Figure 4: Caudate circuit through the basal ganglia.

(2) Connections with the brain stem:

The basal ganglia are connected with some centers (nuclei) in the brainstem, from which fibers
descend in the extrapyramidal tracts down to the spinal cord where they affect the muscle tone (the
continuous low level contraction of the muscles while they are at rest) and voluntary movements. Fibers
project from the globus pallidus to:
1. The reticular formation, from which the reticulospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originate.
2. The red nucleus, from which the rubrospinal tract originates.
3. The vestibular nucleus, from which the vestibulospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originate.
4. The inferior olive nucleus, from which the olivospinal tract originates.
5. The tectum of the midbrain, from which the tectospinal tracts (lateral and ventral) originates.

Figure 5: The xtrapyramidal tracts.

Neurotransmitters in the basal ganglia:
These are multiple and include the following:
(1) Fibers from the cerebral cortex to the striatum release acetylcholine. Intrastriatal interneurons also
release acetylcholine.
(2) Fibers from the substantia nigra to the striatum release dopamine.
(3) Fibers from the striatum to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra release gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA).
(4) Fibers from the brain stem to the basal ganglia release norepinephrine, serotonin, and enkephalin.
In the basal ganglia there are also neurons that release glutamate which together with acetylcholine
and norepinephrine are excitatory transmitters, while all the remaining transmitters are inhibitory.
A delicate balance between the excitatory transmitters and inhibitory transmitters is essential for
proper functioning of the basal ganglia.

Figure 5: Neuronal pathways that secrete different types of neurotransmitter substances in the basal
ganglia. Ach; acetylcholine, GABA; gamma-aminobutyric acid.
The predominance of inhibitory neurons in the basal ganglia makes the above circuits (especially the
putamen circuit) negative-feedback loops that inhibit the excessive activity of the motor cortex (thus
preventing excessive and undesirable movements).

Figure 6: Modulation of motor activity by basal ganglia and cerebellum.

1
Functions of the basal ganglia:
The functions of the basal ganglia are purely motor. In lower animals and birds, in which the
cerebral cortex is poorly developed, the basal ganglia are the highest motor centers. In human they play an
important role in controlling the muscle tone, voluntary movements and automatic subconscious
associated movements through their connection with:
1- The motor cortex areas from which the motor pathways such as the corticospinal tract arise.
2- Brain stem motor centers or nuclei such as (red nucleus, the reticular formation, the vestibular nuclei,
and the inferior olive) from which the extrapyramidal tracts arise.
In general the basal ganglia are most probably involved with the following motor functions:
[A] Role of basal ganglia in controlling the muscle tone:
The caudate nucleus stimulates muscle tone through stimulation of the vestibular nucleus and
inferior olive.
The lentiform nucleus decreases the muscle tone by decreasing the activity of the spinal motor
neurons (especially the alpha motor neurons) through inhibition of the primary motor cortex and
stimulation of the inhibitory reticular formation and red nucleus of the brain stem.