 Fluid machinery refers to machines that handle fluids in either liquid or gas form.

 Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids whether at rest or in motion.

 Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion.

 Hydraulics is the branch of science concerned with water or other fluids in motion.

 Fluids are substances which are capable of flowing, and have particles that easily move and
change their relative position without separation of mass.

 Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest or body which could be measured by a weighing scale.

 Specific weight is the force of gravity in a unit volume of a substance.

 Mass is the absolute quantity of matter.

 Weight is the force of gravity of a fluid or body which could be measured by a weighing scale.

 Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

 Specific Volume is the volume of a unit mass of a substance or the reciprocal of density.

 Specific Gravity (SG) is the ratio of the specific weight of any substance to that of water or the
ratio of density of any substance to that of water.

 Temperature is the measure of random motion of molecules of a fluid or system. It is the

thermal condition of fluid with reference to its ability to communicate heat from one body to
another body or fluid. It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a fluid.

 Absolute temperature is the temperature of a fluid measured with respect to an absolute zero,
which is -460˚F or -273˚C.

Common Temperature Scales

 Celsius Scale – scale used in the metric or SI system of units

Basis: Freezing point of water 0˚C

Boiling point of water 100˚C

 Fahrenheit Scale – scale used in the English system of units

Basis: Freezing point of water 32˚F

Boiling point of water 212˚F

Common Scales Used in the Absolute Temperatures

 Kelvin – an absolute scale used in the metric or SI system of units

 Degrees Rankine – an absolute scale used in the English system of units

 Pressure is basically defined as the normal force per unit area.

 Gauge pressure – the pressure of a fluid or system measured by pressure measuring-

instruments like a pressure gauge or manometer

This pressure may be higher than or lower than the atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure that is lower than the atmospheric pressure is known as vacuum pressure.

 Absolute pressure – the pressure of a fluid or system with reference to an absolute zero
pressure

It is the pressure of a fluid or system including the atmospheric pressure.

Negative (-) if pg of the fluid or system is greater than or higher than the atmospheric pressure

Positive (+) if pg of the fluid or system is lower than the atmospheric pressure

Negative pressure (pg) is also known as vacuum pressure.

 Fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure of fluid - It is the force exerted by the column of fluid per
unit area.

 Atmospheric pressure – the force exerted by the column of atmosphere per unit area at the
surface of the earth.

It is the intensity of force per unit area due to the weight of the atmosphere.

 Standard atmospheric pressure – the pressure of the atmosphere measured at the surface of
the earth near sea level

patm = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg

patm = 14.69 psi = 101.325 kPa = 1.03 kg/cm 2 = 1.01 bar

patm = 1.34 m of H2O = 33.91 ft of H2O

When a fluid is at rest, the pressure at any boundary exerted by the fluid (and on the fluid) will
be perpendicular to the boundary.

Pressure-measuring instruments

 Pressure gauge

Bourdon gauge is the device most commonly used to measure pressure commercially.
 The reference pressure in measuring the pressure of the system is the atmospheric.

 Manometer – a U-tube containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which moves
proportionally to changes in pressure

Types of Manometers

Open-type manometer is a manometer with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of
measuring gauge pressure.

Piezometer – the simplest form of manometer, it is a tube tapped into a wall of a container or
conduit for the purpose of measuring the pressure.

 Surface tension is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free surface. It is a
function of both the liquid and the surface in contact with the liquid. Surface tension of liquid
decreases as the temperature increases. It is always tangent to the interface.

 Wetting liquid. A liquid is said to wet a surface in contact with it if the attraction of the
molecules to the surface exceeds the attraction of the molecules to each other.

 Non-wetting liquid. A liquid is said to be non-wetting if the attraction of the other liquid
molecules to each other is greater than their attraction to the surface

 Compressibility is the resistance of fluid to change its volume in a confined space.

Compressibility of water usually affects the solution of practical problems in hydraulics only by
changing its unit weight.

 Modulus of elasticity or bulk modulus of the fluid is the ratio of the stress (change of pressure)
to the strain (change in volume divided by the original volume).

 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid. It may be defined as the ratio of the
shearing stress or force between adjacent layers of fluid to the rate of change of velocity
perpendicular to the direction of motion. It may also be defined as the property of fluid that
determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.

 Absolute viscosity is defined as the unit force required to move one layer of fluid at a unit
velocity to another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance from the first.

 Absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity is the ratio of the fluid layer shearing stress to that of
the shear stress rate.

