Syntax:

Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings

Review and
Introduction

Syntax: Syntactic
Ambiguity

Further Fundamental Concepts The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

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 Syntax:
Course Readings Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings

Review and
Introduction

Syntactic
Ambiguity
The following readings have been posted to the Moodle The Star Notation
course site: Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp. 194-198, 204-215) Phrases

▶ Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp. 74-99)

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings

Review and
▶ Syntax = The rules of sentence formation Introduction

▶ Syntactic
These rules are stated in terms of ‘syntactic categories’ Ambiguity

The Star Notation

▶ Syntactic category = Introducing

Complementizer
the word-categories that the rules of syntax refer to. Phrases

▶ Noun (N) dog, cat, table, happiness...

▶ Verb (V) jump, sleep, love, think...
▶ Adjective (A) tall, ugly, dead, uncool...
▶ Determiner (D) the, a, this, many, most...
▶ Preposition (P) in, on, to, with, for...

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
▶ Sentences are not just strings of words; they have a
complex internal structure: Course Readings
▶ Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. Review and
▶ NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Introduction
▶ VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs Syntactic
▶ Ambiguity
PPs are made out of Ps and NPs
The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
▶ Sentences are not just strings of words; they have a
complex internal structure: Course Readings
▶ Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. Review and
▶ NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Introduction
▶ VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs Syntactic
▶ Ambiguity
PPs are made out of Ps and NPs
The Star Notation

Introducing
▶ We can express these groupings with ‘Phrase Structure Complementizer
Phrases
(PS) Rules’:
▶ S → NP VP
▶ NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
▶ VP → V (NP) (PP)
▶ PP → P (NP)

▶ Some notes on the PS Rule notation:

▶ As before, ‘→’ means ‘can be made from’
▶ An item in parentheses is optional; the phrase doesn’t
need to have it.
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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Step One: Use PS rules to make a tree structure. Phrases

NP VP

A N V PP

P NP

D N
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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
▶ Step Two: Complementizer
Phrases
Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree.
S

NP VP

A N V PP

P NP

D N
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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Step Two: Phrases
Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree.
▶ A = ‘angry’
▶ N = ‘bees’
▶ V = ‘sting’
▶ P = ‘on’
▶ D = ‘the’
▶ N = ‘face’

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Step Three: Phrases
Insert those words into the tree structure, under the appropriate
category labels.
▶ A = ‘angry’
▶ N = ‘bees’
▶ V = ‘sting’
▶ P = ‘on’
▶ D = ‘the’
▶ N = ‘face’

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 Syntax:
Review of What We Know Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS
The Star Notation
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’:
Introducing
▶ Step Three: S Complementizer
Phrases

NP VP

A N V PP

Angry bees sting P NP

on D N

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 Syntax:
Preview of This Sub-Unit Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings

Review and
In this sub-unit, we will push farther into the basics of Introduction
syntax: Syntactic
Ambiguity

▶ We will learn a new key concept The Star Notation

Introducing
(‘syntactic ambiguity’) Complementizer
Phrases
▶ We will learn some new formal notations for PS rules
(stars and brackets)

▶ We will learn a few more PS rules central to English

(complementizer phrases)

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 Syntax:
Multiple Ways to Make One Sentence Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules: Review and
Introduction
S → NP VP
Syntactic
NP → (D) (A) N (PP) Ambiguity
VP → V (NP) (PP) The Star Notation
PP → P (NP) Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

Key Observation:
Our rules often make the same sentence in multiple ways.
▶ Consider: ‘The boy saw the man with the telescope’

▶ Our rules can make this in two different ways.

