4 Chemical Reactions

Chemical
4
reactions and
equations
What use is chemistry?
Metals and plastics shape the world
around us. Chemistry is at the heart of
their development. The processes used to
extract metals from their ores and produce
new plastics have been based on chemical
understandings. Chemists have found
patterns in the ways compounds form,
and they use these patterns to predict the
products of different types of chemical
reactions. They have also learnt how to
manipulate and control chemical reactions
to develop new materials, fuels and
pharmaceuticals.
Shutterstock.com/Shebeko
nelson
Chemical world – Stage 5

Key knowledge
● Chemical reactions are used to produce a range of products and can occur at different
rates and involve energy transfer.
● Chemical reactions are affected by a range of factors, including temperature and catalysts.
● Social, ethical and environmental considerations can influence decisions about scientific
research related to the development and production of new materials.
● Advances in science and technologies significantly affect people’s lives, including
generating new career opportunities in areas of chemical science such as biochemistry
and industrial chemistry.
ACTIVITY SHEET CULMINATING ASSESSMENT TASK

CAT with rubric:
Determining the effect of
temperature Determining the effect of temperature
Plan and perform an investigation to determine the effect of
temperature on the chemical reaction between sodium thiosulfate
and hydrochloric acid.
When sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) reacts with hydrochloric acid
(HCl), it produces a precipitate of sulfur (S) that turns the mixture
cloudy and obscures a cross that has been drawn on paper placed
under the flask.
● The balanced equation for this reaction is:
Na2S2O3(aq) 1 2HCl(aq) → H2O(l) 1 SO2(aq) 1 S(s)

● 0.25 mol L21 sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) and 2 mol L21 hydrochloric
acid (HCl) would be appropriate solutions with which to start.
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Chapter 4 ● Chemical reactions and equations
WORKSPACE
What do you already know about chemical What do you already know
about chemical reactions?
reactions?
In Nelson iScience 9 for NSW you learnt about chemical reactions. In Chapter 3
of this textbook you learnt about electron shells and patterns in the periodic
table. This quiz will give you a chance to find out what you remember.
1 Match each answer on the right with a statement on the left.
Statement Answer
Group 2 in the periodic table Conducts electricity
Group with 7 electrons in the outer shell Oxygen
Maximum number of electrons in the second shell Mass
Property of metals Ion
Property of noble gases Halogens
Shell that holds a maximum of two electrons pH
Atom that has lost or gained electrons Alkali earth metals
Conserved in a chemical reaction 1
Needed for a combustion reaction to occur Unreactive
Measure of acidity 8
2 Complete the following table.
Group in Electron Type of ion

Element periodic table arrangement Charge on ion (anion or cation)
Fluorine
Magnesium
Potassium
Extra
3 Use the online quiz maker in Survey Monkey to develop your own online WEBLINK
Survey Monkey
quiz. Give the quiz to a classmate to see how much he or she remembers.
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4.1 Products of chemical

reactions
Chemists study the nature, properties and composition of the materials in our world and
develop new ones. Almost all materials are produced by chemical reactions, and it is an
understanding of these reactions that allows chemists to manipulate matter in ways that do not
occur naturally.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Chemistry all around us

Use the weblink ‘Chemistry all around us’ to watch a video showing everyday
WEBLINK applications of chemistry.
Chemistry all around us
Work with a partner or small group to brainstorm the everyday applications
of chemistry you use on week days.
Over the course of a week, list the chemical applications you use.
Record this information on a timeline of your day. You could do this
electronically using online software, such as Timetoast.
Once you have completed your timeline, answer the following questions.
1 Are there times each day when you use more chemical applications
than at other times?
2 Account for the differences you identified in Question 1.
3 Compare your use of everyday chemical applications with those of three

of your classmates. What are the similarities and what are the differences
between what is used and when?
4 a Predict your applications of chemistry on a weekend.

WEBLINK b Collect data over a weekend and compare it with your predictions from
Revision test
part a. Write a comment about what you discovered.
ore
a naturally occurring rock
that contains metal or metal
Chemists developed refining processes to extract metals from their ores. They then mixed
compounds in sufficient amount to
make it worthwhile extracting them the metals with other elements to produce alloys, such as stainless steel, which is a mixture of
iron and other elements such as carbon, nickel and chromium.
alloy
Chemists worked out how to join many small molecules together to produce plastics.
a substance with metallic properties Starting with the first synthetic plastic in 1909, processes have been developed to manufacture
that is a mixture of a metal with one
the large variety of plastics we use today.
or more other elements
Chemistry and medicine are very strongly linked. From the early natural remedies,
chemistry has developed into a huge pharmaceuticals industry. Chemists often start making a
new drug by investigating existing treatments or naturally occurring molecules with the desired
WEBLINK biological effect. They then make a large number of similar molecules, searching for the one
Top 10 Aboriginal bush
medicines with the desired properties. When this has been discovered, they need to find the best chemical
reactions to synthesise it in large quantities.
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Our growing population is putting pressure on Earth’s

raw materials, and environmental chemists are continually
searching for ways to meet increasing energy demands,
develop alternative fuels and minimise waste through recycling
(Figure 4.1).
In order for chemists to manipulate matter, they need
to understand it and the reactions it undergoes. Chemistry
Shutterstock.com/Huguette roe
has many different career paths and chemists specialise
in a diverse range of different areas, including industrial,
atmospheric, biochemistry and forensic chemistry.
However, they all started at the same point – developing
an understanding of the basics of structure, bonding and
reactions in chemistry.
Classifying chemical reactions

Figure 4.1
Useful resources
are increasingly being
There are millions of different chemical reactions. Many of these occur as a complex sequence of
extracted from waste.
events. If you look at them closely, however, there are patterns in the chemistry of these reactions.
In iScience 9 for NSW you learnt that most simple chemical reactions can be divided into five types
based on the number of reactants, how the molecules behave and the products formed. VIDEO
1 Combustion: In these reactions, oxygen reacts with another compound to form oxides of Introducing fuels
and their uses
each element in the original compound. For example, hydrocarbons react with oxygen to
form compounds composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water.
These reactions are exothermic, so energy is released in the form of heat.
C H4 2O2 C O2 2H2 O Figure 4.2

An example of a combustion
+ +
reaction
2 Decomposition: These reactions occur when a single substance breaks down or decomposes electrolysis
into two or more simpler substances; for example, the electrolysis of water to form hydrogen the decomposition of a compound
and oxygen gas. using an electric current
A B A B
Figure 4.3
+ A decomposition reaction
3 Synthesis: These are also called combination or addition reactions. When synthesis
occurs, two or more elements or compounds combine to form a more complex substance.
Synthesis is the opposite to decomposition. Photosynthesis, the process in which carbon
dioxide and water combine to form glucose, is an example of a synthesis reaction. The
corrosion of metals is another example of a synthesis reaction.
A B A B
Figure 4.4
+ A synthesis reaction
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4 Single displacement : In these reactions, an atom (or group of atoms) replaces another
atom (or group of atoms) in a compound to form a new compound. The metal activity
reactions in Chapter 3 (see page 119) are examples, in which silver ions and copper metal
swap places, resulting in silver metal and copper ions. The reaction between an acid and a
metal is another example of a single displacement reaction.
Figure 4.5 A B C B C A
A single-replacement
reaction
+ +
5 Double displacement: These are more complex than single-displacement reactions as they
involve two pairs of ions in solution swapping partners to form two new compounds. Acid–base
reactions and precipitation reactions are examples of double-displacement reactions.
Figure 4.6 A B C D A D B C
A double-replacement
reaction + +
WORKSPACE EXPERIMENT 4.1

Types of reactions
Types of reactions
Possible risks Safety precautions

Copper sulfate and silver nitrate Be extremely careful when using these solu-
solutions are toxic. tions. Wear safety glasses. If spilt on skin, wash
the skin with plenty of water. Dispose of the
solutions in the waste jar provided. Do not pour
them down the sink. Refer to MSDS for safe
chemical use and disposal.
Hot objects can cause Be careful with objects that have been placed
serious burns. in a Bunsen burner flame. Do not allow them to
come into contact with skin or clothes.
Aim
To observe the five different types of reactions
Materials
●
1 large compacted piece of steel wool
●
small piece of magnesium ribbon
●
small pieces of zinc
●
hydrated copper sulfate (solid)
●
10 mL of 0.1 mol/L copper sulfate solution
●
5 mL of 0.1 mol/L hydrochloric acid
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EXPERIMENT 4.1