 Shear strain rate the ratio of the velocity of a particular layer to its perpendicular distance from
the stationary surface and is constant for each layer.

According to Newton, the force F required to maintain a constant velocity V b of the upper (layer)
surface is proportional to the area and the shear strain rate.
 Points to consider

If the distance between the plates and the relative velocity of the upper plate to the lower plate
are both kept constant, the force F required will be directly proportional to the area of the
moving plate. F ∞ A

If both the distance between the plates and the area of the moving plates are kept constant the
force required will be directly proportional to the relative velocity of the plates. F ∞ V

If the relative velocity and the area of the moving plate are kept constant but the distance
between the plates are varied, the force required will be inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates. This arises from the fact that as the distance between the plates decreases,
1
the shear stress increases. F ∞
z

 Units of Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity (SI, mks, and cgs)

N ⋅s
SI ⟶ ⟶ Pa ∙ s ⟶ kg/m ∙ s
m2

Dyne ⋅ s
Cgs⟶ ⟶ Poise ⟶g/cm ∙ s
cm2

lb ⋅s
English ⟶ ⟶ Reyn
cm2
 Units of Viscosity (English system of units)
F

μ=
( A)
lb f / ft 2
= fps =
lb f ⋅ s
V ft 2
(z) ft

μ=
( A ) lb f /¿2 lb f ⋅ s
= ips = = Reyn⟶ after Osborne Reynolds
V ¿2
(z) ¿
 Kinematic viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by density. It is the ratio of the
dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density.

Units of Kinematic Viscosity (SI or metric system of units)

kg ⋅m/s 2
μ N ⋅ s /m2 ⋅ s m2
v= = = m2 =
ρ kg /m3 s
kg /m3
 Dyne
μ ⋅ s (g × cm/ s 2)/cm2 ⋅s cm2
v = = cm2 = = = stoke
ρ g /cm3 s
g /cm 3

Units of Kinematic Viscosity (English system of units)

lb f ∙ s slug∙ fps2
μ ⋅ s ft 2
v= = ft 2 = ft 2 =
ρ s
slug/ ft 3 slug/ ft 3

 Viscometer or viscosimeter is a device used to measure viscosity of a fluid.

 Hydrometer is a device used to measure the specific gravity of a fluid.
 Saybolt viscometer is the most commonly used device for determining the absolute viscosity of
liquids.
 Saybold Seconds Universal (SSU) is the Saybolt time used to measure the viscosity of fluid.
 The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter used to determine the type of flow of fluid.
 Laminar flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move along straight, parallel
paths in layers or laminae.
 Turbulent flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move in a haphazard
fashion in all directions. It is impossible to trace the motion of an individual particle because of
its high velocity and variable direction.
 Critical flow (transitional flow) is combination of laminar and turbulent flow.
 Continuity equation is an equation derived from the first law of thermodynamics for a steady
flow, open system. It is used to determine the mass flow rate and volume flow rate of fluid.
Mass flow rate, m = ρ AV = ρ Q
Volume flow rate, Q = AV
 Head of fluid is the height to which a column of fluid must rise to contain the same amount of
energy as contained in one unit weight or mass of fluid under the conditions being considered.
Forms of Head
Potential or actual head is a head based on the elevation of the fluid above some arbitrarily
chosen datum plane.
Kinetic or velocity head is a measure of the kinetic energy contained in a unit mass of the fluid
V2
due to its velocity and is given by the familiar expression for kinetic energy, .
2g
p
Pressure head is the energy contained in the fluid as a result of its pressure and is equal to =
ρg
p
.
γ
 Bernoulli’s equation is an equation used to determine the head of fluid.
 CONSIDERING AN IDEAL FLOW
Applying the first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system, and considering that
energy losses are negligible:
Energy Entering the System = Energy Leaving the System + Energy Loss
 Statement of Bernoulli’s equation for ideal system: “Neglecting friction, the total head, or the
total amount of energy per unit weight or mass, is the same at every point in the path flow.”
In an actual flow system, energy losses are considered, and the first law of thermodynamics for
steady flow, open system is applied
Statement of Bernoulli’s equation if friction is considered: “With continuous, steady flow, the
total head at any point in a stream is equal to the total head at any downstream point plus the
head loss between two points.”
 Whenever problems involving fluids (liquid, vapor, and gas) are encountered, always remember
the first law of thermodynamics defined by the general energy equation. This general energy
equation is the most important equation in thermodynamics.
 Total dynamic head (TDH) is head corresponding to the energy input to the system, m.
 The theoretical power input of the pump is obtained using the equation
ρgQ(TDH )
WP =
1000
 Brake power of the pump is the theoretical power divided by the pump efficiency and obtained
by the equation
℘ ρgQ(TDH )
BP = =
η 1000
 Head loss due to friction in a straight pipe is obtained using the equation
L V2
HL= f
D 2G
 Fluid machinery is equipment capable of handling fluid, either moving the fluid or moved by the
fluid.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FLUID MACHINERY