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 Syntax:
The First Structure: “PP in VP” Further
Fundamental
Concepts

▶ First, the rule ‘VP → V (NP) (PP)’ forms a VP containing the PP

Course Readings
‘with the telescope’
Review and
Introduction

S Syntactic
Ambiguity

The Star Notation

NP VP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

D N V NP PP

the boy saw D N P NP

the man with D N

the telescope

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 Syntax:
The Second Structure: “PP in NP” Further
Fundamental
Concepts
▶ Secondly, the rule ‘NP → (D) (A) N (PP)’ forms an NP containing
the PP ‘with the telescope’ Course Readings

Review and
S Introduction

Syntactic
Ambiguity

NP VP The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
D N V NP Phrases

the boy saw D N PP

the man P NP

with D N

the telescope
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 Syntax:
Multiple Structures, Multiple Meanings Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Fun Fact: Course Readings

As in morphology, there’s a connection between: Review and
Introduction
1. The number of ways our syntax rules make a sentence.
Syntactic
2. The number of meanings a sentence has. Ambiguity

The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
Illustration: Phrases

▶ Two ways to make ‘the boy saw the man with the telescope’
▶ Also, two meanings for the sentence:

1. ‘The boy saw the man by using a telescope.

2. ‘The boy saw the man who was holding a telescope

▶ Each meaning relates naturally to one tree structure.

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 Syntax:
The First Structure: “PP in VP” Further
Fundamental
Concepts

S Course Readings

Review and
Introduction
NP VP
Syntactic
Ambiguity

D N V NP PP The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
the boy saw D N P NP

the man with D N

the telescope
▶ In this structure, ‘with the telescope’ is part of the VP
▶ Since it’s part of VP, it’s describing ‘the action’
▶ So, this tree would correspond to the meaning:
‘The boy saw the man by using a telescope.’
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 Syntax:
The Second Structure: “PP in NP” Further
Fundamental
Concepts

S
Course Readings

Review and
NP VP Introduction

Syntactic
V NP Ambiguity
D N
The Star Notation

Introducing
saw D N PP
the boy Complementizer
Phrases

the man P NP

with D N

the telescope
▶ In this structure, ‘with the telescope’ is part of the NP
▶ Since it’s part of NP, it’s describing ‘the man’
▶ So, this tree would correspond to the meaning:
‘The boy saw the man who was holding
.
a telescope.’
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 Syntax:
Syntactic Ambiguity Further
Fundamental
Concepts

Course Readings

Review and
Introduction
The Main Point: Syntactic
Ambiguity
▶ Since our rules can make the same sentence in multiple ways...
The Star Notation
▶ A particular sentence can (sometimes) have multiple meanings...
Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

Syntactic Ambiguity =
When an expression has multiple meanings because there are
multiple ways it can be syntactically constructed.

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 Syntax:
Some Fun Real-Life Examples Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Here are some cute real-life examples of syntactic
ambiguity in headlines:
Course Readings

Review and
Introduction
“Squad Helps Dog Bite Victims”:
Syntactic
▶ First structure: [ Squad [ helps [ [ dog bite ] victims ] ] ] Ambiguity

(Squad is helping victims of dog bites) The Star Notation

▶ Second structure: [ Squad [ helps [ dog [ bite victims ] ] ] ] Introducing

Complementizer
(Squad is helping the dog to bite vicitims) Phrases

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 Syntax:
Some Fun Real-Life Examples Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Here are some cute real-life examples of syntactic
ambiguity in headlines:
Course Readings

Review and
Introduction
“Squad Helps Dog Bite Victims”:
Syntactic
▶ First structure: [ Squad [ helps [ [ dog bite ] victims ] ] ] Ambiguity

(Squad is helping victims of dog bites) The Star Notation

▶ Second structure: [ Squad [ helps [ dog [ bite victims ] ] ] ] Introducing

Complementizer
(Squad is helping the dog to bite vicitims) Phrases

“Two cars were reported stolen by police”:

▶ First structure: [ reported [ stolen ] [ by police ] ]
(The reporting was by the police)
▶ Second structure: [ reported [ stolen by police ] ]
(The stealing was by the police)

