BLOQUE II

THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE

UNIT 4 – SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE

SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR

The single independent clause (or simple sentence) is divided into two main parts. The SUBJECT (S) and the
PREDICATOR (P). Syntactically, these are the two main functional elements.

SUBJECT
 Semantically and communicatively, the subject encodes the main participant in the clause.
 The subject has the highest claim to the status of TOPIC

PREDICATE
 It can consist of…
o Only the PREDICATOR, realised by a verbal group
o The PREDICATOR + one or more other elements, determined by the predicator.
 The predicate tends to be the most informative part of the clause

OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS

The two main functional categories which occur in post-verbal position are the OBJECT (O) and the
COMPLEMENT (C).

These elements are syntactically and semantically required to complete the clause and they are determined by
the predicator (which is not the case with the Adjuncts).

OBJECT
 There are two main types of objects: the Direct Object (Od) and the Indirect object (Oi).
 In English, the Oi precedes the Od.
 Semantically, they encode the key participants in the event other than the subject (animate or
inanimate, concrete or abstract). Examples:

COMPLEMENTS

 Complements encode those constituents that semantically are not participants (rather they
characterise or identify the Subject or the Object) but which are required syntactically and
semantically.
 There are two types of Complements:
o The Complement of the Subject or the Subject Complement (Cs).
o The Complement of the Object or the Object Complement (Co).
ADJUNCTS

Sometimes there are some elements which can be omitted without affecting the syntactic and semantic
acceptability of the clause: the ADJUNCTS

Main classes of Adjuncts:

 Circumstantial Adjuncts, which provide the setting for the situation expressed in the clause, as regards
place, time and manner, among others:
o She will dance tomorrow in the city theatre
 Stance Adjuncts, which expresses the speakers attitude or evaluation of the content of the clause:
o According to her, he is cheating; Unfortunately, the team didn’t win
 Connective Adjuncts, which link two clauses, or parts of clauses, signalling the semantic relation
holding between them:
o First, I’ll give you a present. Moreover, I’ll give you two presents.

CRITERIA FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

The criteria adopted for the classification of clause functions are four:
1. Determination by the verb
2. Position
3. Ability to become the subject
4. Realization of these functions

1. DETERMINATION BY THE VERB

The number and type of objects and complements that can occur in a clause are determined by the verb
according to its POTENTIAL or VALENCY. We can distinguish three classes or verbs:

 TRANSITIVE VERBS: They usually require one or more objects (Od, Oi, C). Transitive verbs occur in one
of the following forms:
o S-P-Od > I carry a bag
o S-P-Oi-Od > I’ll send you a postcard
o S-P-O-C > I find it beautiful
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS: They do not admit objects but sometimes they predict a complement of space
or time (a LOCATIVE ELEMENT)
o The plane landed
 COPULAR VERBS: A type of intransitive verb that requires a Subject Complement (Cs), or, in some
cases a Locative/Goal element (Cloc).

Note that certain verbs have both transitive and intransitive uses: He broke my heart vs. When I heard the
truth, my heart broke.

THE LOCATIVE /GOAL COMPLEMENT (Cloc)

 A locative element is a type of complement required by a few transitive verbs such us put and place
(Put/place the bag on the table)
 It is also predicted by many intransitive verbs of motion such as come, go, fly, drive, which can predict
such meaning as Direction (flying south) and Goal (go to Rome)
 Besides predicting an attribute, some copular verbs of being such as be, remain and stay predict being
in a location
o Attribute > He stayed calm She went pale
 o Locative/Goal > He stayed in bed She went to work
 The difference between a Locative and an Adjunct is that Locatives are required by the verb, while
Adjuncts can be omitted.
 Moreover, adjuncts differ from subjects and objects in that there is no limit to the number of adjuncts
that can be included in a clause.

2. POSITION

The second criteria for the classification of clause functions is the POSITION:
 Objects occur immediately after the verb, with the indirect object before the direct object when both
are presented.
 Adjuncts occupy different positions according to the type, and are often moveable within the clause.
 Examples:
o Peter saw you > SVOd
o Jane send you a letter > SVOiOd
o Yesterday, Rose kissed you > ASVOd
o He told you a joke in the bar > SVOdOiA

3. ABILITY TO BECOME THE SUBJECT

The third criteria for the classification of clause functions is the ABILITY TO BECOME THE SUBJECT:

 Objects can normally become the subject in a passive clause

 However, in some cases passivation excludes from object status NGs which otherwise fulfil the criteria
for objects:
o The doctor gave the injured man oxygen vs The injured man was given oxygen
o He got us the tickets Vs. *We were got the tickets

4. REALISATION OF THESE FUNCTIONS

The fourth criteria for the classification of clause functions is the REALISATION OF THESE FUNCTIONS.