1 Pumps

1.1 Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal flow

Propeller or axial flow

Mixed flow

Peripheral flow

1.2 Rotary Pumps

Screw-type pump

Gear-type pump

Cam-type pump
 Vane-type pump

1.3 Reciprocating Pumps

Direct-acting pump

Indirect-acting pump (Power-driven)

1.4 Deep-well Pumps

Reciprocating pump

Air lift

Injector centrifugal pump

Turbine type

2 Hydraulic Turbines

2.1 Impulsive Turbines

Pelton wheel

2.2 Reaction Turbines

Radial flow Francis

Mixed flow Francis

Axial flow

Kaplan – adjustable blades

Propeller – fixed blades

3 Fans and Blowers

4 Compressors

4.1 Centrifugal compressors

4.2 Reciprocating compressors

4. 3 Rotary compressors

5 Fluid coupling and torque converter – pump and turbine built together to transmit power smoothly.

The above-listed machines (except the positive displacement pumps) are called turbo machines. In the
turbo machines, there is a change of momentum in moving fluid; force is exerted on the vanes (blades,
runner); and work is done by displacement of the vane. The analysis of turbo machines involves the
principles of fluid dynamics.

In the case of axial flow, centrifugal pumps, blowers, and compressors, energy is added to the fluid by
continuously doing work on the fluid. In turbines, energy is extracted from the fluid to produce torque
on the rotating shaft.

In the case of a roto-dynamic pump, a rotating element called impeller imparts energy to the liquid and
the pressure rise. A positive displacement by a gear system rotating in a closed housing (gear pump) or
a piston (plunger) moving in a cylinder (reciprocating pump). It discharges a definite quantity of liquid
(apart from any leakage) irrespective of head on pump, hence, there is a positive displacement.

 Hydraulic machine is a machine powered by a motor activated by the confined flow of a stream
of liquid, such as oil or water under pressure.
 DIVISIONS OF HYDRAULIC MACHINE
A machine designed to utilize energy for the purpose of moving fluids (pumps)
A machine designed to develop power from hydraulic machine (hydraulic power)
A machine designed to control and transmit energy by hydraulic means (hydraulic control,
hydraulic actuators)
A machine designed to use power for various purposes (hydraulic jack, hydraulic motors)

KEYS TERMS and CONCEPT TO REMEMBER

 Hydrometer is a device used to determine the specific gravity of liquids.

 Pitot tube is a device used to measure fluid velocity. It is also used to measure the velocity of
fluid inside a pipe.
 Continuity equation is an equation used in the conservation of mass.
 The continuity equation for an ideal fluid flow states that energy is constant anywhere in the
fluid or in the flow path.
 An ideal fluid is a fluid that is frictionless and incompressible.
 Cohesion is the property of fluid whereby its own molecules are united or attracted to each
other.
 The pressure of a fluid at any point in the line will not be the same in all directions if the fluid is
viscous and in motion
 Adhesion is the volumetric change of the fluid caused by a resistance.
 The upper critical Reynolds number for pipe flow has no practical importance to designers.
ρDv
 The Reynolds number for a pipe flow is given by the equation , where ρ is density in kg/m3,
μ
D is the inside diameter of pipe in m, V is the mean velocity of the fluid in m/s, and μ is the
viscosity in Pa-s.
 Density in terms of viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity of dynamic viscosity divided by
kinematic viscosity.
 The Critical Reynolds number is the demarcation between laminar flow and turbulent flow.
 Bernoulli’s equation states that the total energy in the steady flow of a frictionless and
incompressible fluid is constant.

 Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces and is give by the
ρDv
equation .
μ

 Viscosity, μ , is the property of a fluid by virtue or its resistance to shear. The unit in SI is Poise
or g/cm-s (= 1 Pa-s). At 20.0°C, the absolute viscosity of water is 1 centiPoise and air is 0.17
centiPoise.

 1 centiPoise is equal to 1/100 Poise.

 Steady flow is the flow in which the quantity of fluid per unit time is constant.

 Unsteady flow is the flow in which the quantity of fluid per unit time is not constant.

 Laminar flow is the flow in which the paths of the individual particles of fluid do not cross each
other. The Reynolds number is less than 2000.

 Turbulent flow is the flow in which the paths of the individual particles cross each other
particles have no definite paths. The Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

 One-dimensional flow is the flow of fluid or stream which may be represented by a straight line.

 Two-dimensional flow is the flow of fluid or stream which may be represented by a curve.

 Volume, specific volume, and volume flow rate of a fluid are functions of temperature.

 Viscosity is practically independent from pressure and depends on temperature only.

 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear force. It
cannot sustain a shear force at rest.

 A fluid may be a gas, a liquid, or a fluidized solid powder and is known to consist of finite
particles.

 Ideal fluid is a fluid that is frictionless and incompressible.

 Discharge is the volume of the fluid that flows through a section of a channel or pipe per unit
time, expressed in m3/s

 Pascal’s law states that “pressure set up in a confined liquid acts equality in all directions, and is
always at right angles to the containing surfaces.

 Path line is a line followed by the fluid particles in motion.

  Streamline is the imaginary line tangent to which at any point indicates the direction of motion
at that point.

 Streak line is the instantaneous position of all fluid particles that pass through a given point.

 Uniform flow is the type of fluid in which the velocities of liquid particles at any sections of the
pipe or channel are equal. It is generally referred to as flow in channel.

 Non-uniform flow is the flow in which velocities of liquid particles at all sections of the pipe or
channel are not equal.

 The motion of a fluid element may be divided into three categories: translation, rotation, and
distortion. Distortion can be further subdivided into angular distortion and volume distortion.

 Newton’s second law of motion, the continuity equation, and the principle of conservation of
energy always apply to any fluid.

 The energy equation for fluid flow is based on the first law of thermodynamics which states that
the heat input into the system added to the work done on the system is equal to the change in
energy of the system.

WEEK 3

 CLASSIFICATIONS OF HEAD LOSS

A. Major Head Losses are head losses or pressure head changes due to fluid friction because of
viscosity and pipe roughness.

B. Minor Head Losses are head losses or pressure head changes or turbulence losses due to pipe
fittings and valves.

a. Entrance loss is due to the flow of fluid from tank to pipe. A head loss because velocity
is being created.

b. Exit loss is due to the flow of fluid from pipe to tank. A head loss because velocity is
being destroyed.

c. Sudden expansion loss is due to the flow of fluid in a suddenly increasing pipe
diameter. A head loss due to the decrease in velocity.

d. Sudden contraction loss is due to the flow of fluid in a suddenly decreasing pipe
diameter. A head loss due to the sudden increase in velocity.

e. Bends loss is due to elbows, fittings, and valves. A head loss due to the change in
magnitude and direction of velocity.
 f. Gradual expansion and gradual contraction loss is due to the gradual increase or
gradual decrease in fluid velocity

g. Nozzle loss is due to the very high velocity at the nozzle outlet.

 DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION

L V2
For a circular pipe: hf = f
D 2g

L V2
For a non-circular pipe: hf = f
4 Rm 2 g

Value of f for laminar flow:

64
Hagen-Poiseuille equation, f = ⟶ Re< 2000
Re

0.316
Blasius equation, f = ⟶ Re< 2000
( R e ) 0.25

 Relative roughness is a better indicator of pipe roughness

 The Darcy friction factor is one of the parameters used to calculate friction loss.
 Absolute roughness of specific roughness is a parameter that measures the average size of
imperfections inside the pipe.
 MORSE EQUATION
The following equations, to determine head losses, are currently used in power plant
engineering calculations and adopted in Power Plant Engineering (mks units) by Morse. It is
L V2
called Morse equation. hf = 2f
D g
Values of f are obtained from Morse’s Power Plant Engineering.
1) Table 14-7, p. 605. Friction factor f for water flow in iron and steel pipes
2) Equation of f, p. 605
Z
a) Turbulent flow, < 1163.5
DVS
For copper, brass 7 lead pip,
Z
f = 0.0081 + 0.0011787 ( DVS ) 0.355
⟶ eq. 14-12

For copper, brass 7 lead pip,

Z
f = 0.0035 + 0.007562 ( DVS )0.424
⟶ eq. 14-13

a) Viscous flow or laminar flow in all pipes

Z
f = 0.000016026 ( DVS )⟶ eq. 14-14
 a) Flow or steam and air in pipes (Turbulent flow)
Z
f = 0.0054+ 0.0465 ( DVS )
3) Fluid viscosities are obtained from the following table and equation:
a) Table 14-6, p. 606. Viscosities of Water and Other Viscous Fluids, in
centiPoise
b) Viscosity of steam, in centiPoise
Z = 0.00894 + 3.6 × 10-5t
where t = steam temperature, °C
 HAZEN-WILLIAMS EQUATION
The Hazen-William formula is used for fluid flowing in a pipe with D > 50 mm and velocity of V <
3 m/s.
Fluid velocity, V = 0.848 CR0.63 S0.54
π 2
Volume rate (circular Pipe, Q = D V = 0.2785 CD2.63 S0.54
4
6.78 L V
Head loss hL in m (Hazen-Williams equation) hL =
D1.17 C ( ) 1.85

Values of Hazen-Williams coefficient, C, for some selected materials

C.I. Pipe, new 130
old 100
New riveted steel 110
Vitrified sewer pipe 110
C.I. pipes in bad condition 80 to 90
Pipes, very smooth and straight 140
The Hazen-Williams formula is more advantageous than Darcy’s formula because the coefficient
C is independent of Reynolds number that trial solutions for finding f are eliminated.

 Minor head losses are head losses or turbulence losses that occur on the fittings and valves
installed in the piping line or flow line.

Entrance – tank to pipe, hL = k ( V2 g2 )

where V = velocity of fluid in the pipe, m/s
k = coefficient of minor losses, depends on the condition at the
entrance. For bell mouth, k ≈ 0.05

( V2 g2 )
Exit – pipe to tank, hL = k

where V = velocity of fluid in the pipe, m/s

k ≈ 1.0

Sudden Enlargement, hL = k ( V 22−V

2g
12
)
where k ≈ 1.0
 V1 = velocity at upstream, m/s
V2 = downstream velocity, m/s

Gradual Enlargement, hL = k ( V 22−V

2g
12
)
where k ≈ 1.0
V1 = velocity at upstream, m/s
V2 = downstream velocity, m/s

Sudden Contraction, hL = k ( V222g )

D2
where k depends on the ratio
D1
k≈ 0.375 of 0.40
V2 = downstream velocity, m/s
D1 = inside diameter of the upstream pipe, m
D2 = inside diameter of the downstream pipe, m

Gradual Contraction, hL = k ( V222g )

where k depends on the cone angle, k≈ 0.10 to 0.04

Bends and Elbows, hL = k( V2 g2 )

r
where k is a function of angle of bend, q and the ratio
D
k≈ 0.5 for 90°, smooth bend

( V 22 )
Nozzle (orifices, Venturi meter), hL = k 2 g

where k ≈ 0.04

V2 = Velocity, m/s

Bends and Elbows, hL = k( V2 g2 )

where k depends on the fittings and valves

WEEK 4

 Pump machine used to add energy to a liquid in order to transfer it from one point to another
point of higher energy level.

‘A machine used for the purpose of transferring quantities of fluids and/or gases, from one
place to another’. (Alfa Laval Pump Handbook)
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PUMP

Dynamic Pumps are pumps in which energy is continuously added to increase the fluid velocities
within the machine to values greater than those occurring at the discharge. Subsequent velocity
reduction within or beyond the pump produces a pump pressure increase.

These are pumps generally used to transfer large volumes of fluids at pressures that are
evidently low.

Positive Displacement Pumps are pumps in which energy is periodically added by application of
force to one or more movable boundaries of any desired number of enclosed fluid-containing
volumes, resulting in a direct increase in pressure up to the value required to move the fluid
through valves or port into the discharge line. These pumps are:

designed to provide a given amount of fluid to a system for each revolution of pump;

made with very close clearances between rotating and stationary parts to minimize flow back
through pump, or slip;

able to pump against high pressure but the volumetric efficiency is low; and

protected with relief valves to prevent damage from overpressure.

 Centrifugal Pumps
1 Volute-type pumps
1.1 Single-suction pump
1.1.1 Single-stage pump
i. Non-self priming
ii. Self-priming
iii. Submersible pump
1.1.2 Multi-stage pump
i. Non-self priming
ii. Self-priming
Iii. Submersible pump
1.2Double-suction pump
1.2.1 Single-stage pump
i. Non-self priming
ii. Submersible pump
1.2.2Multi-stage pump
i. Non-self priming
ii. Submersible pump

5.