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 Syntax:
Expanding Our Rule Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
So far, our PS rules have the following ingredients: The Star Notation
Multiple Adjectives
▶ Category labels: S, NP, VP, PP, N, V, P, D, A The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ → ‘can be made from’ Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ Parentheses: (X) = ‘X is optional’ Complementizer
Phrases

Now we’re going to add a fourth ingredient:

▶ The Star: X* = ‘as many Xs as you want’

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 Syntax:
The Problem of Multiple Adjectives Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity

A Problem for Our NP Rule: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶ Our NP rule says it may contain an A (but need not) The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, NPs in English can have multiple As:

Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ The nice cat. Complementizer
▶ Phrases
The nice old cat.
▶ The nice old fluffy cat.
▶ The nice old fluffy orange cat....
▶ In fact, English lets you have as many As as you want
(as long as you can keep track of them all, there’s no limit)

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 Syntax:
The Star Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity

The Solution: The Star Notation! The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
In a phrase structure rule, X* means ‘as many Xs as you want’. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs
Multiple NPs?

Illustration: ‘NP → (D) (A*) N (PP)’ Introducing

Complementizer
▶ An NP must contain an N, but it can contain: Phrases

▶ a (single) determiner

▶ as many As as you want

▶ a (single) PP

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 Syntax:
The Star Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Advantage: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
We can now easily create NPs with multiple adjectives: The Star Notation
Multiple PPs
Multiple NPs?
NP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
D A A A A N

the nice old fluffy orange cat

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within an NP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶
The Star Notation
This rule still limits NPs to just one PP. Multiple PPs

▶
Multiple NPs?
But, an NP can have as many PPs as you like:
Introducing
▶ The boy in the yard Complementizer
▶ The boy from New York in the yard Phrases

▶ The boy from New York in the yard under a tree

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within an NP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶
The Star Notation
This rule still limits NPs to just one PP. Multiple PPs

▶
Multiple NPs?
But, an NP can have as many PPs as you like:
Introducing
▶ The boy in the yard Complementizer
▶ The boy from New York in the yard Phrases

▶ The boy from New York in the yard under a tree

The Solution: ‘NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)’

▶ An NP must contain an N, but it can contain:
▶ a (single) determiner
▶ as many As as you want

▶ as many PPs as you want

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within an NP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Advantage: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
We can now easily create NPs with multiple PPs: The Star Notation
Multiple PPs
Multiple NPs?
NP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
D N PP PP PP

the boy P NP P NP P NP

from N in D N under D N

New York the .

yard
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a
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tree
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 Syntax:
Only One Determiner, Though Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Advantage: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
We correctly limit the NP to just a single D. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ * the a dog walked in Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ * every the cat was sleeping Complementizer
Phrases
▶ * the every many a boys are nice.

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶ Our rule for VPs limits them to just one PP. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, a VP can also have as many PPs as you like: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ The boy danced in the yard Complementizer
▶ The boy danced in the yard under a tree Phrases

▶ The boy danced in the yard under a tree near a rock.

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (PP) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶ Our rule for VPs limits them to just one PP. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, a VP can also have as many PPs as you like: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ The boy danced in the yard Complementizer
▶ The boy danced in the yard under a tree Phrases

▶ The boy danced in the yard under a tree near a rock.

The Solution: ‘VP → V (NP) (PP*)’

▶ A VP must contain a V, but it can contain:
▶ a (single) NP
▶ as many PPs as you want

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 Syntax:
Multiple PPs within an VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Advantage: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
We can now easily create VPs with multiple PPs: The Star Notation
Multiple PPs
Multiple NPs?
VP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
V PP PP PP

danced P NP P NP P NP

in D N under D N near D N

the yard a . . .
tree
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a . . .
rock
. .
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 Syntax:
Multiple NPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
▶ Our rule for VPs limits them to just one NP. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, a VP can also have more than one NP: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ The boy gave Bill a book . Complementizer
▶ The boy baked Bill a cake. Phrases
▶ The boy told Bill the story.

