support their health
 Preliminary Option 3: Fitness Choices- Year 11 2015 notes
Meanings of exercise
 Exercise described activity that involved repetitive bodily movements
 Can be planned, structured or unplanned and incidental
 Exercise can involve a range of activities, including recreation and leisure pursuits as well as
competitive and non-competitive sports

Exercise as a form of physical activity

 Physical activity is any movement that results in some expenditure of energy
 Exercise is planned, structured and repetitive bodily movement. It is performed to improve
or maintain one or more components of physical fitness. Exercise is a subset of physical
activity.
 Light exercise is activity that requires approximately three to four times as much energy as
rest
 Moderate exercise is activity that requires approximately five to six times as much energy as
rest
 Vigorous exercise is activity that requires seven times or more energy as rest
 Target Heart Rate (THR) is a predetermined pulse rate obtained during exercise and is
expressed as a percentage of maximum heart heart.
o Moderate intensity: 50-70% of MAX HR
o Vigorous intensity: 70-85% of MAX HR
 o Anaerobic intensity: 85-100% of MAX HR
 Physical nativity in the form of exercise has always been considered positive lifestyle
behaviour
 Exercise varies in intensity and can be tested with the 'talk test'
 Exercise causes your heart rate to increase in proportion to your exercise intensity
 Training should happen at the Target Heart Rate zone, where benefits are maximised
 People beginning exercise programs should aim to hold their heart rate in the moderate
intensity zone
 Moderate intensity: benefits people of all ages
 Benefits occur soon after adopting an active lifestyle

Physical activity intensity Examples

Light  Swimming for recreation

 Strolling around shops
 Flying kite
 Gardening

Moderate  Walking for pleasure

 Cycling on level ground
 Horse riding
 Operating power tools
 Hand washing a car

Vigorous  Jogging/running
 Step aerobics
 Playing energetic sport
 Loading a truck
 Carrying heavy load

Exercise and its relationship to fitness

 Physical fitness is defined as a general state of good health, resulting from regular physical
activity and a healthy diet. It is the combination of body conditioning and the ability to use
the body when performing a rang of physical activities
 Physical fitness is often described as the ability to undertake daily tasks with ease and still
have enough energy to pursue leisure activities
 Put can be categorised as either health related or skill related aspects of fitness
 To perform fitness: undertake a regular, moderate intensity exercise program that
incorporates the health-related components
 To improve sport performance: a planned training program is needed; it should incorporate
specific exercises to improve fitness components required. Intensity and frequency must
increase

The value that people place on exercise and fitness

 Certain people must maintain a high level of fitness because of their career e.g. professional
athletes
 In some areas of employment, employees need to maintain a certain level of fitness in order
to carry out their duties successfully e.g. professional lifeguards, fitness instructors and
courier cyclists
 Maintaining a certain level of fitness may not be essential for everyone's career yet people
value it as it is seen as a means of achieving a particular goal e.g. lose weight, enter a fun run
or feel healthier
 Research shows that a large number of Australians remain inactive
 Sedentary behaviour constitutes a physical activity regime

Changing attitudes to fitness

 Between 1998 and 2005, there has been a significant increase in the proportion of people
aged 16+ in NSW undertaking sufficient physical activity
 Walking was a major contributor to the change in prevalence of sufficient physical activity,
with increased participation in walking since 2004
 Changes in active commuting behaviours, specifically growth in prevalence of walking to
work and rising petrol prices may have contributed to the increase in physical levels
 Close to half of the NSW population is still in sufficiently active, indication that physical
activity promotion efforts need to continue in NSW for further and sustainable
improvements
 Gender: makes are more active than females
 Family: adolescents who have parents who are active/support them in their activity
generally value fitness
 Media: powerful media where the fitness is given
 Cultural: women from NESB are more likely to be sedentary
 Age: statistics show that people who are aged between 18-29 years are the most physically
active of all age groups

Fitness as a commodity
 Commoditisation is the process of turning something that can be bought and sold
 Commodity us a Orishas that exists to generate profit
 Since the fitness revolution of the 1970s, people have increasingly shown an interest in
fitness, leading to gradual growth in the 'fitness businesses'
 As the community recognised the benefits of participating in physical activity, people
increasingly looked for a 'quick fix' to their individual problems e.g. lose weight, improve
aerobic fitness, achieve rippling abdominals, tighten muscles, build muscle, etc
 From the fitness boom grew an industry, also providing fitness videos and equipment in
sport stores and local supermarkets
 Major growth area in the field of commercial fitness centres and businesses
 Specialists in personal training and corporate fitness programs have evolved to cater for the
needs of individuals and companies who recognise the benefits of improved health and
fitness
 Fitness industry offers many other services and products to aid individuals who have a goal
to improve fitness and health
 If motivation and expertise is required, individuals may employ personal trainers
 Fitness clothing, nutritional supplements and home gyms are other products on offer