 Objects are typically realised by NGs and answer questions with what? who? or which?
o What did they carry? (the students carried backpacks.)
 Subject and Object Complements can be realised by Adjective groups (AdjG) or by a NG.
o The map (NG) was useful (AdjG)
 Circumstantial Adjuncts are realised by PPs or AdvGs and sometimes NGs. They generally answer
questions with where? How? Why?
o He drives on the right (PP) / slowly (AdvG)
o I’ll see you next week (NG)

BASIC SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE

Clausal elements of functions enter into varied relationships with each other to express different types of
proposition concerning different states of affairs:
 S-P Sam ǀ died
 S-P-Od We ǀ ate ǀ an apple
 S-P-Oi-Od You ǀ gave ǀ them ǀ a present
 S-P-Cs My car ǀ is ǀ a Ford
 S-P-A Noa ǀ left ǀ one month ago
 S-P-Od-Co They ǀ found ǀ the play ǀ amusing
 S-P-Od-Cloc You ǀ place ǀ the focus ǀ on specific parts of a page

REALISATION OF THE ELEMENTS

When dealing with clause elements, we must be aware that there are PROTOTYPICAL and NON-
PROTOTYPICAL realisations:
It is true that most functions are typically realised by a certain class of unit, but with the exception of the
predicator function (which is always realised by a verbal group), there is no one-to-one correspondence
between class or unit and syntactic function in English: each function can be realised by different classes of
unit, and each unit can perform various functions.

UNIT 5 – SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR

The Subject is syntactically identified by the following features: position, concord, pronominalisation and
reflection in question tags. Semantically, almost all participant roles can be associated with the subject.

The Predicator syntactically determines the number and type of Objects and Complements in a clause. It is
syntactically identified by position and concord and it is associated with a number of semantic domains.

5.1 THE SUBJECT (S)

5.1.1 Semantic, cognitive and syntactic features

Semantic and cognitive features

 The Subject is the functional category of the clause of which something is predicated.
 It represents the primary participant in the clause and has the cognitive status of Topic
 In basic clauses (finite, active and declarative) the subject has the semantic function of Agent.
 But the subject can be associated with almost every type of participant role.

Messi kicked the ball into the net Agent

The ball was kicked into the net Affected in passive clause
Paul saw a tiger near the lake Experiencer in a mental process
The doctor has been given a dozen roses Recipient in a passive clause

Syntactic Features

 In English, the Subject is obligatory in declarative and interrogative clauses, but not in the imperative.
When two or more clauses with the same subject are conjoined, it can be omitted, in all but the first
one.
o She entered the room, closed the door and opened the window
 In question tags, the subject is referred anaphorically by a pronoun
o His cousin is a pilot, isn’t he?
 In declaratives and wh- questions (in which the wh- element is subject), the subject is placed before
the finite verb
o Unfortunately, everybody was gone when I arrived
o Who called you yesterday?
 In yes/no questions and in wh- questions (in which the wh- element is not subject), the subject is
placed after the finite operator
o Are you happy with the exam?
o What subjects are you taking this semester (What subject is Object)
 Subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) realise the subject function whereas object pronouns
(me, him, her, it, us…) are used as Objects
 The Subject determines number (singular or plural) and person agreement with the verb
o The student has learned the lesson
o The students have learned the lesson
 Paradigmatic contrast with a present form is applied with verb forms that show no number or person
contrast.
o The time had all passed > The time has all passed
 Subjects determine number, person and gender agreement with the Subject Complement, and of
reflexive pronouns Cs, Oi and Od.
 o John and Paula are his parents
o Why don’t you give yourselves (Od) a break?

5.1.2 Realisations of the Subject

A. Nominal Groups

These are the most prototypical function of the subject as they mainly refer to persons and things. They can
range from simple heads to complex NG structures.

Alcohol abuse can cause liver problems.

The total amount of alcohol abuse related diseases is uncertain

B. Dummy it

Non-referential or semantically empty use of the pronoun it that occurs in expressions of time, weather and
distance.

It’s close to midnight

It’s snowing
It’s seventy-two kilometres from Toledo to Madrid

C. Unstressed there

It cannot be replaced by a pronoun but it fulfils the following criteria: position, inversion with auxiliaries and
repetition in tag questions

There were only five people in class yesterday, weren’t there?

D. Prepositional phrase and Adverbial group as subject

It usually specifies time and place but it can also denote instrumental meanings and idiomatic manner uses.

By Monday would be an appropriate time (PP of time)

By bus is cheaper than by train (PP of means)
Just over there will be a great place to sit (AdvG of place)

E. Adjectival head

When preceded by a definite determiner, certain adjectives that represent conventionally recognised classes of
people (the elderly) or abstraction can function as heads of (non-prototypical) NGs.

F. Embedded clauses

Both finite and non-finite clauses are subject of embedding.

 Types of finite clauses: that-clauses and wh-clauses (nominal or relative)
o That he didn’t accept the job surprised everyone (that-clause)
o Why the bank closed for the week was not explained (wh-interrogative)
o What she did shocked me (wh-nominal clause)
o The fact that he didn’t accept the job surprised everyone (NG)
 Types of non-finite clauses: to-infinitive and -ing clauses
o To do all the work at once was rather stupid (to-inf. clause)
o What to do with the kids is the problem. (wh- +to-inf. clause)
o Having to return for the papers was a hassle (-ing clause)
o Call his parents home was what he did (bare infinitive clause)
G. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject

Extraposition is frequent in speech and writing, especially to avoid long and heavy subjects.

It was surprising that you mentioned that.

Extraposed subjects can be the complement of a noun or adjective SPCs structures

It’s easy to miss a class (To miss a class is easy)

It’s a pity that you are not going to attend the party (That you are not going to attend the party is a
pity

Extraposition is obligatory in clauses with it + verbs of seeming (seem, appear) and happening (happen, turn
out)

It seems that they were fine after all (*That they were fine after all seems)
It so happened that the pilot lost the race (*That the pilot lost the race happened)

5.2 THE PREDICATOR

The Predicator is present in all major types of clause, including the imperative. It may be transitive, intransitive
or copular.

 It may constitute the whole of the predicate

o The students arrived in Paris
 It is identified by its position in relation to the subject
 Its function is realised by both finite (e.g. sees) and non-finite (seeing) lexical and primary verbs.
 In functional terms, finiteness is usually carried out by an auxiliary verb, such as has, had, to specify
tense and voice (be + gerund/past participle) and then followed by the predicator (is cooking, was
cooked)
 Semantically, it encodes the following types of process:
o Material processes of “doing”: make, catch, go
o Mental process of “experiencing”, with verbs of perception (see), cognition (know), affectivity
(like) and desideration (hope)
o Relational processes of “being”: be, belong

UNIT 6 – DIRECT, INDIRECT AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECTS

6.1 THE DIRECT OBJECT (Od)

It is the most central of all constituents after the subject and the predicator

6.1.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

 It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs: hit, buy, send
 It goes right after the predicator, but it follows the Oi if there is one.
o I have sent the letters
o I have sent you all (Oi) a letter (Od)
 It is typically realised by a NG, as in I know the truth, but it may also be realised by embedded clauses,
as in I know what you mean
 It can be ‘promoted’ to become subject in a passive clause
o The letters (S) have been sent.
 They can be tested for, by Wh-questions (Who(m), What? Which? How much/many?) and by clefts
o What did you send?
o What I send where the letters (wh-cleft)
SEMANTIC FEATURES

 It is associated with several semantic roles in which ‘affectedness’ is not a feature and with many
types of verbs
o He headed the ball into the goal (Affected)
o The burglars used a crowbar to break into the house (Instrument)
o I felt chills all over my body (Phenomenon)
o The government wants to give a push to the economy and employment (Range)
o He swam the Mediterranean sea (Affected Locative)
 The highly non-prototypical Range Ods include have a rest/smoke/drink; take a sip/nap; give a
kick/nudge; do a dance; and many others. The NG in these cases is a deverbal noun (i.e. derived from
the verb) which follows a verb that is ‘light’ in semantic content such as have.
 Speech act deverbal nouns such as promise and warning are commonly used as Ods
o She made a promise
o They issued a warning letter

6.1.2 Realisations of the Direct Object

The Od can be realised by groups and clauses.

A. Nominal Group. This is the Od typical realisation, ranging from a pronoun 1 or proper name to full NGs 2. A
longer and more complex NGs may also be possible in certain registers 3.
1) I don’t understand that.
2) Have you read the newspaper article I sent you?
3) Poaching is threatening the world’s remaining population of whales.