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 Syntax:
Multiple NPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives
▶ Our rule for VPs limits them to just one NP. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, a VP can also have more than one NP: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ The boy gave Bill a book . Complementizer
▶ The boy baked Bill a cake. Phrases
▶ The boy told Bill the story.

Maybe A Solution?: ‘VP → V (NP*) (PP*)’

▶ A VP must contain a V, but it can contain:
▶ as many NPs as you want
▶ as many PPs as you want
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 Syntax:
Multiple NPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP*) (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶ Our new rule lets VPs have unlimited NPs. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, it seems a VP can never have more than two NPs: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ * The boy gave Bill a book the dog . Complementizer
▶ * The boy baked Bill a cake a book . Phrases
▶ * The boy told Bill the story a cake .

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 Syntax:
Multiple NPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP*) (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity

Problem: The Star Notation

Multiple Adjectives

▶ Our new rule lets VPs have unlimited NPs. The Star Notation
Multiple PPs

▶ But, it seems a VP can never have more than two NPs: Multiple NPs?

Introducing
▶ * The boy gave Bill a book the dog . Complementizer
▶ * The boy baked Bill a cake a book . Phrases
▶ * The boy told Bill the story a cake .

The Real Solution!: ‘VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*)’

▶ A VP must contain a V, but it can contain:
▶ up to two NPs, next to each other
▶ as many PPs as you want
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Multiple NPs within a VP Further
Fundamental
Our Updated Phrase Structure Rules: Concepts

S → NP VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*) Course Readings
VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*) Review and
PP → P (NP) Introduction

Syntactic
Ambiguity
Advantage: The Star Notation
We can now easily create VPs with (the right number of) Multiple Adjectives
The Star Notation

multiple NPs: Multiple PPs

Multiple NPs?

S Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases

NP VP

N V NP NP

Dave baked N D N

Bill a .
.
.
cake
.
.
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
Our rules are not enough to make these sentences: Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Dave thinks that Mary danced. Phrases
Sentences Inside
▶ Dave wonders if Mary danced. Sentences
Bracket Notation

▶ Dave knows whether Mary danced.

Introducing CPs

▶ Dave told Bill that Mary danced.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
Our rules are not enough to make these sentences: Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Dave thinks that Mary danced. Phrases
Sentences Inside
▶ Dave wonders if Mary danced. Sentences
Bracket Notation

▶ Dave knows whether Mary danced.

Introducing CPs

▶ Dave told Bill that Mary danced.

The Key Feature of These Sentences:

▶ The V is followed by an S (‘Mary danced’)
▶ Just before the S, there is a very short word
(‘that’, ‘if’, ‘whether’)
▶ These ‘short words’ are called Complementizers
. . . . . . . . . .(C)
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
Our rules are not enough to make these sentences: Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Dave thinks that Mary danced. Phrases
Sentences Inside
▶ Dave wonders if Mary danced. Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs
▶ Dave knows whether Mary danced.

▶ Dave told Bill that Mary danced.

A Quick Side-Note:
▶ In some sentences, you can drop the complementizer ‘that’
▶ Dave thinks Mary danced.
▶ For this class, let’s forget about those...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
Our rules are not enough to make these sentences: Introducing
Complementizer
▶ Dave thinks that Mary danced. Phrases
Sentences Inside
▶ Dave wonders if Mary danced. Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs
▶ Dave knows whether Mary danced.

▶ Dave told Bill that Mary danced.