Individual fitness activities

 An individuals lifestyle and personal circumstances strongly influence their choice of physical
activity    
 Advantage: person can chose to exercise at a time that fits their lifestyle
 Some prefer exercising on their own as it enables them to work at their own level
 Whereas it is essential for others to plan their day/unwind at the end of the day
 Time efficient; saving time to travel to meet a friend or attend a club or fitness centre
 Power walking
 One of the easiest low impact activities is power walking.
 Brisk walking for 30 minutes each day at a pace of around four to six kph improves fitness
and overall health.
 Power walking is safe, cheap and convenient.
 If an individual walks regularly they tend to:
o feel more confident, happy and relaxed
o control weight better
o have lower blood pressure and lower cholesterol levels
o have stronger bones
o reduced risk of heart attack and recover better in the event of one
o reduced risk of having a stroke
o be less likely to develop diabetes in middle age
 To have a greater impact on fitness, walking at a greater intensity, uphill or carrying a load is
required.
 It is a recommended form of exercise for people recovering from heart disease because it is
low impact.
 It is one of the most popular forms of exercise for people across all age groups.

Running
 Running is an activity that can be done only at moderate or vigorous intensity.
 It is an effective aerobic activity because it involves movement of the whole body.
 Running is a convenient and time-efficient form of exercise.
 It is important to start slowly and increase intensity as your fitness level improves.
 This can be done by increasing the distance run, incorporating speed play, or running in
more challenging environments such as hilly areas.

Swimming
 Leisurely swimming is sufficient to gain health benefits.
 Swimming laps using various strokes improves cardiovascular efficiency.
 Heated indoor pools cater for the need to have swimming facilities available all year.
 Swimming is inexpensive and requires little equipment, making it a cheap and convenient
form of exercise.
 Swimming is not restricted to the local community pool.
 The popularity of swimming as a fitness activity has led to the emergence of aquarobics.
 Swimming is an effective conditioning activity that is low impact, but uses both the upper
and lower body, giving a total body workout.
 It is often recommended as a form of exercise for asthmatics as it helps to build up lung
capacity, and for people rehabilitating from injury, due to its buoyancy effect.

Cycling
 Cycling is an activity that most people enjoy in their youth but stop doing as they get older.
Like running, cycling provides a good cardiovascular workout.
 Cycling at a vigorous intensity (more than 16 kph) has beneficial effects on fitness.
 People can now ride on rugged surfaces through the bush.
 The benefits of cycling to health and fitness are well recognised.
 The fitness industry has endeavoured to make cycling accessible to everyone by producing
stationary bicycles.
 These are available in most gyms or can be bought for home use.
 Indoor cycling classes, known as ‘spinning’, at fitness centres has become a popular fitness
option.
 Weight training programs
 Repetitions are the number of times an exercise is repeated without rest.
 A set is the number of repetitions done in succession; for example, one set may equal 12
repetitions.
 Weight training programs can be undertaken at home or in a gym that has the appropriate
equipment.
 Programs can be isometric, isotonic or isokinetic.
 Weight training is a good option for people who want to improve the specific fitness
components of strength and muscle endurance.

Isometric training
 Muscles develop tension but do not change in length.
 A typical isometric exercise would be pushing or pulling against an immovable object.
 The best gains in fitness are made in isometric training programs using six to eight
repetitions of exercises, each lasting six seconds.

Isotonic weight training

 Involve lifting weights through a full range of movement.
 This type of training requires the use of free weights and can incorporate weight machines.
 It is usually done at a fitness centre or gym, but can be done at home if the equipment is
available.

Isokinetic weight training

 Involves the use of elaborate machines that allow maximum muscle tension through the full
range of movement.
 Isokinetic machines are designed so that the muscular force exerted by the body is equalled
by the resistance of the machine.
 The major advantage of this type of training is that strength gains will be constant
throughout the full range of movement because the level of resistance is constant.

Tai chi
 Tai chi is one of the martial arts systems.
 It involves slow, even, circular and coordinated movements.
 Tai chi is an exercise incorporating movements in coordination with your mind and
respiration.
 Tai chi is a series of exercises combined into a routine.
 Instruction with a master over a period of time is necessary to become proficient.
 Practising some simple tai chi forms repeatedly improves physical well-being.
 In the tai chi practice, the principles of balance, which include joint involvement (ankle,
knee, hip), lower body awareness and posture, are explored.
 Benefits: particularly applicable to older people, although the benefits can be enjoyed by all.
 Due to its focus on controlled, correct movement and balance, tai chi can benefit people
who suffer from arthritis, lower back pain and stress

Pilates
 Pilates is a program that focuses on the development of core muscles, resulting in improved
body balance, posture and alignment.
 Added strength and flexibility to the large torso muscles enables better control of the back
and limbs, leading to improved coordination and balance.
  In recent years, Pilates has become popular with people from all sports including golfers,
footballers and gymnasts as well as dancers.
 In activities where core strength is important to stabilise the spine and enable safer, more
forceful movements to be made, Pilates is an ideal fitness choice.

Yoga
 Yoga originated in India.
 Yoga is holistic in nature, emphasising the body’s energy flow.
 It focuses on breathing exercises, known as pranayama, and physical postures called asanas.
 The specific breathing exercises address poor breathing habits and better utilise the muscles
used in breathing.
 The physical postures and exercises improve muscular tone, strength and flexibility allowing
energy to flow more freely throughout the body.
 Yoga is beneficial because it: re-energises the body, giving a feeling of being more powerful;
reduces stress; induces calmness; improves flexibility and muscle tone; and improves
immunity.
 It is designed to be a total mind and body experience where you improve your flexibility,
increase your strength and relax your mind while learning proper breathing techniques.

Emerging individual fitness activities

 Fitness facilities and home gyms offer an array of equipment and activities that challenge
physical demands, often with the lure of burning fat or expending kilojoules.
 Treadmills, rowing machines and cross-trainers can be used in the privacy of your home to
provide challenging cardiovascular workouts.
 Also available in fitness centres, as well as elaborate weight training machines, free weights,
sport-specific training equipment, step machines, and warm-up and stretch rooms.
 Individuals can do martial arts, shadow boxing and, with the help of personal trainers,
individual circuits.
 There has been a rapid growth in the personal training industry in recent years.
 With expansion of the fitness industry, many people engage personal trainers, to provide
individual assessment, develop an appropriate program, instruct on equipment usage and
act as a motivating partner.
Group fitness activities
 People may choose these activities as it commits the participant to an activity scheduled to
take place on a particular day; like the structure and benefits of organised group activities
 Social benefits of exercising with others
 Motivation from others to encourage them to exercise
 Instructor/coach may provide support and advice; knowledge and expertise in particular
activity

Group activity Benefits Where activity is Who is attracted to this

Description available? activity?

Aerobics  Designed to be low  Local fitness  Suitable for all

Aerobics classes impact or high impact centres and ages, especially
incorporate various  Improved gyms those wanting to
conditioning exercises improve fitness
cardiovascular
performed to music and lose weight
efficiency, strength,
flexibility and agility
 Muscle tone
 Aquarobics  Good whole body  Local  Excellent for
Involves conditioning workout swimming people who have
exercises similar to  Enthusiastic centres and back or joint
those performed in an pools problems
instructor
aerobics class in water  Elderly
 Overweight

Pump classes  Improved muscle  Local fitness  People who

Non-aerobic fitness tone, strength and centres and would like an
class that use barbells muscular endurance gyms introduction to
to improve muscle weight training
tone, strength and  To improve
endurance in a muscle tone and
choreographed routine body shape

Step classes  Improves  Local fitness  Those who want

Incorporates aerobic cardiovascular fitness centres and a challenge
moves to music using a and muscle gyms
stepped platform endurance

Spin classes  Improves  Local fitness  People who

Perform routines on cardiorespiratory centres and experience joint
stationary exercise fitness gyms injuries or
bicycles that stimulate tendonitis
outdoor cycle training

Circuit training  Improves fitness  Local fitness  People trying to

Circuit of different components and skill centres and improve their
types of exercise level gyms fitness
 Improves strength  Local parks
and muscular
endurance/fitness
and flexibility

Team games  Social benefits  Local  Young people

Participate at various  Motivation from sporting
levels from social to fields
others
high competition
 Physical benefits

Exercise for particular  Healthy  Pregnancy  Pregnant women

groups-  More likely to give groups
Pregnant women  Local gyms
birth at full time
 Improved muscular
strength and heart
function

Children  Fun  Team sports  Children

 Skill  Local parks
 Development  Local pools
 Activity  Local
exercise
centres

People training for  Beneficial to all  Specific  People wishing to

fitness aspects of health place that is improve fitness
 required
 Gyms,
pools, etc

The aged  Rate of decline in  Local pools  Elderly people

body functions  Gyms and
decreased fitness
 Social benefits centres

Emerging group fitness  Fun  Fitness  People of all age

activities  Challenging centres and groups
 Optimal workout gyms
 Motivating
instructorsMany
facilities offered e.g.
nutritionist

Group Cost Time Further information Personal reflections

activity commitment on participation
Description required

Aerobics Cheap 1 hour  Use of energetic music and Beneficial in

encouragement of the improving fitness
instructor help increase
motivation

Aquarobics Cheap 1 hour  The use of hand weights can Great for the elderly
increase the intensity of population
exercise

Pump classes Cheap 1 hour  Weights are adjustable to suit Beneficial and
all fitness levels enjoyable

Step classes Cheap 1 hour  Step moves choreographed Beneficial to fitness

 Incorporate highly intense
and dynamic movements

Spin classes Cheap 1 hour  Music enhances atmosphere Beneficial to fitness

as well as enthusiastic
instructor

Circuit training Cheap 1 hour  Each exercise is performed for Beneficial to fitness
a specific number of
repetitions

Team games Moderate Training and  A vast range of tram games Beneficial to all
competitive available in communities aspects of health
games
 Exercise for Minimal 1 hour daily  By improving fitness, Beneficial to health
specific pregnant women can control
groups- wright gain and cope with
Pregnant demands of labour
women

Children Minimal 1 hour daily  If children exercise, they are Beneficial to health
more likely to continue as
they get older

People training Minimal 1 hour daily    Following the FITT principle is Being constantly
for fitness necessary challenged is
beneficial

The aged Minimal 3-4 times a  Modified low to moderate Gentle exercise is
week exercise can be beneficial to beneficial
the elderly

Emerging Small fee 1 hour daily  Classes conducted over a Beneficial by

group fitness shorter period of time working all muscle
activities groups and being
fun

Settings for exercise

 The setting in which people exercise will be strongly influenced by their lifestyle and
personal circumstances as well as their preferred type of exercise
 Today we can choose to exercise outdoor, with a club, community/work facility, personal
trainer, at home or at a fitness centre
 Diverse options allows individuals to select one beneficial to their daily life and increases
their employment when participating in the activity

Exercise at home

 Often difficult to find a time to exercise; people with children, working long hours...
Exercising at home may be the most practical option
 Those who can afford equipment may set up home gyms; weights/machined
 Aerobic exercise machines: treadmills, steppers, stationery bicycle
 Weights combined with machines provide a better home exercise source
 Another option is an exercise DVD/videos: aerobics, step and pump classes
 Downside of home exercising is giving self motivation to maintain regular exercise; easily
distracted

Community facilities
 Availability of and access to community exercise facilities vary
 Larger communities provide a dire range of facilities; greater exercise choice
 Finding fitness needs that suit one is greater for those living in large towns
 Community leisure centres provide activities; aerobic classes  step and pump classes, weight
training, swimming, boxing, yoga, martial arts and can include pools, indoor courts and
tracks
 Most communities recognise the importance it regular exercise and encourage participation
by providing facilities and keeping costs relatively low compared to commercial facilities

Fitness centre and personal trainers

 Fitness centres are a popular choice for many people who exercise to improve fitness
 Most fitness centres provide a range of fitness classes and weight training facilities.
 Classes can include aerobics, step, pump, flex, body sculpt, yoga, tai chi, cycle and power
boxing.
 For people who prefer resistance training, most fitness centres have a range of weights and
weight training machines.
 Treadmills, steppers and stationary bicycles can be used to improve aerobic fitness.
 Fitness centres provide the convenience of being able to combine an aerobic workout with
resistance training to achieve a good whole body workout.
 The inclusion of child-minding facilities is an appealing service to many parents.
 Fitness centre personnel can provide information on training, technique and nutrition.
 Personal trainers are available either as a centre employee or a self-employed trainer; they
have expert knowledge and they are great motivators for many people.
 It is important to check the credentials and experience of personal trainers before employing
them.
 There are a number of qualified organisations that teach fitness professionals.

Exercise clubs

 Provide organised activity and the opportunity to meet others with the same exercise
interests.
 There are many clubs in New South Wales that cater to both the social exerciser and the
competitive athlete.
 Running, walking and cycling clubs can be found in most communities.
 The focus on walking as a form of exercise to improve health and fitness is apparent in New
South Wales.
 The establishment of walking for pleasure clubs by the New South Wales Department of
Sport and Recreation promotes walking as a good health and fitness exercise option.
 These clubs plan weekly or fortnightly walks in settings such as national parks, beaches and
other places of interest.
 Exercise clubs are a great way to get into exercise on a regular basis.

Cultural groups
 The establishment of a variety of cultural groups provides many benefits not only to people
of that culture but to every Australian.
 Opportunity to participate in culturally based forms of physical activity and exercise; e.g.
cultural dance groups
 People participating in the same sport or activity may have totally different reasons for
participating, such as physical abilities, cost, availability, health benefits and friendships.
 Advertising and promotion
 As a result of fitness being recognised as a commodity, there is constant exposure to
advertising and promotion for products and services
 Commercial fitness centres, consultants and suppliers of fitness products compete for the
'fitness dollar'
 Most businesses and fitness consultants commit to providing clients with quality service;
play a crucial role in educating the community about benefits of improving health and
wellbeing
 Fitness industry sells products and services and needs to constantly advertise and promote
its 'product' to attract new clients
 Deceitful people in the industry may use misleading and unfair advertising and marketing to
attract customers; individuals who desire a quick way to achieve fitness goals

How do you know who to believe?

 Checking to see if the product or service is endorsed by a recognised fitness or health
institution.
 Does the person offering the service have any qualifications? What is the basis of their
expertise? Things that should be investigated when determining the reliability of the source
of information.
 Generally, well-recognised brands and products endorsed by Australian fitness industry or
health organisations such as the Heart Foundation are reliable.

Promotional Techniques
 Promotional techniques are often used to attract customers to products and services.
 Targeting specific groups and offering limited offers are some promotional techniques used.
 Take the time to:
o compare products
o seek advice from people in the fitness industry
o investigate the quality of the product or service advertised.
Accuracy of information
 Technique: promote products through glossy, attractive advertisements that appeal to the
senses of the consumer, but really give little information about the product.
 Compare advertisements of similar products or services to determine the amount of
information given.
 Talk to the service providers and ask questions regarding their expertise and qualifications
before using that service.
 It is illegal to give false information in advertising, although information can often be
misleading.
 If concerns arise, investigate the information supplied by asking people with more
knowledge or experience in that area.

Ethics of advertising
 There are many genuine fitness products and service providers available.
 It is important that people understand that there is a range in the quality of service and
product available.
 The claims made in advertising can be misleading and may even be false.

Motivators and barriers to participation

 Barriers preventing people from regular exercise vary
 Some barriers are perceived and can be readily overcome while others are real and may be
difficult to overcome

Access to facilities
 The availability of and access to exercise facilities impacts on participation in exercise.
 Physical isolation and financial circumstances can limit access to facilities.
 For people who live in isolated communities, the facilities available are limited or non-
existent.

Convenience of use
 The issue of time can impact on people’s ability to exercise.
 People are more likely to participate in exercise, join a team or use a gym if it is convenient
to do so.
 Close to home or on the way home from work.
 For adolescents: may get there easily by public transport.
 If it is difficult to get to and from facilities, people are more likely to opt out of exercising.

Cost
 Ability to afford to join a fitness centre, and buy fitness products or exercise clothing and
shoes can be a barrier to people exercising.
 Lack of money can restrict the range and type of activities available.
 Many physical activities are very costly.
 Playing in a social competition, using a fitness centre or a swimming pool means a financial
commitment. Some people are not able to make this commitment.
 The limited range of exercise choices that are left may not be appealing, so participation in
regular exercise decreases.

Feelings about fitness and exercise

 The exercise experiences people have when they are young can affect their attitudes to
exercise.
 When experiences are unpleasant, negative feelings about fitness and exercise develop and
can form a barrier to exercise for adults.
 It is important that exercise is fun and not intimidating to young people, so that they
develop positive attitudes to exercise.

Exercise as a priority
 In people’s busy lifestyles today exercise is not a priority; work long hours at stressful jobs.
 Do not perceive exercise as a priority; have more important deadlines to meet and work to
do.
 For people who do not recognise the importance of regular exercise, exercise is not
important.
 Challenge: educate people about the benefits of regular physical activity and to introduce
them to enjoyable activities that suit their fitness needs.

Influence of other responsibilities

 For parents, the commitment of raising children can be a barrier to exercise.
 Lack of personal time is an issue when caring for small children.
 In some cases, parents do not get time to themselves until early evening.
 Parents need to manage their time to include some activity in their lifestyle.
 They can become active by increasing their incidental activity; e.g, doing housework
vigorously, walking the children to the shops or getting involved in their children’s sport.
 Sharing family responsibilities between the two parents allows each time to engage in
exercise.