●
5 mL of 0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution

●
5 mL of 0.1 mol/L silver nitrate solution

●
10 mL of 50% ethanol/50% water solution

●
distilled water

●
watch glass

●
electronic balance
tongs
●

●
Bunsen burner

●
4 test tubes, test-tube holder and test-tube rack
taper
●
matches
●

●
piece of filter paper

●
measuring cylinder
Method
Part A
1 Place the piece of steel wool on a watch glass and weigh it. Record the mass.
2 Hold the tongs in the hot part of the Bunsen burner for about a minute to
remove any contamination.
3 Using the tongs, hold the piece of steel wool in the hot part of the Bunsen
burner flame for 5 minutes. Observe what happens.
4 Allow the steel wool to cool for 1 minute and then reweigh it on the watch
glass. Record the mass.
5 Dispose of the solid in the rubbish bin.
Part B
6 Place a spatula of hydrated copper sulfate in a clean, dry test tube.
7 Record the appearance of the hydrated copper sulfate.
8 Weigh the test tube and sample. Record the mass.
9 Heat the test tube of solid in a Bunsen flame for approximately 2 minutes.
10 Allow the test tube to cool. Reweigh it and then record the appearance and mass.
11 Add a few drops of water to the cooled sample in the test tube. Observe what
happens and record your observations.
12 Dispose of the chemical in the waste jar provided. Do not pour it down the sink.
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EXPERIMENT 4.1
Part C
13 Place 5 mL of copper sulfate solution in a test tube.
14 Add a small piece of magnesium ribbon to the test tube. Observe it for the
next 5 minutes. Record your observations.
15 Repeat steps 13 and 14 with the hydrochloric acid solution and a small piece of zinc.
Part D
16 Place 5 mL of copper sulfate solution in a clean test tube.
17 Add 5 mL of sodium hydroxide solution. Observe the test tube.
18 Place 5 mL of silver nitrate solution in a clean test tube.
19 Add 5 mL of hydrochloric acid. Observe what happens and record your
observations.
20 Dispose of both solutions in the waste jar provided. Do not pour them down the sink.
Part E
21 Soak a small piece of filter paper in the ethanol/water solution.
22 Hold the wet paper with a pair of tongs over a lit taper. Observe what happens.
Results
1 Record your observations in a table.
Discussion
2 For each part, describe the evidence for a chemical reaction.
3 Identify the type of reaction occurring in each part.
4 Write a word equation for the chemical reaction occurring in each part.
Balancing chemical equations

A chemical equation is used to represent a chemical reaction. It can be written using words or
formulas. In iScience 9 for NSW, word equations were used.
Equations provide information about the reactants and products of any chemical reaction.
Those written in symbolic form – that is, using formulas – provide chemists with more
information than word equations because the formulas show how many atoms of different
elements are involved and how they are joined together.
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A chemical equation must always be balanced. This is because chemical reactions obey law of conservation of mass
the law of conservation of mass – no new element is created and none disappears, so the the law that states that matter is
total number of each element must be the same on both sides of the equation. A balanced neither created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction
chemical equation shows the:
● formulas of all the reactants and products
● exact proportions in which they react.
The steps for writing a balanced chemical equation and an example are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Steps for writing a balanced chemical equation
Step Example WEBLINK

Balancing demonstration
1 Write the correct chemical formula of all CH4 1 O2 → CO2 1 H2O
the reactants and products. The formulas
replace the names for the chemicals, e.g.
methane is CH4. If you change the formula, WEBLINK
you are changing the chemical. Practise balancing reactions
2 Count the number of atoms of each type There is 1 atom of C on each side.
●
appearing on each side. There are 4 atoms of H on the left, but

●
only 2 atoms on the right.

INTERACTIVE
There are 2 atoms of oxygen on the left,
●
Chemical reactions:
reaction reshuffles
but 3 atoms on the right.
3 If the numbers on each side are not the Place a 2 in front of H2O to get 2(H2O),
●
same, place numbers in front of the which is 4 3 H and 2 3 O:

formula until they are. You may need to go CH4 1 O2 → CO2 1 2H2O
ACTIVITY SHEET
back and forth a few times until you get Now the number of H on each side is the
●
Practice in balancing
chemical equations
the numbers right, so it is best to use a same.
pencil so you can rub out errors. Check for O. There are now 2 atoms on
●
DO NOT CHANGE ANY OF THE FORMULAS. the left and 4 on the right.
The numbers in front indicate how much is Place a 2 in front of O2 on the left to get
●
needed and apply to all the symbols in the 4 3 O:

formula. CH4 1 2O2 → CO2 1 2H2O
4 Check to make sure the equation is ●

There is 1 atom of C on each side.
balanced. ●
There are 4 atoms of H on each side.
●
There are 4 atoms of O on each side.
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WORKSPACE QUESTIONS 4.1

What have you learnt? 4.1
What have you learnt?

Remembering
1 Identify the correct type of reaction to complete these sentences.
a A reaction is one in which two particles
switch places.
b A reaction with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water is
.
c When a complex molecule breaks into simpler molecules, a
reaction has occurred.
d A reaction occurs when one element
takes the place of another.
e Two simple molecules joining to form a more complex molecule is a
reaction.
Understanding
2 Explain why the number of atoms on each side must be the same in a
balanced chemical equation.
3 Explain why it is not possible to just change the chemical formulas to

make an equation balance.
Applying
4 For each equation, (i) highlight the common atoms to help you identify
the reaction type as combustion (C), decomposition (D), synthesis (S),
single displacement (SD) or double displacement (DD); and (ii) write
the reaction type.
a 2Mg 1 O2 → 2MgO
b Cl2 1 2NaBr → 2NaCl 1 Br2
c 2C6H6 1 15O2 → 12CO2 1 6H2O
d 2Al2O3 → 4Al 1 3O2
e CuCl2 1 H2S → CuS 1 2HCl
f 2Na 1 Br2 → 2NaBr
g CH3COOH 1 2O2 → 2CO2 1 2H2O
h 2HgO 1 Cl2 → 2HgCl 1 O2
i 2KClO3 → 2KCl 1 3O2
j BaCl2 1 Na2SO4 → 2NaCl 1 BaSO4
5 Rewrite and balance the following equations.
a P1 O2 → P2O4
b Mg 1 O2 → MgO
c HgO → Hg 1 O2
d Al2O3 → Al 1 O2
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QUESTIONS 4.1
e BaCl2 1 H2SO4 → BaSO4 1 HCl

f Cl2 1 NaBr → NaCl 1 Br2
g CuCl2 1 H2S → CuS 1 HCl
h Na 1 Br2 → NaBr
i C2H6 1 O2 → CO2 1 H2O
j P4O10 1 H2O → H3PO4
Creating
6 Create a way to remember the steps for balancing equations. Share

these on the class wiki.
4.2 Metal meets non-metal

ACTIVITY 4.2
Metal mania
1 List everything metal that you use over 24 hours. Name each item,
identify the metal and indicate what it is used for.
2 a Compare your list with that of someone else. What are the similarities
and differences?
b Were there similar items that were made of different metals or materials?
Explain why this might be the case.
3 Is there one metal that you use more than other metals? Outline the
implications of this.
4 List six more questions that your data raises for you.
Metals play a very important part in our lives. Some metals you would be very familiar
with because you see and use them every day, such as aluminium in drink cans and
steel in sinks, taps and cutlery. Metals are also important components of most modern
technologies, such as mobile phones (Figure 4.7, page 136), computers, iPods, cars and
the fibres used as part of communication networks (Figure 4.8, page 136).
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Shutterstock.com/Brian A. Jackson
Figure 4.7
Metals are important
components of mobile
phones.
Shutterstock.com/asharkyu
Figure 4.8
Fibre-optic cables contain
metals.
Rare earth metals

The rare earth metals – the
group at the bottom of the periodic
table – are critical in everyday high-tech
devices. For example, computer hard
drives can contain dysprosium. The
US could not manufacture modern
weaponry without them. South Africa
has been surpassed by China, who
now supplies 97% of the world’s rare
earth metals. As China’s stocks dwindle,
nations are stockpiling rare earth metals
Science Photo Library
in case supplies cannot meet demand,

as is predicted in the near future.
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Some metals are rare, such as gold, while others are quite common, such as iron and
aluminium. The metals considered scarcest are actually 200 times more common than gold,
but can be difficult to extract. The discovery of certain metals and the ability to extract them ACTIVITY SHEET
from Earth dramatically affected developments in human civilisation over the past 5000 years. Bronze Age civilisation
This is apparent when considering the names given to eras of time, such as the Bronze and
Iron Ages.
The most abundant metal in Earth’s crust is aluminium. The second-most abundant metal in the
crust is iron, and the core of Earth is believed to be mainly composed of iron. All metals are found
as compounds in Earth’s crust, except for silver, gold and platinum, which are found as elements.
The metals are extracted from their ores, the rock that contains the metal or its compound.
Why are metals found mainly as compounds?