Maybe A Solution?
▶ VP → V (NP) (NP) (C S) (PP*)
(A VP can contain... a C followed by an S)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (C S) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation

▶ Our new rule will make VPs with two NPs, a C and an S Introducing
Complementizer
▶ But, such VPs are (almost) never possible: Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
▶ Dave told Bill that Mary danced.
Bracket Notation

▶ * Dave told Bill John that Mary danced. Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Sentences within Sentences Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Current Phrase Structure Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
VP → V (NP) (NP) (C S) (PP*) Review and
Introduction
PP → P (NP)
Syntactic
Ambiguity
The Real Pattern: The Star Notation
If a V is followed by an NP, then... Introducing
Complementizer
▶ It can be followed by one more NP: Phrases
Sentences Inside
(Dave gave Bill a cake) Sentences
Bracket Notation

▶ It can be followed by a C and an S: Introducing CPs

(Dave told Bill that he stinks)

▶ But not both an NP and an S!
*(Dave told Bill Dave that he stinks)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing Bracket Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Question:
How can we capture this pattern: Course Readings
V NP NP = GOOD VP Review and
V NP C S = GOOD VP Introduction

V NP NP C S = BAD VP Syntactic
Ambiguity

The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing Bracket Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Question:
How can we capture this pattern: Course Readings
V NP NP = GOOD VP Review and
V NP C S = GOOD VP Introduction

V NP NP C S = BAD VP Syntactic
Ambiguity

The Star Notation

The Solution: Bracket Notation!
In a PS rule, { X, Y } means ‘either X or Y, but not both’. Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing Bracket Notation Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Question:
How can we capture this pattern: Course Readings
V NP NP = GOOD VP Review and
V NP C S = GOOD VP Introduction

V NP NP C S = BAD VP Syntactic
Ambiguity

The Star Notation

The Solution: Bracket Notation!
In a PS rule, { X, Y } means ‘either X or Y, but not both’. Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
Illustration: Sentences
Bracket Notation
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introducing CPs

▶ A VP must contain a V.

▶ But, a VP can contain:

▶ An NP
▶ Either a second NP, or a C and an S, but not both
▶ As many PPs as you like

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
that Bill stinks surprised Mary Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
that Bill stinks surprised Mary S → { NP , C S } VP Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Cs and Ss Elsewhere Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
that Bill stinks surprised Mary S → { NP , C S } VP Introducing CPs

Key Observations:
▶ In each of these rules, ‘C S’ keeps coming up.
▶ Inside a sentence, you never see an S without a C.
▶ You also never see a C without an S.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
that Bill stinks surprised Mary S → { NP , C S } VP Introducing CPs

Key Idea:
English treats ‘C S’ as a kind of ‘unit’
▶ Let’s call this a Complementizer Phrase (CP)
(since it always has a C in it)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → NP VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (C S) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
Ambiguity
Problem: The Star Notation
VPs aren’t the only place where you find ‘(C S)’ Introducing
Complementizer
Sentence Rule Needed Phrases
Sentences Inside
the rumor that Bill stinks upset Mary NP → D (A*) N (C S) (PP*) Sentences
Bracket Notation
that Bill stinks surprised Mary S → { NP , C S } VP Introducing CPs

The PS Rule for CPs: CP → C S

‘CP is formed from a C followed by an S’

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
CP → C S Ambiguity

The Star Notation

Advantage: Introducing
We can now create sentences that have sentences in them: Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
CP → C S Ambiguity
S The Star Notation

Introducing
Complementizer
NP VP Phrases
Sentences Inside
Sentences
Bracket Notation
N V CP Introducing CPs

Bill thinks C S

that NP VP

N V

he . . sucks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
CP → C S S Ambiguity

The Star Notation

CP VP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
C S V NP Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

That NP VP upset N

N V him

Bill sucks

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Syntax:
Introducing CPs Further
Fundamental
Concepts
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
Course Readings
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
Review and
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Introduction
PP → P (NP) Syntactic
CP → C S S Ambiguity

The Star Notation

NP VP Introducing
Complementizer
Phrases
Sentences Inside
D N CP V NP Sentences
Bracket Notation
Introducing CPs

The rumor C S surprised N

that NP VP him

N V

Bill sucks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .