Basal Ganglia

Objective:
- Explain the functions of the basal ganglia.
Basal ganglia:
The basal ganglia are subcortical masses (nuclei) of gray matter located deep within the cerebral
white matter. They include the following nuclei:
(1) The caudate nucleus.
(2) The lentiform (lenticular) nucleus; this consists of two parts:
(a) An outer part called the putamen.
(b) An inner part called the globus pallidus, which is further divided into internal and external
segements.
• Both the caudate nucleus and putamen are called the striatum.
(3) The subthalamic nucleus.
(4) The substantia nigra.

Figure 1: Diagram showing the different basal ganglia.

Almost all motor and sensory nerve fibers that run to and from the cerebral cortex pass through the
space that lies between the caudate nucleus and the putamen. This space is called the internal capsule of
the brain.
• Important note; the name “basal ganglia” is an exception to the generalization that ganglia are
collections of neuronal cell bodies that lie outside the central nervous system.

Figure 2: The basal ganglia.

Neural connections of the basal ganglia:
The basal ganglia constitute a basic part of the extrapyramidal system. The afferent (input)
connections to the basal ganglia are derived mostly from the cerebral cortex and terminate mainly in the
striatum, while their efferent (output) fibers originate mainly from the globus pallidus. Their connections
can generally divide into two parts:
(1) Connections with the cerebral cortex:
The basal ganglia are connected to the cerebral cortex through two main circuits, the putamen circuit
and the caudate circuit.
Putamen circuit:

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 They begin mainly in the premotor and supplementary areas of the motor cortex and in the
somatosensory areas of the sensory cortex. Next they pass to the putamen, then to the internal portion of
the globus pallidus, next to the ventroanterior and ventrolateral nuclei of the thalamus, and finally return
to the cerebral primary motor cortex and to portions of the premotor and supplementary cerebral areas.
Functioning in close association with this primary putamen circuit are secondary circuits:
(a) From the putamen to the external globus pallidus, to the subthalamus, to the thalamus then to the
motor cortex.
(b) From the putamen to the internal globus pallidus, to the substantia nigra to the thalamus then to the
motor cortex.

Figure 3: Putamen circuit through the basal ganglia.

Caudate circuit:
Fibers of caudate circuit start from the cortical motor areas (the prefrontal, premotor, and
supplementary motor areas) and somatosensory association area and end at caudate nucleus.
After the signals pass from the cerebral cortex to the caudate nucleus, they are next transmitted to
the internal globus pallidus, then to the nuclei of the ventroanterior and ventrolateral thalamus, and finally
back to the prefrontal, premotor, and supplementary motor areas of the cerebral cortex, but with almost
none of the returning signals passing directly to the primary motor cortex.

Figure 4: Caudate circuit through the basal ganglia.

(2) Connections with the brain stem:
The basal ganglia are connected with some centers (nuclei) in the brainstem, from which fibers
descend in the extrapyramidal tracts down to the spinal cord where they affect the muscle tone (the
continuous low level contraction of the muscles while they are at rest) and voluntary movements. Fibers
project from the globus pallidus to:
1. The reticular formation, from which the reticulospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originate.
2. The red nucleus, from which the rubrospinal tract originates.
3. The vestibular nucleus, from which the vestibulospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originate.
4. The inferior olive nucleus, from which the olivospinal tract originates.
5. The tectum of the midbrain, from which the tectospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originates.

Figure 5: The xtrapyramidal tracts.

Neurotransmitters in the basal ganglia:
These are multiple and include the following:

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(1) Fibers from the cerebral cortex to the striatum release acetylcholine. Intrastriatal interneurons also
release acetylcholine.
(2) Fibers from the substantia nigra to the striatum release dopamine.
(3) Fibers from the striatum to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra release gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA).
(4) Fibers from the brain stem to the basal ganglia release norepinephrine, serotonin, and enkephalin.
In the basal ganglia there are also neurons that release glutamate which together with acetylcholine
and norepinephrine are excitatory transmitters, while all the remaining transmitters are inhibitory.
A delicate balance between the excitatory transmitters and inhibitory transmitters is essential for
proper functioning of the basal ganglia.

Figure 5: Neuronal pathways that secrete different types of neurotransmitter substances in the basal
ganglia. Ach; acetylcholine, GABA; gamma-aminobutyric acid.
The predominance of inhibitory neurons in the basal ganglia makes the above circuits (especially the
putamen circuit) negative-feedback loops that inhibit the excessive activity of the motor cortex (thus
preventing excessive and undesirable movements).

Figure 6: Modulation of motor activity by basal ganglia and cerebellum.

Functions of the basal ganglia:
The functions of the basal ganglia are purely motor. In lower animals and birds, in which the
cerebral cortex is poorly developed, the basal ganglia are the highest motor centers. In human they play an
important role in controlling the muscle tone, voluntary movements and automatic subconscious
associated movements through their connection with:
1- The motor cortex areas from which the motor pathways such as the corticospinal tract arise.
2- Brain stem motor centers or nuclei such as (red nucleus, the reticular formation, the vestibular nuclei,
and the inferior olive) from which the extrapyramidal tracts arise.
In general the basal ganglia are most probably involved with the following motor functions:
[A] Role of basal ganglia in controlling the muscle tone:
The caudate nucleus stimulates muscle tone through stimulation of the vestibular nucleus and
inferior olive.
The lentiform nucleus decreases the muscle tone by decreasing the activity of the spinal motor
neurons (especially the alpha motor neurons) through inhibition of the primary motor cortex and
stimulation of the inhibitory reticular formation and red nucleus of the brain stem.