As you learnt in Chapter 3, elements react to attain the most stable electron arrangement, that ionic compound
of their nearest noble gas. Metals usually have only a few electrons in their outer shell, so when a compound that is composed
they react they tend to lose electrons and form positive ions (or cations). of positively and negatively
When non-metals react with metals, they gain electrons and form negative ions (or anions). charged ions
Figure 3.17 on page 112 showed the charges of the ions of the elements in the groups of the ionic bond
periodic table. Figure 4.9 shows the reaction between a sodium atom and a chlorine atom. To make
an electrostatic force of
this reaction easier to understand, the Bohr model of the atom has been used. In the nucleus, only attraction between positive and
the number of protons is shown. negative ions
Na atom Cl atom
11p 17p
The outer
electron is
transferred
from Na to Cl.
becomes becomes
10p 11p 17p 18p
Ne atom Na+ ion

(11+ and 10–) CI– ion Ar atom
Closest noble gas (17+ and 18–) Closest noble gas
Compounds made up of a metal and a non-metal are called ionic compounds. The Figure 4.9
When sodium and chlorine
positive and negative ions are attracted to one another and this attractive force, called an ionic
atoms meet
bond, holds the compound together. Many chemical reactions performed in both the laboratory
and industry produce ionic compounds.
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Ions in the sky

Earth is constantly
being bombarded by ions. Solar
winds are streams of ions (mostly
hydrogen ions) that emanate from
the Sun. These ions can travel at
very high speeds but get caught in
the magnetosphere, which draws
them towards the magnetic poles.
We can see this happening as
the ions create a coloured glow,
known as an aurora, in the sky
Phototake/Robert B. Slobins
near each of the magnetic poles.
The aurora australis, shown here,
is also called the southern lights.
The best place to view the aurora
australis is Tasmania because it is
closest to the South Magnetic Pole.
Representing ions: electron dot formulas

Drawing the Bohr model of an atom or ion takes a lot of time. Only the electrons in the outer
shell are involved in chemical reactions, so instead chemists often simplify the drawing by
representing the electrons by dots and only showing outer-shell electrons. This representation is
called an electron dot formula.
Figure 4.10 shows this easier way to represent the formation of sodium chloride from
its elements.
–
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl
Key:
Outer-shell electron
Na Nucleus and inner-shell electrons of a sodium atom
Cl Nucleus and inner-shell electrons of a chlorine atom
Figure 4.10 More ionic compounds

Electron dot formulas
showing the formation of The example with sodium and chlorine in Figure 4.10 is a simple case because the number of
sodium chloride electrons lost by sodium is exactly the same as that gained by chlorine. This would be the same
for any reaction between the group 1 alkali metals and the group 17 halogens.
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What about if a group 2 alkali earth metal was to react with a group 16 non-metal? As you
can see from Figure 3.17 on page 112, group 2 elements tend to lose 2 electrons to form
21 ions, and group 16 elements tend to gain 2 electrons to form 22 ions. When elements
from these two groups react, the number of electrons lost equals the number gained. For
example, in the reaction between magnesium and oxygen, magnesium forms the Mg21 ion and
oxygen forms the O22 ion. The compound magnesium oxide has the formula MgO. (The charges
therefore cancel each other out.) Figure 4.11 shows this reaction using an electron dot formula.
Figure 4.11
The reaction between
Mg + O Mg2+ + O 2– magnesium and oxygen shown
using an electron dot formula
Not all combinations are this straightforward. Consider the reaction between magnesium
and fluorine, for instance. Figure 4.12 shows how each element gains a stable electron
arrangement. Magnesium needs to lose 2 electrons while fluorine only needs to gain 1 electron
to obtain a filled outer shell. Therefore, each magnesium atom needs to react with two fluorine
atoms. When chemists analysed magnesium fluoride, they found its formula was MgF2. This is
how they explain why the atoms combine in this ratio.
WEBLINK
Ionic bonding
12p 9p
Each F atom
can only take
one of the outer
electrons of Mg.
WEBLINK
Test your knowledge of
9p ionic bonds
becomes becomes becomes
12p 9p + 9p
Figure 4.12
Mg2+ ion F– ion F– ion When magnesium and
(12+ and 10–) (9+ and 10–) (9+ and 10–) fluorine react
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Making ionic compounds
Making ionic compounds

Hydrochloric acid and potassium Wear safety glasses and protective clothing.
hydroxide are corrosive. Take care when handling the chemicals and
tell your teacher if there is a spill. Refer to
MSDS for safe chemical use and disposal.
Magnesium ribbon burns with a very Do not look at the flame directly. Do not
bright flame that can damage your eyes. inhale the powder produced from the burning.
Hot objects can cause severe burns. Do not touch the crucible or other hot
objects. Always use tongs and allow
objects to cool before putting them away.
Aim
To prepare three different ionic compounds using different types of reactions
Materials

●
8 cm piece of magnesium ribbon

●
2 cm piece of aluminium

●
10 mL of 1 mol/L hydrochloric acid

●
10 mL of 0.1 mol/L potassium hydroxide

●
steel wool or sandpaper

●
crucible and lid

●
Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze mat

●
pipe clay triangle
tongs
●

●
2 test tubes and a test-tube rack

●
measuring cylinder
matches
●

●
2 watch glasses

●
safety glasses, lab coat and gloves
Method
1 Clean the pieces of magnesium and aluminium by rubbing them gently with
steel wool or sandpaper.
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EXPERIMENT 4.2
2 Loosely coil the cleaned piece of magnesium and place it in the crucible.
Sit the crucible on the pipe clay triangle over a Bunsen burner, as shown in
Figure 4.13.
Crucible
Pipe clay triangle
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Figure 4.13
Experimental set-up
3 Light the Bunsen burner and heat the crucible and its contents until the
magnesium begins to glow. Immediately use the tongs to place the lid on the
crucible and heat it strongly.
4 Continue to heat the crucible for about 10 minutes, occasionally lifting the lid
with the tongs to provide oxygen for the reaction.
5 When all the magnesium has reacted, turn off the Bunsen burner and allow the
crucible and its contents to cool. Record your observations.
6 Place the cleaned piece of aluminium in a test tube and add enough
hydrochloric acid to cover the metal. Record your observations.
7 Place 5 mL of potassium hydroxide in a test tube and add 0.5 mL of

hydrochloric acid. Mix and then record your observations.
8 Pour a small amount of the solutions from each of the test tubes onto separate,
labelled watch glasses and allow them to evaporate overnight. Record your
observations.
Results
1 Record all of your observations.
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EXPERIMENT 4.2
Discussion
2 Write the word equation for each reaction that has occurred.
3 Identify each type of reaction that occurred. Justify your answer.
4 Write the formula of each of the ionic compounds formed.
5 Identify the cation and anion in each of these compounds.
Writing formulas of ionic compounds

When writing formulas of ionic compounds, there is one simple rule: ionic compounds
do not have a net charge. This means the total positive charge equals the total negative
charge. So you simply need to work out the proportions of the ions so that the total
positive charge equals the total negative charge. Figure 3.17 on page 112 summarises
this information.
Example 1: magnesium oxide

● Ions present: Mg21 and O22.
● Reasoning: We can see that these ions have an identical charge. If we have one ion of oxygen
for each magnesium ion, the total positive charge will equal the total negative charge.
● Conclusion: The formula will be MgO. The charges on the ions are not shown in the overall
chemical formula. The positively charged ion is always written first.
Example 2: lithium sulfide

● Ions present: Li1 and S22.
● Reasoning: If we have two Li1 ions for each S22 ion, the total positive charge will equal the
total negative charge.
2 3 11 5 21, which matches 22
● Conclusion: The formula will be Li2O. When writing formulas, if there is more than
one of the species, such as 2 Li1, then the number is written as a subscript in
the formula.
Example 3: aluminium oxide

● Ions present: Al31 and O22.
● Reasoning: This is a more difficult example. The only way to solve it is to make the two
charges add to a common number. The lowest common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6, so we will
make the charges come to 61 and 62. If we have two Al31 ions for every three O22 ions,
the total positive charge will equal the total negative charge.
2 3 31 5 61, which matches 3 3 22 5 62
● Conclusion: The formula will be Al O .
2 3
Transition metal ions

Transition metals have slightly different electron structures from other metals. (The reasons for
this are beyond the scope of this course.) Many have more than one possible charge. A simple
naming system identifies which ion we mean.
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For example, the metal iron forms Fe21 and Fe31 ions. A previous system indicated the
charge by putting ‘-ous’ at the end of the name of the Fe21 ion (e.g. ferrous) and ‘-ic’ at the end
of the Fe31 ion (e.g. ferric). However, we now use a much easier system in which the charge is
shown as a Roman numeral. Two examples are shown in Table 4.2. Notice that there is no gap
between the name of the element and the bracket. The former names are still sometimes used
in the chemical industry.
Table 4.2
Former and current naming of some transition metal ions
Ion Fe21 Fe31 Cu1 Cu21

Former name Ferrous Ferric Cuprous Cupric
Current naming Iron(II) Iron(III) Copper(I) Copper(II)
Example 4: iron(III) chloride

● Ions present: Fe31 and Cl2.
● Reasoning: If we have three Cl2 ions for each Fe31 ion, the total positive charge will equal the
total negative charge.
3 3 12 5 32, which matches 31
● Conclusion: The formula will be FeCl .
3
QUESTIONS 4.2 WORKSPACE