A few verbs take untypical Ods such as have (They have two dogs), cost (It costs twenty euros), lack (He lacks
ideas), resemble (He resembles his grandfather), fit (Do these pants fit me?), suit (That colour suits you well),
weigh (She weighs sixty kilos), contain (That box contains your gift), and measure (It measures one metre by
two). These verbs don’t passivize, but their Ods pass the wh-cleft test: What he lacks is ideas.

B. Anticipatory it. It is necessary as an ‘anticipatory Od’ in SPOdCO structures in which the Od is realised by a
finite or non-finite clause:

C. Prepositional Phrase of time or place

I would prefer before midday for the doctor’s appointment

Don’t choose by the river for camping

D. Finite Clause.
Two types:
 Nominal that-clauses (that often omitted in informal English)
o They fear that there may be many casualties. (nominal that-clause)
 Wh-clauses
o No-one knows what his job is (wh-clause)
o You can do whatever you want (wh-nominal clause)

Both that-clauses and wh-clauses at Od can sometimes become a subject in a passive clause and then
extraposed:

It is feared that there may be many casualties (extraposed cl.)

 It is not known what his job is.

A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase

I wonder whether they know the result.

*whether they know is wondered.
What I wonder is whether they know the result.

E. Non-finite clause.

Two types:
 Infinitive clauses (with or without to)
o Many people prefer to travel by plane
 -Ing clauses
o Mane people prefer travelling by plane

Such clauses can be an embedded Od based on the following criteria:

 The non-finite clause can be replaced by a NG (prefer the plane) or by it/that (prefer it).
 The non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence
o What many people prefer is to travel/travelling by plane

Many embedded clauses at Od occur with an explicit subject of their own (when the implicit subject is not the
same of the main clause):

 To-infinitive clause
o The population wants to have clean streets (implicit subject – they)
o The population wants the government to solve the rubbish problem (explicit subject -the
government)
 -ing-clause
o Do you mind waiting outside (with implicit subject)
o Do you mind me/my waiting outside? (with explicit subject in objective or possessive case)
 to- infinitive or -ing clause
o She loves telling the truth (implicit subject)
o She loves people telling the truth (explicit subject)
o She loves for people to tell the truth (for + explicit subject + to-inf) (AmE)

*Non-finite clauses are very non-prototypical Ods as they represent situations, not entities and do not easily
passivize. However, many can become the focus of a wh-cleft

What she loves is people telling the truth.

6.2 THE INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi)

6.2.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features

 It occurs only with verbs that take 2 objects (give, send). Its position is between the verb and the Od:
o I sent him an e-mail
 It is typically realised by a NG, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause.
 It is associated with 2 semantic roles: recipient and beneficiary or ‘intended recipient’.
In passives, the Recipient Oi corresponds to the subject.

 Both Recipient and beneficiary Oi have an optional prepositional paraphrase (Op). for the Recipient,
the preposition is to, for the Beneficiary it is for.
o The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man I’ll buy drinks for you all.
o She lent a few CDs to her neighbour He got the tickets for us all.
 The Oi can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the grammaticality of the clause
o The doctor gave oxygen I’ll buy the drinks
o He doesn’t like lending his CDs He got the tickets

6.2.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object

Both Recipient and Beneficiary Ois are typically realised by NGs and less typically by wh- nominal relative
clauses.

The postman handed her the letter (Recip./NG)

You can lend the book to whoever needs it (Recip./nom. Relative cl.)
Tom has booked all his friends rooms for the weekend in Paris (Ben./NG)

More marginally, a recipient Oi can be realised by a non-finite -ing clause or a PP, but not in the case of a
Beneficiary Oi, which always refers to an entity:

I’m giving using social networks less interest lately (-ing cl)
Let’s give after the break more preference (PP)

6.3 PREPOSITIONAL VERBS AND THE PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT (PC) or OBJECT (OP)

Many common verbs in English take a specific preposition. They are called prepositional verbs. The preposition
+ the following NG are often analysed as the Prepositional Complement (PC). Alternatively, the verb and
preposition are seen as a whole and the following NG as the Object mediated by a preposition (PO).

My neighbour looked after my dog

You can rely on Tom in case of an incident

All these examples have in common:

 The NG following the preposition encodes a participant in the clause structure
 The preposition is associated with a particular verb (prepositional verb).
 Without the preposition, the clause would either be:
o Ungrammatical: *look at my dog, *rely Tom
o Or have a different meaning: see to the kids (attend to them), as opposed to see the kids
 The preposition can’t be replaced by another one without changing the meaning (look after the dog,
look for the dog, look at the dog)

6.3.1 Types of verb + preposition combinations

 Type A (take after)

This combination functions as a lexical unit in which the verb + the preposition has a different meaning from
their separate words. ‘Take after’ has nothing to do with take, nor with the usual meaning of ‘after’.

I came across some old toys (find) He takes after his father (resemble)
Paul has come into a fortune (inherit) I’ve gone off milk (lose the liking of)
  Type B (rely + on)

This is a less idiomatic combination. Verbs in this group - account for (explain), refer to, tamper with (interfere
with) – are not used without their specific preposition.

How do you account for their lack of interest in the country’s politics?
Someone has been tampering with the printer.

 Type C (laugh + at)

It represents a special use (usually with a distinctive meaning) of a verb that can function without the
preposition such as laugh (at), look (at), believe (in)

Look at me Wait for his answers I heard of a good piece of news.

Syntactic behaviour of prepositional verbs

Applying some of the constituency tests, we find the following:

 Type A: the verb + prep. Behave syntactically as one unit, whereas the PP ‘after the dog’ does not in
fronting, focus of a cleft, wh-question adverb insertion

Acceptable Unacceptable
Fronting: My dog Luke looked after *After my do Luke looked
Focus of a cleft It’s my dog (that) my neighbour *it’s after my dog (that) my neighbour looked.
looked after.
Wh-question Whose dog did my neighbour *After whose dog did my neighbour look?
look after?
Adverb insertion My neighbour looked after my ?My neighbour looked carefully after my dog
dog carefully

 Type B: the PP can function as an independent unit, but the effect is marked and very formal

Formal Informal
Fronting: On Tom you can rely Tom you can rely on
Focus of a cleft It’s on Tom (that) you can rely It’s Tom you can rely on
Wh-question On whom can you rely? Who can you rely on?
Adverb insertion You can totally rely on Tom Who can you totally rely on?

 Type C: syntactically, the PP functions in the same way as type B. however, the formal variant is at
odds with the type of verb that usually falls into this group

Formal Informal
Fronting: At John the partners laughed John the partners laughed at
Focus of a cleft It was John that they laughed It was John that they laughed at
Wh-question At whom did the partners laugh? Who did the partners laugh at?

6.3.2 STRANDING THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is stranded when it stays close to its verb, that is, it is displaced from its position in a PP. This
can also occur in passive clauses and in relative clauses.

Non-stranded preposition Stranded preposition

*The dog after which my neighbour looked The dog that my neighbour looked after
The person on whom you can rely on The person you can rely on
 The man at whom the partners laughed The man the partners laughed at

6.3.3 THE PREPOSITIONAL PASSIVE

In many combinations, the NG complement of a PP can become subject in a passive clause. The preposition
then is obligatory stranded.

My dog was looked after *After my dog was looked

Tom can be relied on *On Tom can be relied

6.3.4 Realisations of the Preposition Object

NGs are typical realisations of the Op, but nominal clauses and non-finite -ing clauses also occur:

He almost ran over an old lady in the city centre this morning (NG).
I strongly object to what they proposed (nominal clause).
She believes in getting things done well. (-ing clause)

There are various degrees of integration, from relatively integrated such as smile (at) and wait (for), where the
verb can function without a preposition, to those that form a new lexical unit with the preposition (look after,
take to)

The PP following type 3 verbs such as smile and wait is often classified as Adjunct or as prepositional
complement (PPC).

In this grammar, it is used the term prepositional Object for the NG complement of a preposition which can
refer to a participant, different from the circumstantial PP functioning as C loc or as Adjunct.

6.4 PHRASAL VERBS: THE VERB + PARTICLE COMBINATION

6.4.1 SYNTACTIC FEATURES

 Phrasal verbs are combinations of a lexical verb and an adverbial ‘particle’ ( p) (get up, switch on/off,
take back, sit down). They may be:
o Intransitive with no object:
1) What time do you normally get up at the weekend?
o Transitive:
1) She switched off the computer / She switched the computer off
2) She switched it off
 With a noun as Object, the particle may precede or follow the object, as in 1. But if the Object is a
pronoun, the particle is placed after it, as in 2. It should be remarked this choice has to do with
emphasis purposes.
o They cancelled the party (focus on party)
o The cancelled off the party (focus on party)
o They cancelled the party off (focus on off)
 Some verb + particle combinations can be used both transitively and intransitively, e.g. blow up
(=explode), break down (=reduce to pieces)
o Terrorists blew up terminal 4 (transitive)
o The petrol station has blown up (intransitive)

6.4.2 Differences between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs

 A pronoun follows a preposition but precedes the particle of a phrasal verb.

o She broke with him She broke it up
o *She broke him with *She broke up it
 The particle in phrasal verbs is stressed, whereas a preposition is normally unstressed. In prepositional
verbs the stress normally falls on the verb.
 o She broke it UP She has BROken with him
 Phrasal verbs do not normally admit an adverb between the verb and the particle
o *she broke completely up the party She broke completely with her boyfriend
 In idiomatic phrasal verbs the particle is usually analysed as part of the verb
o Peter out > there is no separate verb ‘peter’.

6.4.3 Phrasal-prepositional verbs

They consist of a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particle and a preposition ( run up against, do away with).
They are characteristic of informal English and function like prepositional verbs, taking a prepositional object in
the clause

We ran up against a lot of problems

They have done away with free medicines

Many verbs can be followed by a PP functioning as a circumstantial Complement, as in They went to the park.
They express meanings of place, direction, times or means. They are generally questioned by Where, when, or
how, as opposed to What? Who? As is usual with Objects.

There is a parallel between intransitive phrasal like walk down and single verbs of movement followed by a
directional Complement (walk down the stairs)

UNIT 7 - SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

7.1 THE COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBJECT (Cs)

7.1.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

 It is the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb and which cannot be made subject in a
passive clause
o Who’s that? It’s him/ It’s he
o He became a professional football player at an early age

 It does not represent a new participant, but completes the predicate by adding information about the
subject referent.

 It can be realised not only by a nominal group but also by an adjectival group (Adj. G).

 As well as be and seem, several verbs can be used to link the subject to its Complement; these add
meanings of transition (become, get, got, grow, turn) and perception (sound, smell, look) among
others. The constituent following such verbs will be considered Cs if the verb can be replaced by be
and can’t stand alone, without a change of meaning.
o I know it sounds strange, but… (=is strange) *I know it sounds
 o That looks good (=is good) *That looks

 There is number agreement between the subject the subject and its Complement, and gender
agreement with a reflexive pronoun at complement, as in I am not myself today. But there are some
exceptions to number agreement:
o Ann and Peter make a good couple
o My neighbour’s dogs are a joy

 Semantic criteria are applied to explain the use of a joy in My neighbours’ dogs are a joy, since
abstractions are equally applicable to singular or plural subjects.

 A third type exemplified by expressions such as wool, cotton, rather an odd colour, the same
height/length, etc. can all be paraphrased by a PP with of (of wool, of rather an odd colour, of the
same height, etc.)

 Copular verbs predict meanings of being something, describing or identifying the subject referent. The
Cs completes the predicate by providing information about the subject with regard to its Attributes or
its identity. The identifying type is typically reversible, the attribute is not:
o The ballet was excellent (attribute) *Excellent was the ballet
o The company was the Royal Ballet (identifying) *The Royal ballet was the company

 When be is followed by an expression of location in space or time (in the park, at 11 o’clock) the Cs is
analysed as locative. Sometimes a circumstantial expression (out of order) is semantically equivalent to
an attribute one (e.g. broken).

7.1.2 Realisations of the subject complement

Attributive subject complements are realised by AdjGs and NGs. Identifying Subject Complements can be
realised by NGs and by clauses.

A. Attributive Complements (S-P-Cs)

 AdjG He is thirty years old

 NG Laura is a very lucky girl
 As + NG Her work was recognised as a great contribution to humanities

B. Identifying Complements (S-P-Cs)

 NG China is one of the world’s emergent economies

 Fin. That-clause
 Nominal relative cl.
 Nominal-fin. Bare inf. cl.
 + for + S
 Non-fin. -ing Cl. -S
 +S
Our belief is that things can only get better
She has done what he always wanted to do
The only thing I did was ask him to leave
The best plan is for you to try again
What I don’t like is getting up early in the morning
What most people prefer is others to do their job

*Ngs and AdjGs can occur as attributive or identifying Cs, in passive clauses derived from S-P-Od-Co structures:

You are regarded as the family’s best friend (We regard you as the family’s best friend)

7.2 THE COMPLEMENT OF THE OBJECT (Co)

7.2.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

  It is the constituent that completes the predicate when certain verbs such as find, make and appoint
lead us to specify some characteristic of the Direct Object. The Co is normally placed immediately after
the direct object
o Your (S) are driving (P) me (Od) crazy (Co).

 There is number agreement between the Od and the nominal group realising the Co
 Circumstances (S) have made (P) the sisters (Od) enemies (Co)
o But there are some exceptions: expressions of size, shape, colour, height, etc.
 You haven’t made the pants the same colour as the jacket

 The Co can characterise the Od by a qualitative attribute or by a substantive attribute expressing the
name or status of the object referent
o The Police found the criminal unwilling to declare (Qualitative)
o They have appointed Andrew as president (substantive)
o The kids left the room in a mess (Circumstantial)

 Sometimes a Co realised by a prepositional phrase (The kids left the room in a mess) is similar in
meaning to an adjectival complement (The kids left the room untidy). We can distinguish its status as
Complement from the superficially similar realisation by an optional Adjunct (in ten minutes in The
kids left the room in ten minutes) by the intensive relationship linking the Od and its complement. This
can be tested by paraphrase with be (the room was in a mess; *The room was in ten minutes).

7.2.2 Realisations of the object complement

Attributive Object Complements can be realised by:

 AdjG A sedative pill will quickly make you sleepy
 NG Her parents consider her a mastermind
 Finite nominal cl. Do whatever you want
 Non-finite -en cl. The kidnappers had the family locked up in the house

Nominal Co elements are sometimes introduced by the prepositions as or for, and are then analysed as
‘oblique’ Object Complements. Thus, the relationship between the NG and the verb is not direct, but mediated
by a preposition. Some verbs require it and for others like consider it is optional.
as+ NG Her friends regard her as their guru.
for + NG Do you take me for a complete fool?

UNIT 8 – ADJUNCTS
8.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

It is common to find a number of adjuncts in a single clause. They can be omitted without affecting the
grammaticality of the clause

(If possible) we’ll see you (tomorrow evening) (after the class) (with Mark and Susan) (at the cinema main
entrance).

Adjuncts can be added to any of the basic clause structures:

 SP (A): The baby cried all the afternoon long
 SPOd (A): Bill booked a room in Manchester
 SPOp (A): You must allow for delays under extreme weather conditions
 SPOiOd (A) He gives me kisses every day
 SPCs (A): The weather is being quite unpredictable in the area
 SPOdCo (A): They elected him Mr. Spain in Madrid
Many adjuncts are characterised by their flexibility as regards position:
 Hurriedly he opened the box
 He hurriedly opened the box
 He opened the box hurriedly

Semantically, adjuncts represent circumstances, specifications and comments of many different types which
are attendant on the verb or the whole clause.

8.2 MAIN CLASSES OF ADJUNCTS

8.2.1 CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADJUNCTS

Provide experiential details about the action or state described by the verb, and answer such questions as
where? when? how? why? and occasionally what? as in What does he want that for? What did they die of?

They are the most similar ones to clause constituents. Like subject and object, they may be the focus of a cleft.
So, in the example Ann got a dog last week, we may highlight each element except the verb, including the
adjunct of time. But other types of circumstantial adjunct don’t pass this test:

It was last week that Ann got a dog (Adjunct)

It was a dog that Ann got last week (Object)
It was Ann who got a dog last week (Subject)
*It was probably/ *usually /*surprisingly /*still that Ann got a dog last week.

8.2.2 Realisations of the circumstantial adjunct: summary

They called us yesterday Adverb

They called us too late AdvG
They called us from home PP
They called us this afternoon NG
They called us while we were out Finite Clause
They called to tell us their news Non-fin. To-inf. cl.
They called us, using Skype Non-fin. -en.cl
Afraid of our reaction, they called us Verbless clause

Non-finite -ing, -en and verbless clauses are more loosely integrated into the clause and can’t be made the
focus of a cleft (*It was scared out of their wits that they called us) as can other circumstantials, including to-
infinitive clauses (It was to tell us their news that they called us).

Supplementives are units that are set off from the main clause by a comma or a pause. The -ing and -en types,
as well as verbless clauses such as afraid to leave the house fall into this category.

8.2.3 Circumstantials functioning as central clause elements

Certain verbs predict a circumstantial element without which the clause in incomplete syntactically and
semantically. Then they have the status of Complement and are summarised here:

 Location in place or time, after a verb of position such as be, stay, live, lie, etc.
o We live in difficult time
o The house is located near a lake.

 Extent in time or place with verbs such as take as in, The recovery takes several days, or last, as in the
exam lasts (for) two hours, in which the preposition is optional. In discourse, the time duration may be
omitted if it is understood, as in Their marriage didn’t last, meaning ‘didn’t last for a long time’.

 Direction and Goal after verbs of movement such as go, come or of movement + manner such as fly,
as in They flew north (direction), They flew to Paris (Goal)
  Source in ‘He went out of the house’, ‘They flew from Gatwick airport’.

 Manner with behave, as in, ‘He is behaving rather naughtily’. Also with one sense of treat, as in ‘The
policeman treated the prisoner badly’.

8.2.4 Circumstantials and their ordering in discourse

There is a strong tendency to add circumstantial information, even when it is not strictly required by syntactic
or semantic criteria for a single clause, but because it may be crucial for the development of the discourse. So,
instead of saying Mike disappeared, we might add an optional circumstantial such as among the tourists, under
the sea.

The conditional clause adjunct – as in If you don’t study hard, you are not much goo as a university student – is
necessary for a full understanding of the speaker’s intended meaning. Without it, the message is very different.

With verbs such as leave, arrive and go, Source, Goal and Location adjuncts are omitted if they can be inferred
from the context (haven’t you left/arrived/gone yet).

8.2.5 STANCE ADJUNCTS

They express the speaker’s evaluation or content of the message, or the viewpoint adopted. Syntactically, they
remain separate from the clause. They are usually found before the clause or after it. But they can also be
placed parenthetically or between commas, within a clause or sentence.

Obviously, she greeted me when I arrived

She greeted me when I arrived, obviously
She obviously greeted me when I arrived
She spoke to me, obviously, when I arrived

Textually, stance adjuncts are of three kinds:

1. Epistemic, stance adjuncts > they express the speaker’s opinion regarding the validity of the content,
commenting on the certainty, doubt, possibility and obviousness of the proposition:
a. Undoubtedly, she is the best ballet danced alive today.

2. Evidential adjuncts > they signal the source of knowledge or information. They range from the
speaker’s own experience or belief (In my view/ In my experience) to the beliefs of others (According
to… In the words of…)
a. According to the predictions, the unemployment rate will drop significantly the next year

3. Evaluative adjuncts > they reflect subjective or objective attitude of the speaker towards the content
and sometimes toward the addressee:
a. Surely you can give him a second chance
b. Broadly speaking, Spanish health system is one of the best in the world (objective)

4. Style and domain adjuncts >

a. Style adjuncts are the speaker’s comment on the way he/she is speaking (honestly, frankly,
confidentially
i. Quite frankly, it seems to me all bullshit
b. Domain adjuncts signal from what the viewpoint is orientated (technologically, legally, etc.)
i. Legally, the case has no base

8.2.6 Realisations of the Stance Adjunct: summary

Stance adjuncts can be realised by adverbs, prepositional phrases, finite and non-finite causes:

 Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly

  PPs: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chance, of course
 Non-finite cl: to be honest, to tell the truth
 Finite cl.: If I may be frank with you…; don’t take this personally, but…

8.2.7 CONNECTIVE ADJUNCTS

They tell us how the speaker or writer understands the semantic connection between two utterances, or part
of an utterance, while indicating the semantic relationship holding between them. They are connectors of
structure:

 Between groups: Salvador Dali was a prodigious painter and furthermore a great intellectual.
 Between clauses: The street sweepers are on strike; nevertheless, the rubbish will be collected.
 Between sentences: she has been undergoing treatment for cancer since she was diagnosed with
breast cancer. Consequently, she was never operated on.
 Between paragraphs: in addition to all this… First of all… In conclusion…

Such connectors have a textual function.

Semantically, many different types of connection can be expressed:

 Additive: besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, as well, also
 Contrast: instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather
 Casual: for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus
 Temporal: first, then, next, after that, finally, at once

8.2.8 Realisations of the connective adjunct: summary

Adverbs: nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, next

PPs: in other words, by the way
AdjGs: last of all, better still
AdvGs: more accurately
Fin. Cl: that is to say, what is more
Non-fin. Cl.: to sum up, to cap it all

Turns in conversation are instantiated by connective adjuncts such as Well…, Now…, Oh…, So…, that function as
discourse markers. Their role is twofold: they mark a new speaker’s turn in the conversation and they mark the
management of information, as well as the speaker’s attitude to the message.

 Well has a variety of meanings, signalled by intonation, ranging from decision to deliberation.
 Oh is a surprisal, indicating that the information received is contrary to expectations, or that the
speaker is adjusting to the new information or perception.
 I mean, you see and you know regulate shared and unshared knowledge.
 Look and Hey are attention signals
 Yes, yeah, no and nope are responses that can occur with other markers.

Here are some examples of discourse markers in Spoken English:

Oh my goodness!
Oh well, there is always Channel 9
I’ve lost my mobile! Well, what do you expect?
You are always losing things