Understanding
1 Copy and complete the following with a word or phrase to check your
understanding.
a Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged .
Although ionic compounds are made up of charged particles,
the overall compound is electrically . This means
that the total number of positive and charges is the
.
b The positively charged ions, called , are formed when an
atom electrons. These positive ions are attracted to the
ions, called anions, which are formed when an atom
electrons. The result of this attraction is the formation of
an compound held together by an ionic .
The charge on a single ion can be determined by the position of the
element in the table.
c The formula of an ionic compound is actually the
in which the ions are present. This ratio can be easily determined
because the overall charge on an ionic compound must be
.
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QUESTIONS 4.2
Applying
2 Determine the formulas for the following ions and draw their electron dot
diagrams.
a Sodium
b Sulfide
c Calcium
d Mercury(I)
e Iron(II)
3 Identify the following ionic compounds and draw their electron dot
diagrams.
a AlF3
b AgCl
c K2S
d MgCl2
e CuS
4 Determine the formulas of the following ionic compounds.
a Sodium iodide
b Potassium oxide
c Mercury(II) oxide
d Potassium nitride
e Iron(II) chloride
f Magnesium sulfide
g Magnesium fluoride
h Chromium(III) oxide
Analysing
WEBLINK 5 State the charge that would be expected on an ion of an element:
Practice on anions,
cations and ionic formula a from group 17
b from group 13
c with an electron configuration of 2, 8, 2
d with an electron configuration of 2, 8, 6.
WEBLINK 6 X stands for different mystery elements. Deduce what charge X must
Practise naming ionic
compounds
have in each of the following compounds.
a XF
b XO
c XCl2
ACTIVITY SHEET d XF3
Practising ionic formulas
e X2O
f LiX
g CaX2
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4.3 Extracting metal

Most metals occur naturally in ionic compounds. To obtain the pure metal, it must be extracted
from the compound. This process is the reverse of making an ionic compound.
An understanding of the reactivity of metals is important in knowing how to extract a metal
from its ore. The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it is to extract. The method used to
extract metals from their ores therefore depends on their reactivity.
In Chapter 3, you learnt about the activity series of metals, which summarises the
reactivity of different metals (see Figure 3.23 on page 119 ). As you can see from the activity
series, the most reactive metals are potassium and calcium and the least reactive are silver and
gold (which is why they are usually found as elements).
More valuable than gold

More reactive metals such as potassium, calcium and aluminium
were once worth more than gold. Because they were extremely difficult
to obtain in pure form, they were very scarce as elements – more scarce
than gold, which could be found naturally in its pure state. Aluminium was
too expensive to use for everyday purposes at that time. However, with the
development of efficient extraction processes, aluminium is now a very
common material and today sells for one-ten-thousandth of the price of gold.
Chemists have developed different processes to extract metals. The more reactive metals –
such as potassium, calcium and aluminium – are extracted by electrolysis.
Less reactive metals – such as iron, zinc, tin and lead – are extracted by reacting their
ores with carbon (C) or carbon monoxide (CO). Such reactions are conducted in furnaces at
very high temperatures.
Extracting iron
Iron is the most widely used metal and the process for extracting it from its ore has been
developed and improved over the last 300 years. Iron ore consists of compounds made up of
iron and oxygen called iron oxides, such as Fe3O4 and Fe2O3.
In 1709, the use of coke instead of charcoal in a blast furnace was a major coke
technological achievement for the extraction of iron and allowed the production of iron coal that has been heated
in significant quantities. Today’s iron industry uses a modern version of the blast furnace to high temperatures in the
(Figure 4.14, page 146) – a huge steel stack lined with brick. Iron ore, coke and limestone absence of air
are dumped into the top and preheated air is blasted in at the bottom. The limestone blast furnace
decomposes and produces carbon dioxide, which reacts with the carbon to produce carbon
a huge steel stack lined with brick
monoxide. At temperatures of 1800°C, the iron ore reacts with carbon or carbon monoxide to in which iron is extracted from
produce molten iron, which runs down to the base of the furnace. The molten iron is drained iron ore
from a tap hole near the bottom at regular intervals.
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Iron ore, coke and limestone
Hot waste gases Hot waste gases
400°C
Steel lined with

heat-resistant
brick
1800°C
Hot air blast Hot air blast
Molten slag
Tap hole for slag (or ‘run-off’)

Molten iron
Figure 4.14
Extracting iron in a Tap hole for iron
blast furnace
In the main part of the blast furnace, the following reaction occurs:
WEBLINK Iron oxide 1 carbon monoxide → iron 1 carbon dioxide
How steel is made
Fe2O3 1 3CO → 2Fe 1 3CO2
In the hotter part the carbon itself reacts:

Iron oxide 1 carbon → iron 1 carbon monoxide
Fe2O3 1 3C → 2Fe 1 3CO
These reactions are single-displacement reactions because the pure metal is separated
from its compound, and a new compound is formed between the other reactant and the anion
from the metallic compound.
The production of iron in a blast furnace is a continuous process. The furnace is heated
constantly and recharged with raw materials from the top while being tapped from the bottom.
Iron-making in a furnace usually continues for about 10 years before the furnace linings need to
be renewed.
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EXPERIMENT 4.3 WORKSPACE

Extraction of iron
Extraction of iron
ICT
Hot objects can cause severe burns. Do not touch the hot objects. Always use Record this activity
tongs and allow the objects to cool before and create a movie
putting them away.
about what you are
doing, why you are
doing it, what you
Aim
observe and why.
To model the process that occurs in a blast furnace by extracting iron from iron(III) Include your thoughts
oxide using carbon about what you have
Note that the wood in the match is used as the source of carbon. The chemicals found out. Upload
in the head do not react – they are used as a source of heat. Sodium carbonate this or the link to your
fuses easily, so it is used to hold the iron(III) oxide on the wood of the match. movie to the class wiki.
Materials
●
iron(III) oxide powder
●
sodium carbonate powder
●
long match
●
water
●
crucible tongs
●
watch glass
●
spatula
●
Bunsen burner
●
heat-proof mat
●
magnet
●
safety glasses, lab coat and gloves
Method
1 Dip the match head in a small amount of water to moisten it.
2 Roll the damp match head first in the sodium carbonate powder and then in
the iron(III) oxide powder.
3 Wash your hands to remove any chemicals.
4 Holding the match with a pair of tongs, put the head into a blue
Bunsen flame.
5 Allow the match to burn no more than halfway along its length and then
extinguish the flame.
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EXPERIMENT 4.3
6 Allow the match to cool, place it on the watch glass and use the spatula to
crush the charred part.
7 Move the magnet around under the watch glass and observe what
happens.
Results
1 Record all of your observations.
Discussion
2 Outline the evidence for iron being extracted.
3 Write word and balanced equations for the reaction.
Conclusion
4 Write a conclusion for this activity.
Extracting other metals

The chemistry involved in extracting iron can be applied to the extraction of other metals,
VIDEO including copper, lead, tin and titanium. Although the processes are all slightly different, the end
Reducing metal oxides
product is the same – the pure metal.
Generally, the compound containing the metal undergoes a reaction to separate the metal from
the other element(s) in the compound. The amount of energy needed to do this depends on the
reactivity of the metal – the more reactive metals are harder to separate, so more energy is needed.
WEBLINK Copper usually occurs as Cu2S, so its reaction is:
Method of extracting metal Copper sulfide 1 oxygen → copper 1 sulfur dioxide
Cu2S 1 O2 → 2Cu 1 SO2
Lead is usually separated from its oxide:
Lead oxide 1 carbon → lead 1 carbon monoxide
PbO 1 C → Pb 1 CO
ACTIVITY 4.3
Careers in science
Many careers in the mining industry require some knowledge of science – some
WEBLINK of them are less obvious than others.
Mining careers
1 List some jobs that you think would exist in the mining industry.
2 Identify the qualifications you think would be necessary for these jobs.
3 a Click on the weblink ‘Mining careers’ and watch the video ‘Discover
where the minerals industry can take you’.
b List the careers that were identified in the video.
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Remembering
1 Outline the difference between a metal and an ore.
Describe the relationship between a metal’s position in the activity series

2
of metals and the method by which it is extracted.
Understanding
3 a Copy and complete the reaction:
Iron oxide 1 carbon →
b Identify the type of reaction in part a.
Applying
4 Write word and balanced equations for the reaction between tin(IV)
oxide (SnO2) and carbon (C).
Analysing
5 Explain why more energy is needed to extract more reactive metals.
6 Suggest why the extraction of iron needs to occur at very high temperatures.
4.4 Factors affecting

reaction rate
It requires a lot of energy – in the form of heat – to extract iron from its ore. More specifically,
energy needs to be added to get the reaction started. Another reaction that needs energy to
be added is the burning of magnesium. We need to ignite the magnesium before it can burn;
however, once lit, it burns very rapidly. Explosions take only a fraction of a second once ignited.
Not all reactions need an energy input to get them going. Most of the reactions we have
looked at so far occur spontaneously. For instance, as soon as an acid touches aluminium, spontaneously
bubbles begin to form. occurring without additional
Not all spontaneous reactions occur rapidly. Rusting takes years to occur, the chemical energy input
weathering of rocks takes thousands of years, cement takes a few hours to set firmly, the digestion
of food takes 4–5 hours and garden waste in a compost heap takes many weeks to decompose.
Therefore, reactions may occur spontaneously or need energy input. They may occur
quickly or slowly (Figure 4.15, page 150).
There is a relationship between energy and the rate at which a reaction occurs. For
example, a cake cooks at different rates when the oven temperature is higher or lower. What
else affects how long a reaction will take to occur?
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Figure 4.15
Rusting is a slow reaction.
Fireworks are a fast
reaction.
Shutterstock.com/Gilmanshin
Shutterstock.com/bajars
ACTIVITY 4.4
How long?
1 Create a table with the following headings: ‘Instant’, ‘Within hours’, ‘Days’,
‘Months’ and ‘Years’. Under each, list a minimum of five reactions that
would take that time to occur.
2 Why do some recipes specifically direct you to cook things slowly or

quickly? What effect does the rate at which something has cooked have
on flavour, texture, colour, general appearance, sound (crunch) and
aroma? Give a specific example when you answer this.
reaction rate The speed at which a reaction occurs is called the reaction rate. When a reaction
the speed at which a reaction happens quickly, it has a fast reaction rate; a reaction that takes a longer time has a slow
occurs reaction rate. For reactant molecules to react, they need to collide with other reactant
molecules with enough energy to cause them to rearrange.
You can increase and decrease the reaction rate by changing the conditions under which
the reaction occurs.
Four factors affect reaction rate: temperature, concentration, surface area and
the presence of a catalyst.
Temperature
Temperature plays a major role in increasing the rate of reactions. Chemical reactions
performed at high temperatures produce the products faster. However, sometimes you want a
reaction to occur slowly.
Increasing the temperature increases the reaction rate because the particles have more
energy and collide with one another at a much greater rate.
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Concentration
The concentration of a substance is the measure of how much solute there is dissolved in a concentration
certain volume of solvent. Figure 4.16 shows a dilute solution or less concentrated solution. the amount of solute dissolved in
There are only a few particles of solute in a particular volume of solvent. Figure 4.16 also a certain volume of solvent
shows a more concentrated solution. There are more particles of solute in the same volume of
solvent. If the concentration is higher, there are more particles that can undergo the reaction;
therefore, the reaction rate increases. When looking at concentration, it is the solution that is
taking part in the reaction that is changing.
Particle of salt Figure 4.16

Particle arrangement for a
less concentrated and more
Less concentrated solution More concentrated solution concentrated solution
Surface area a
The rate of a reaction also depends on whether surface area
the reactants are in big pieces or finely divided. the area of the surface (top,
To get a fire started, we use small chips of bottom, sides) of a substance;
wood because they burn faster than large logs. more finely divided substances
have a greater surface area than
When large pieces are broken down into smaller the same mass of larger pieces
pieces, they have a larger surface area. This b
means more particles are available for reaction.
Figure 4.17a shows a whole piece of metal.
Only the top, bottom and sides of the metal are
exposed for other particles to collide and react.
Figure 4.17
These are the ‘surfaces’ of the metal. In Figure 4.17b,
A whole piece of metal only
the piece of metal is cut into five pieces, but the c has the top, bottom and
metal is still the same size. In Figure 4.17c, the sides exposed for reacting
five pieces of metal are separated so that more with other particles. When
edges are exposed for other particles to collide the same piece of metal is
and react with. The smaller pieces have more cut into smaller pieces and
surfaces exposed, so they have a larger surface the pieces are separated,
area. When looking at surface area, it is the solid there is more surface area
that is taking part in the reaction that exposed for reacting with.
is changing.
In Experiment 4.3, you used powdered
reactants to extract iron. The result was that
they reacted faster.
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Exploding flour
Flour can be very dangerous.
Because flour particles are so tiny, they
burn very quickly and easily. In fact, flour
ignites so easily that it is considered an
explosive. Flour explosions in bakeries
and flour mills have caused hundreds
of deaths. Explosions in flour mills have
happened when flour dust was exposed to
Shutterstock.com/phloen
candle flames, hot electric light bulbs and
even cigarettes. Special equipment and
materials that will not produce sparks are
now used in flour mills.
ACTIVITY 4.5
Work, health and safety

1 Research the WHS (work, health and safety) requirements for flour storage
in a bakery. State the advice, government regulations and specifications.
2 Develop your own list of questions and answer these in regard to flour
storage.
3 Upload your findings to the class wiki.
Catalysts
Another way to increase the rate of a reaction is to add a substance that helps bring the reactants
together so that they can react. A substance that helps speed up a reaction, but is not changed
catalyst by the reaction, is called a catalyst. Catalysts work by providing a site for reactants to attach to
a chemical that speeds up a specific parts of the catalyst. At this site, the reactants come apart or bond together.
chemical reaction but does not Catalysts are critical in virtually every industrial chemical process, including the production
itself change of fertilisers, plastics and petrol. Every day you encounter many products that are either made
in catalytic reactions or produced from materials formed in catalytic reactions.
enzyme Catalysts are widely used in industry because they speed up reactions and reduce
a protein that acts as a catalyst in the amount of energy needed for reactions to occur. This means energy savings to the
biological reactions manufacturer. Catalytic converters in cars reduce the amount of pollutants released.
catalase
Catalysts in living things are called enzymes. Catalase is a common catalyst in the cells
of living organisms. Catalase helps to quickly break down hydrogen peroxide, which is produced
an enzyme that catalyses the
decomposition of hydrogen in cells as a toxic by-product of normal cellular processes (Figure 4.18). A single molecule of
peroxide into water and oxygen catalase can catalyse the breakdown of millions of hydrogen peroxide molecules every second.
152 ISBN 9780170231510

Enzymes such as catalase are large, complex protein molecules. They are specific catalysts,
meaning they only catalyse one particular reaction.
Figure 4.18
The enzyme catalase
catalyses the breakdown
of hydrogen peroxide into
oxygen and water.
VIDEO
Catalysts
INTERACTIVE
Enzymes and digestion
EXPERIMENT 4.4 WORKSPACE

Comparing reaction rates
Comparing reaction rates

Hydrochloric acid is Wear safety glasses. Take care when handling the
corrosive. chemicals and tell the teacher if there is a spill. Refer to
MSDS for safe chemical use and disposal.
Aim
To investigate how concentration, surface area and catalysts affect reaction rates
Part A: Concentration
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis stating which reaction you think will occur the fastest.
Materials
0.1 M, 1 M and 2 M hydrochloric acid

●
1.5 g granulated zinc

●
3 test tubes and a test–tube rack

●
electronic balance
●
measuring cylinder
●
stopwatch
●
safety glasses
●
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EXPERIMENT 4.4
Method
1 Measure 10 mL of each of the different concentrations of hydrochloric acid and

pour them into separate test tubes.
2 Weigh out three lots of 0.5 g of granulated zinc. Add the zinc at the same time
to each of the three test tubes and start the stopwatch.
3 Time how long it takes for all the zinc to react in each test tube.
Results
1 Record the time taken for the reaction in a data table.
2 Identify the concentration of the solution that reacted the fastest.
Conclusion
3 Write a general statement to describe the effect concentration has on the

speed of the reaction.
4 Explain how concentration affects the speed of the reaction.
Part B: Surface area
Materials
●
3 antacid tablets
●
distilled water
●
spatula
●
250 mL beaker
●
stopwatch
●
measuring cylinder
●
mortar and pestle
Method
1 Measure 100 mL of distilled water and pour it into the beaker.
2 Add a whole antacid tablet to the beaker and time how long it takes to dissolve.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2, but this time break a second antacid tablet into smaller
pieces before adding it to the beaker.
4 Repeat steps 1 and 2, but this time grind the antacid tablet into very small
pieces using the mortar and pestle.
Results
1 Record the time taken for the reaction in a data table.
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EXPERIMENT 4.4
Discussion
2 Identify the tablet that reacted the fastest.
3 Explain whether this is a fair test.
Conclusion
4 Write a general statement to relate the size of the particles to the rate of reaction.
Justify your statement by referring to particle theory.
Part C: Catalysts

Hydroxide peroxide and Safety glasses must be worn at all times. Follow
manganese dioxide are harmful. your teacher’s instructions about the disposal of the
manganese dioxide. If any of these chemicals are
spilt, tell your teacher immediately. Refer to MSDS for
safe chemical use and disposal.
Oxygen causes substances Follow the safety instructions for the glowing taper
to burn. test very carefully so that you do not get burnt.
Background
The chemical formula of hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 (Figure 4.19). The most
common (abundant) compound of oxygen and hydrogen is water (H2O). The
hydrogen peroxide molecule is not nearly as stable as the water molecule, so
it will decompose and give off the extra oxygen atom, which will combine with
another to form an oxygen molecule. This is shown in the following equation.
2H2O2( l ) → 2H2O( l ) 1 O2(g) 1 energy
hydrogen water oxygen

peroxide
Figure 4.19
Hydrogen peroxide and
Hydrogen peroxide Water water
This decomposition reaction normally occurs very slowly; however, if a catalyst

is added, it will proceed very rapidly. Substances that can be used to catalyse
(speed up) the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide include enzymes found in
potatoes and liver and manganese dioxide, a black compound of formula MnO2.
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EXPERIMENT 4.4
Materials

●
100 mL clean conical flask containing a small amount of 6% (v/v)
hydrogen peroxide

●
small spatula of manganese dioxide

●
piece of cotton wool

●
long taper
matches
●

●
heat mat

●
safety glasses
Method
1 Very carefully, place the flask containing the hydrogen peroxide onto the
middle of the heat mat. Have the catalyst and cotton wool ready.
2 Tip the catalyst into the flask and immediately add the cotton wool plug, as
shown in Figure 4.20. Record your observations.
3 When the reaction appears to have stopped, perform the glowing taper test on
the gas you have collected. Ensure that the cotton wool is removed just before you
plunge the glowing taper into the space above the liquid. Record your observations.
4 Carefully follow your teacher’s instructions for cleaning up.
Plug of cotton wool
Hydrogen peroxide
Catalyst
Figure 4.20
The correct way to set up the
Heat mat
equipment
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EXPERIMENT 4.4
Results
1 Describe all of your observations.
Discussion
2 Explain how your results support the equation for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide.
3 Justify whether the catalyst was used up in this reaction.
4 Suggest why the cotton wool was used.
5 Identify the type of reaction that has occurred.

WEBLINK
6 If different groups in the class used different catalysts, compare your results and Rates of reaction
comment on the effectiveness of the catalysts.


Remembering
1 List the four factors that affect reaction rate.
Understanding
2 Write the following reactions in order from fastest to slowest.
●
Fireworks exploding
●
Metals rusting
●
Digestion
●
Burning a candle
●
Cooking an egg
Applying
3 For each of the following statements, identify the factor that causes the
reaction rate to increase.
a Scrambled eggs cook faster than whole eggs.
b Hot-water pipes corrode faster than cold-water pipes.
c Bile speeds up the digestion of fat.
d Soluble aspirin works more quickly than a tablet.
4 Explain why ripe fruit should be kept in the refrigerator but green fruit
can be left on the counter.
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QUESTIONS 4.4
Analysing
5 Four strips of magnesium were placed into four acid solutions. The
temperatures and times for the reactions are given in the following table.
Magnesium strip Temperature (°C) Time (s)

1 15 48
2 25 30
3 35 14
4 45 7
a Construct a graph of the results, plotting temperature on the

horizontal axis and time on the vertical axis.
b How long would it take for the reaction to be completed at a
temperature of 30°C?
c On the same graph, sketch the curve you would expect to obtain if
a more concentrated acid was used.
6 A 250 mL beaker containing 100 mL of dilute sulfuric acid has 0.5 g of
zinc added to it. A reaction occurs, producing zinc sulfate and hydrogen
gas. Which of the following changes would increase the reaction rate?
A Warming the acid prior to adding the zinc
B Using a 500 mL beaker
C Using the same mass of granulated zinc
D Using 200 mL of acid of the same concentration
E Using 100 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid
Evaluating
7 A student wanted to know if the digestion of fat by a pancreatic extract
is speeded up by bile. A pink indicator that turns yellow when fat is
digested was used to determine when digestion had occurred.
The student set up two test tubes:
●
Test tube A: 5 mL full-cream milk 1 10 mL pancreatic extract 1
indicator
●
Test tube B: 5 mL full-cream milk 1 5 mL pancreatic extract 1 5 mL bile
solution 1 indicator
The student shook each test tube, then timed how long it took for the indicator
to change from pink to yellow. The results are given in the table below.
Test tube Time taken for indicator to change (min)
A 10
B 3
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QUESTIONS 4.4
The student concluded that bile helps an enzyme in the pancreatic

extract to break down the fat in milk. Is this a valid conclusion? Justify
your answer by giving at least two reasons.
Creating
8 Students were given the experimental set-up shown in Figure 4.21, where
a reaction between magnesium metal and an acid was to be tested.
The same amount of magnesium and acid was used in each beaker.
a Predict the order of reaction rate, from fastest to slowest.
b Justify your answer.
A B Figure 4.21
40°C 60°C Testing acid–magnesium
reaction rates
Very dilute acid Dilute acid
C D E
40°C 40°C 60°C
Dilute acid Very dilute acid More concentrated acid
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4.5 Using science to make

informed decisions
The chemical structure of drugs is very complex, so how do chemists develop drugs and work
out their structure? There are many types of chemists in the pharmaceutical industry – such as
medicinal, process and pharmaceutical chemists – and each one makes a specific contribution
to the development of a new drug (Figure 4.22).
Medicinal chemists identify and develop compounds that will eventually become drugs.
They identify a drug candidate, and then modify the structure of the compound several times
to improve its good characteristics and minimise the bad points. At this stage only a few
milligrams of the compound will have been produced.
Process chemists then develop efficient chemical reactions to produce larger quantities of
the most promising compounds. These drug candidates are studied in animals, such as rats,
and their effects are recorded. Promising compounds are then put into clinical trials on humans.
If these trials are successful, then chemists develop the actual drug further. Pharmaceutical
WEBLINK chemists transform the actual drug substance into a product for ingestion by patients.
Careers in the
pharmaceutical industry
Use the weblink ‘Careers in the pharmaceutical industry’ to learn more about the jobs of
chemists in the pharmaceutical industry.
ACTIVITY SHEET
Ethics in science: Drug Testing new medicines
testing on animals
Presently, many drugs are tested on animals before being tested on
humans. This is far from ideal because there are many biological differences
between animals and humans. Tests are also carried out on isolated human
cells in the laboratory, but this does not provide information on the drug’s
effect on other parts of the body. Computational chemists are currently
attempting to make a ‘virtual human’ that can model drug effects on all parts
of the body and even take into account existing medical conditions.
Figure 4.22
A chemist working in a
pharmaceutical laboratory
Shutterstock.com/emin kuliyev
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Factors to consider when developing

new drugs
Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals and chemical reactions in living things, including biochemistry
humans. It is an important area of chemistry when developing drugs or other chemicals used to the study of chemicals and
treat humans, other animals and even plants. chemical reactions in living things
Medical research is a major industry in every developed country. We expect to be able
to seek medical treatment when we are unwell. However, we also expect that the drugs we
are prescribed won’t have any side effects that cause even more severe medical problems.
Therefore, drugs are rigorously tested on other animals such as guinea pigs and mice. Drugs
are also tested in vivo, that is, in human volunteers. These people are aware that the drug has in vivo
gone through significant testing but that there could be unknown side effects, or that the drug in the human body
may not work as the scientists expect since human bodies are different from other animals.
Drugs undergo a much tougher testing regime today than in the past.
How things have changed – thalidomide

Thalidomide was a drug that was developed by a German pharmaceutical company in the
1950s and released for sale in late 1957. Its primary use was as a sedative, a sleeping tablet. sedative
During testing, it was found that it was almost impossible to achieve fatal overdoses with something that helps you to relax
this drug. Hence, it was available for sale over the counter (without a prescription), in many and go to sleep
countries, including Australia. It was also found that it worked as an antinausea drug, so it was
used extensively by pregnant women suffering from morning sickness. The drug was withdrawn
from sale in 1961, when a link was found between birth defects, such as missing limbs, and the
use of thalidomide by pregnant women (Figure 4.23).
It was later found that the drug was not tested on pregnant mice, or people, as part of
the approval process. Thalidomide was not approved for use in the United States of America.
However, thousands of children in other parts of the world were affected.
AAP Images/AP Photo/Brainerd Daily Dispatch, Steve Kohls
Figure 4.23
Tony Meléndez, singer and
songwriter, was born without
arms. His mother took
thalidomide when she was
pregnant. He plays the guitar
with his feet.
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On further investigation, it was found that thalidomide exists as a mixture in two forms.
One of these forms (S-thalidomide) caused the birth defects; the other form was the sedative
(R-thalidomide) (Figure 4.24). So scientists thought that if they could isolate R-thalidomide,
then it could be used safely for its original purpose. However, R-thalidomide changes into
S-thalidomide in the human body. So even if it could be isolated, it would not stop the
development of birth defects if administered to pregnant women.
Figure 4.24
O O
Different forms of H H
thalidomide have very
different effects. N O N O
NH NH
O O O O
S-Thalidomide – a teratogen R-Thalidomide – a sedative
Scientists and governments learned much from the development process, release and
effects of thalidomide. In 1962, the US Congress passed laws mandating that all drugs have to
be passed as being safe for use during pregnancy before they can be approved for sale in the
US. Many other countries have since passed similar laws. In Australia, the Therapeutic Goods
Administration is the government agency responsible for the approval of medications. It has
adopted many of the guidelines from the European Union.
Thalidomide prevents the development of blood vessels that provide the blood supply
and nutrients to enable limbs to develop. In the late 1990s, thalidomide was approved for
the treatment of leprosy; in 2006, it was approved for the treatment of multiple myeloma (a
cancer of blood). However, there are strict guidelines for its use. These include giving regular
pregnancy tests to females who are prescribed thalidomide, allowing only a small number of
specialist doctors to prescribe it and keeping a register of all patients being treated with it.
The story of thalidomide is a classic example of the importance of scientific research.
The more we understand the chemistry of a compound and its effects on the human body in a
variety of conditions – male, female, pregnant, young, old – and its interaction with other drugs
and treatments for other medical conditions, then the more likely that drugs will be developed
that are safe for the treatment of humans.

Chemical structure
and reactions
Chemical structure and reactions

Some of the chemicals give Use only small amounts of the chemicals and put the lids
off vapours that can irritate on the containers immediately after use.
nasal cavities. Use chemicals in a well-ventilated space; open the windows.
Wear safety glasses and wash your hands at the end of
the experiment.
Chemicals should be disposed of in a waste bottle; they
should not be poured down the sink.
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EXPERIMENT 4.5
Aim
To compare the reactions of different chemicals with similar structures
Materials
●
dropper bottle of 1–butanol
●
dropper bottle of 2–butanol
●
dropper bottle of tert–butyl alcohol
●
dropper bottle of 0.1 mol/L acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
●
3 test tubes and a test-tube rack
●
marble chips
Method
1 Add about 1 cm depth of each alcohol to separate test tubes.
2 Add 3 drops of the acidified potassium dichromate to each test tube.
3 Record your observations.
4 Discard the test tube that did not show any reaction.
5 Add a marble chip to the test tubes that showed a reaction.
6 Record your observations.
Results
1 Present all your results in an appropriate table.
OH
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 C
H3C CH2 OH H3C CH H3C CH3 Figure 4.25
CH3 The structures of
OH
1–butanol, 2–butanol and
1-Butanol 2-Butanol tert-Butyl alcohol tert–butyl alcohol
2 Draw a table that contains the number of carbons, number of hydrogens

and number of oxygens for each of the alcohols (1–butanol, 2–butanol and
tert–butyl alcohol).
Discussion
3 Describe how the alcohols are the same.
4 Describe how the alcohols are different.
5 Justify whether the structure of the chemical affects its chemical properties.
6 Relate what you have learnt in this experiment to thalidomide.
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A more recent example – Vioxx

Vioxx was a drug that was developed to reduce inflammation and pain. It was used extensively in
the treatment of arthritis. It was first released in 1999 but was withdrawn from sale in September
2004. In the year before it was withdrawn, the parent company had US$2.5 billion of sales.
Vioxx was withdrawn from sale because it was claimed that taking Vioxx increased your
chance of having a heart attack or stroke. The first study to support this claim was in early 2001.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the government agency responsible for the approval of
medications in the United States of America. They wrote to the company that owned Vioxx in late
2001 expressing concern about the use of the drug. The company added a warning label to the
medication in early 2002.
Several other studies also found a link between Vioxx and heart attack or stroke. Several
of the trials compared patients treated with Vioxx with patients treated with another company’s
similar drug. It was found that patients treated
with Vioxx were more likely to suffer heart
attacks or strokes. The company that marketed
Vioxx said that this was due to the other drug
minimising the chances of suffering heart
attacks or strokes, rather than Vioxx increasing
them. It was only when the results of a
randomised controlled trial were made available
that Vioxx was withdrawn from the market.
In a randomised controlled trial, one group
of people are given the drug being tested, while
the others are given a placebo. A placebo looks
the same but does not have the active ingredient
of the drug being tested. The trial participants
do not know if they are taking the drug or the
Corbis/© David Kadlubowski
Figure 4.26
placebo. All other variables are kept the same –
Vioxx treated inflammation
monitoring regimes, dosage levels and length of
and pain, but also increased
the risk of heart attack or trial. Such trials would normally involve several
stroke, so it was withdrawn thousand participants.
from sale.
WORKSPACE ACTIVITY 4.6

Drugs withdrawn from sale
Drugs withdrawn from sale

Over time, many drugs have been withdrawn from sale. Research one drug
that has been withdrawn from sale.
1 Identify its name.
2 Provide a diagram of its chemical structure.
3 Outline what symptoms or ailment it was originally used to treat.
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ACTIVITY 4.6
4 Outline why it was withdrawn from sale.
5 Justify why rigorous scientific research is required in the development of drugs.
Issues in industrial chemistry – coal

seam gas
In iScience 9 for NSW Chapter 6, the method for extraction of gas from coal seams was
outlined. A pipe is drilled into the coal seam, usually 300–1000 metres below the surface of
Earth. Once water is withdrawn from the coal seam, the gas starts to flow from the cracks
(cleats) in the coal bed. This gas can be used for gas stoves and hot water systems or
exported to overseas markets.
There has been significant public debate about the mining of coal seam gas throughout
New South Wales. Mining companies have acquired the mining rights to large areas of land in
remote, rural, regional and metropolitan areas of the state. Landowners have discovered that
they own the surface of their land but not what is under the surface.
ACTIVITY 4.7 WORKSPACE

Coal seam gas
Coal seam gas
1 Use secondary sources to:

a research areas of New South Wales where mining companies have
acquired the rights for mining coal seam gas
b research areas of New South Wales where mining of coal seam gas
has started
c present the information found in parts a and b on a map of New
South Wales.
2 In groups of four or five, research the following and present the information
as a news report for a current affairs program using a vodcast.
a Outline some of the concerns by residents in regional, rural and remote
areas.
b Some residents in rural and remote areas are in favour of coal seam gas
mining. Outline their arguments.
c Outline some of the concerns by residents in metropolitan areas.
d Outline the arguments that the mining company would put for supporting
coal seam gas production.
e Outline the issues that the government must assess to make decisions
about which regions will be subjected to coal seam gas mining and
which areas will be protected from coal seam gas mining.
f Outline the role of industrial chemists in the coal seam gas industry.
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WORKSPACE QUESTIONS 4.5


Remembering
1 Define the following terms.
a Biochemistry
b In vivo
c Placebo
d Side effect
2 Outline the role of the Therapeutic Goods Administration.
Understanding
Explain why drugs for treating humans must be tested on humans as
3
well as other animals such as mice and guinea pigs.
Explain why new medications are tested on several thousand

4
participants.
Justify why randomised controlled trials are considered the ‘gold

5
standard’ of testing regimes for new drugs.
6 State which people could be treated with thalidomide without any

harmful side effects.
Explain why scientists who develop drugs should have a thorough

7
understanding of biochemistry.
Analysing
Analyse how social considerations affected the use of thalidomide as a
8
treatment for leprosy.
Evaluating
9 Drug companies have to file, with the relevant regulatory authority, a
significant report that details, among other things, the trials conducted
on the drug to be registered. These reports are produced by scientists
who have been paid by the company. Justify whether the regulatory
authority should conduct any further trials on the drug.
Justify whether university and other research facilities should be able

10 a
to accept sponsorship from pharmaceutical companies.
b If your answer to part a was yes, outline some procedures that should
be put in place to maintain the integrity of the research.
Assess whether governments should support scientific research of
11
pharmaceutical products.
12 Should Vioxx have been withdrawn from sale earlier than September 2004?
Justify your answer.
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4.6 Emerging chemical

science – benefits for society
As chemists better understand the properties of materials, they are able to see potential
uses for these materials. Sometimes, they are able to manipulate the structure of a material
to change its properties and, therefore, open up potential new uses. Technology has enabled
the advancement of materials, particularly in terms of miniaturising them. Chemists are now
manipulating some materials atom by atom. In other cases, they are working at the nano
level – this is equivalent to a billionth (1/1 000 000 000 or 1029) of a metre.
Materials powered by your heartbeat

Chemists have developed a computer chip that can obtain its energy from body movements,
such as clicking your fingers or possibly even your heartbeat. This means that in the future
personal electronic devices such as mp3 players and mobile phones could be powered without
the need for power outlets or batteries, which cause problems on disposal. It also means that
devices could be further miniaturised since there is no need for bulky power cords or batteries.
Dr Zhong Lin Wang from Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, has developed zinc oxide
(ZnO) nanowires, which can generate an electric current when they are stretched and bent. Five
hundred of these nanowires packed together would have the same diameter as a human hair.
Dr Wang’s research group developed ways to combine the charge from the wires and deposit them
onto polymer chips. Five of these nanogenerators provide the same voltage as two AA batteries.
It is not only clicking fingers that can power up these nanogenerators; any movement,
such as walking, wind and rolling tyres on bikes and vehicles could be converted to electrical
energy. The potential use of these nangenerators is only limited by imagination. For example,
insulin pumps could be implanted in people with diabetes and powered by their heartbeat.
There would be no need for surgery to replace batteries in these pumps.
Overcoming famine in Africa

A team of scientists from Virginia Tech, USA, led by Professor Percival Zhang, has developed a
process for converting cellulose to starch, an important part of our daily nutritional needs.
Humans can digest starch but cannot digest cellulose. All plants contain cellulose so by
having a process that can convert indigestible cellulose into digestible starch, we can potentially
use all plants as food sources, not just traditional food crops, which require a lot of fertilisers
and pesticides. This would be particularly important in some of the poorest countries of the
world where many crops cannot grow because of severe drought.
This process would convert 30% of the cellulose into amylose, a form of starch that is a
good source of fibre and decreases the chances of diabetes and obesity. The remainder would be
converted to ethanol, which could be used as a source of fuel and in biodegradeable packaging.
Stopping excessive bleeding

Joe Landolina, a student at Polytechnic Institute of New York University, USA, has developed a
product that stops a wound bleeding almost instantly. Veti-GelTM is a synthetic form of a compound
that triggers the clotting of blood. It is compatible with human tissue, so there do not appear to
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nelson
be any problems caused by tissue rejection. The gel works by forming a tight seal over the wound
and triggering the body’s own clotting process. It stops major bleeding in a matter of seconds.
Courtesy of Suneris, Inc.

Figure 4.27
Joe Landolina, the inventor
of Veti-GelTM
Joe Landolina (Figure 4.27) and a group of friends have formed a company to further
develop this product. At present, Veti-GelTM has only been trialled on rat livers and carotid arteries.
It has not yet been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for trialling on humans.
ACTIVITY 4.8
WEBLINK
Veti-GelTM stops
bleeding instantly
Veti-Gel TM
1 Describe the type of scientific evidence that would need to be produced
before Veti-GelTM is approved for sale in Australia.
2 Develop an advertisement, using Glogster, that the company could use

when it releases Veti-GelTM for sale.
Decreasing air pollution and making

the garden grow
Air pollution causes many health problems, including respiratory conditions, strokes and heart
attacks. One of the major components of air pollution is nitrogen oxide (NO2), which is produced
in car engines when nitrogen reacts with oxygen. Boral Roofing has developed a product that
can be coated onto roof tiles. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the product reacts with the nitrogen
oxide. One of the products formed is calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), which is a common ingredient
in fertilisers. When it rains, the calcium nitrate is washed off the roof. If you have a garden bed
planted underneath, then it will be fertilised as well. This product has a significant effect on the
concentration of nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere.
Life-saving chemistry
Vaccines and many other life-saving drugs must be stored in a refrigerator or they will lose their
potency. Many people in hot developing nations do not have refrigerators.
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Scientists at Tufts University School of Engineering in Massachusetts, USA, have used

silkworm cocoons to develop a silk protein that stabilises vaccines and other drugs, allowing
them to retain their potency at temperatures of 60°C for more than 6 months. Scientists have
tested this stabilisation process on the measles, mumps and rubella vaccines. They have
also tested it on penicillin, one of the world’s most commonly used antibiotics. This has some
potentially life-saving uses in being able to deliver life-saving vaccines to people who live in
developing nations, many of which are located in some of the world’s hottest places.
So, how does it work? Many vaccines and antibiotics contain proteins that consist of strands
of amino acids folded into particular shapes. At high temperatures, the strands of amino acids
lose their shape and their biological activity. The silk protein encases the drugs and acts as a nano
bubble wrap, preventing the vaccines and antibiotics from unravelling and hence retaining their
biological activity. It also prevents moisture from penetrating the drugs and causing them to lose
their potency.


Remembering
1 Identify the compound present in the nanogenerator.
2 Identify a property of the nanowires used in the nanogenerator.
3 How big are the nanowires?
4 Outline the work of Professor Zhang and the scientists at Georgia Tech.
5 Outline the properties of the silk protein developed by the scientists at
Tufts University School of Engineering in Massachusetts.
Understanding
6 Explain why nanowires have only been recently discovered.
7 Identify the energy transformation that occurs in nanogenerators.
8 Relate the properties of Veti-GelTM to its potential use.
9 Explain why many drugs lose potency at high temperatures.
Analysing
10 Identify some potential uses of nanogenerators and assess what impact
they could have on society and the environment.
Creating
11 Develop a PMI chart on whether governments should support scientific
research into new materials.
Reflecting
12 Materials are continually being developed that could change the world
as we know it. Discuss this statement with reference to specific examples.
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Chapter review
Remembering
1 Match the type of reaction on the left side with the correct definition on the right.
Reaction Definition
Combustion This occurs when different atoms in two different
compounds trade places.
Decomposition This occurs when one element replaces another in a
compound.
WORKSPACE Synthesis A substance reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide
Chapter 4 review
and water.
Single displacement Two or more substances combine to form a more
complex substance.
ACTIVITY SHEET Double displacement Compounds break down into simpler substances.
Chapter 4 checklist
2 Copy and complete the following statements with a word or phrase.

a Cations are charged ions that have
REVIEW QUIZ
electrons.
Chapter 4 b When an atom electrons, it becomes negatively charged
and forms an .
c A is extracted from an ore.
d Metals that are more reactive are extracted than metals
that are less reactive.
Understanding
3 Identify the four factors that affect the rate of a reaction and describe how they affect
the rate.
4 Use an example to explain ionic bonding.
Applying
5 Classify each of the following reactions as combustion (C), decomposition (D),
synthesis (S), single displacement (SD) or double displacement (DD).
a CaO 1 CO2 → CaCO3
b 2H2O2 → 2H2O 1 O2
c C5H12 1 8O2 → 5CO2 1 6H2O
d 8Al 1 Fe3O4 → 4Al2O3 1 9Fe
e 2H2 1 O2 → 2H2O
f 2HCl 1 Zn → ZnCl2 1 H2
g ZnS 1 2HCl → ZnCl2 1 H2S
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6 Balance the following equations.

a C3H8 1 O2 → CO2 1 H2O
b C7H6O2 1 O2 → CO2 1 H2O
c P4O10 1 H2O → H3PO4
d FeS2 1 O2 → Fe2O3 1 SO2
e NH3 1 O2 → NO 1 H2O
f Fe 1 HCl → H2 1 FeCl2
g Al 1 Fe3O4 → Al2O3 1 Fe
7 a State the chemical name for the following ionic compounds.
i Na2S
ii BaBr2
iii Al2O3
iv LiCl
v FeF3
vi AlP
vii CuI2
b Draw electron dot diagrams for compounds i and vi.
8 Write formulas for:
a sodium oxide
b potassium nitride
c aluminium oxide
d copper(II) chloride
e silver bromide
f lithium fluoride
g lead sulfide.
Analysing
9 Deduce what charge mystery element X would have in each of the following compounds.
a XS
b XCl
c X2O
d KX
e Al2X3
10 Using examples, discuss how ethical and environmental considerations impact on science
research related to pharmaceuticals and industry.
11 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to water and oxygen over time, as shown below.
2H2O2( l ) → 2H2O( l ) 1 O2(g)
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nelson
200
Volume of oxygen gas produced (mL)

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Figure 4.28 20
Volume of oxygen gas
produced over time from the 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide Time elapsed (min)
Figure 4.28 shows the volume of gas collected from 100 mL of hydrogen peroxide
solution. All of the oxygen gas had been produced by the 20th minute and the experiment
was halted at this time.
a How much gas has been produced at the 5-minute mark?
b What is the minimum amount of time required to ensure that 90 mL of oxygen gas has
been produced?
c The reaction may be catalysed by cobalt(II) chloride. Explain what you would expect to
happen if cobalt chloride was added to the 100 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution.
d Explain what you would expect to happen if you chilled the 100 mL of hydrogen
peroxide solution.
Evaluating
12 Assess the role of the chemist in the pharmaceutical industry.
13 Evaluate whether coal seam gas mining should be allowed in coastal areas of New South
Wales, such as Gloucester.
Creating
14 Design an experiment to test the statement: ‘Liquid washing detergent is more effective
than powder’.
Reflecting
15 ‘A fast reaction is a good reaction.’ Discuss this statement with reference to a variety of
chemical reactions.
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4 Chemical Reactions

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4 Chemical Reactions

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Chemical

Chemical world – Stage 5

ACTIVITY SHEET CULMINATING ASSESSMENT TASK

Na2S2O3(aq) 1 2HCl(aq) → H2O(l) 1 SO2(aq) 1 S(s)

126 ISBN 9780170231510

1 Match each answer on the right with a statement on the left.

2 Complete the following table.

Group in Electron Type of ion

ISBN 9780170231510 127

4.1 Products of chemical

Chemistry all around us

2 Account for the differences you identified in Question 1.

3 Compare your use of everyday chemical applications with those of three

4 a Predict your applications of chemistry on a weekend.

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Our growing population is putting pressure on Earth’s

Classifying chemical reactions

C H4 2O2 C O2 2H2 O Figure 4.2

ISBN 9780170231510 129

WORKSPACE EXPERIMENT 4.1

Possible risks Safety precautions

130 ISBN 9780170231510

5 Dispose of the solid in the rubbish bin.

6 Place a spatula of hydrated copper sulfate in a clean, dry test tube.

7 Record the appearance of the hydrated copper sulfate.

8 Weigh the test tube and sample. Record the mass.

ISBN 9780170231510 131

13 Place 5 mL of copper sulfate solution in a test tube.

16 Place 5 mL of copper sulfate solution in a clean test tube.

17 Add 5 mL of sodium hydroxide solution. Observe the test tube.

18 Place 5 mL of silver nitrate solution in a clean test tube.

21 Soak a small piece of filter paper in the ethanol/water solution.

1 Record your observations in a table.

2 For each part, describe the evidence for a chemical reaction.

3 Identify the type of reaction occurring in each part.

Balancing chemical equations

132 ISBN 9780170231510

● exact proportions in which they react.

Step Example WEBLINK

appearing on each side. There are 4 atoms of H on the left, but

only 2 atoms on the right.

same, place numbers in front of the which is 4 3 H and 2 3 O:

needed and apply to all the symbols in the 4 3 O:

4 Check to make sure the equation is ●

ISBN 9780170231510 133

WORKSPACE QUESTIONS 4.1

What have you learnt?

3 Explain why it is not possible to just change the chemical formulas to

134 ISBN 9780170231510

e BaCl2 1 H2SO4 → BaSO4 1 HCl

6 Create a way to remember the steps for balancing equations. Share

4.2 Metal meets non-metal

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Rare earth metals

in case supplies cannot meet demand,

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Why are metals found mainly as compounds?

10p 11p 17p 18p

Ne atom Na+ ion

ISBN 9780170231510 137

Ions in the sky

Representing ions: electron dot formulas

Figure 4.10 More ionic compounds

138 ISBN 9780170231510

appearing on each side. There are 4 atoms of H on the left, but

4 Check to make sure the equation is ●