Chapter 6.
3
Linings for Vessels and Tanks
Wallace P. Cathcart and Albert L. Hendricks (original chapter)
Joseph H. Brandon (2002 revision)
Introduction
This chapter describes accepted practices for
selecting and applying protective coatings to the
interior surfaces of steel tanks. These coatings used
as linings protect tank interiors from corrosive and/or
erosive products and often prevent contamination of
the product by the steel substrate. The tank may be
used for processing, transporting, or storing chemicals
or food products.
The requirements necessary to obtain eco-
nomical service life with a lining include safety, design/
fabrication, and proper coating materials, surface
preparation, application techniques, curing, inspection,
and maintenance. In this chapter, a protective coating
used as a lining is defined as materials applied in one
or more coats by conventional air spray or airless
spray methods to a total dry film thickness no greater
than 50 mils. Flame spraying, sheet-applied linings,
metallizing, and hand lay-ups are not covered.
Figure 1. Worker wearing protective gear while spraying
the inside of small food processing tank. Courtesy Tank
Lining Corp.
The success of a coating system depends
upon satisfactory completion of all aspects of planning,
design, and execution. These factors make it essential
to seek advice from competent suppliers of coating
materials, knowledgeable and experienced applica-
tors, and consultants.
Safety
Assuring the safety of workers in tank lining is
of utmost importance. Working in confined areas with
dust and toxic and/or flammable materials can create
hazardous conditions. Regulatory bodies, such as
OSHA, have guidelines that must be followed. In
addition, training programs should be established to
educate all individuals who apply coatings to steel
tanks. The safety chapter of this book provides de-
tailed requirements about safety issues.
Design and Fabrication to Receive Lining
Whether a tank is being lined to prevent
contamination of a product or to provide protection
from corrosion, the coating must act as a continuous
barrier between the product and the steel tank. More
commonly though, coatings are used as linings to
prevent iron or oxide contamination of the product.
The essentials of good tank design, from a
corrosion protection perspective, are provided in
NACE RPO178.1 This document focuses on reducing
sharp edges, skip welds, rough welds and weld
splatter, and other areas that are difficult or impossible
to coat properly.
When applying a coating by spray, excessive
coating tends to accumulate in areas where crevices,
pits, and acute angles exist. If such areas cannot be
avoided in the design, they should be eliminated
by fillet welding. The contour should be smooth
enough for the lining material to be applied uniformly
(Figure 2).
 source, vapor area, pressure, cleaning procedures,
agitation, wet and dry conditions, versatility, degree of
abrasion or erosion, thermal shock, trace chemicals
present and possible physical impact on the lining or
the reverse side. Figure 3 shows a typical failure that
occurred, in part, because all of these conditions were
not taken into account.

Figure 2. Lining baked phenolic over carbon and

stainless steel for high pressure and temperature
chemical separator. Courtesy Tank Lining Corp.

Figure 3. Failure of water tank lining from poor design,

Selecting Material
fabrication, materials selection, and application. SSPC
The three most criticial factors in coating
file photo.
selection for tank lining are: resistance to the reagent
or the product to be stored; resistance to undercutting
Gathering information is simplified if a field
or underfilm attack at points of minor breaks,
history exists. Some materials suppliers and some
discontinuities, or permeations; and proper physical
application companies keep extensive records of the
properties, such as flexibility, adhesion, and elonga-
successes and failures of each coating system used.
tion. A thick brittle lining might work well in a fixed, rigid
This information is often available, but it must be used
storage tank yet fail prematurely if used in a railroad
judiciously. If actual experience is not available, it is
tank car or a thin-walled storage silo. Other factors to
necessary to conduct field or laboratory tests. Field
consider include resistance to water and oxygen
testing in the actual environment is most effective
passage, abrasion, and aging. The coating selected
because it takes into consideration all of the variables
should also feature application and curing characteris-
that exist; however, the tendency is to utilize acceler-
tics feasible for the specific vessel to be lined.
ated laboratory testing for cost and convenience even
As an example, baking phenolic coatings that
though it may not correlate with actual field results.
are final cured at 400°F (204°C) cannot easily be
If substrate testing in the field is not feasible, it
applied in extremely large tanks due to the difficulty in
is then advisable to suspend or attach a steel coupon
obtaining a uniform temperature. Final cure tempera-
within the tank. Dissimilar metals should be insulated
ture is limited to the temperature resistance of the
from the sample to prevent a galvanic differential
insulation on the vessels that have been permanently
between the sample and the vessel itself.
insulated. Double-skinned barges, as now designed,
Laboratory tests are normally conducted on
cannot be baked above approximately 300°F (149°C)
steel coupons prepared by individuals well-versed in
because the inner tank expands and distorts or even
the application of coatings to test samples. Coated
splits the outer shell.
coupons are exposed to the product intended for
When selecting the proper coating system, it is
storage or transportation by submerging in a container
necessary to understand all of the conditions to which
or using an Atlas Test Cell.2 The samples are normally
the lining will be subjected, such as product type,
observed at various intervals from 24 hours to one
exposure time, temperature variations, temperature
year, or until failure occurs.

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 The Atlas Test Cell consists of an open pipe to
which test panels are bolted on each end to form a
double-end flange. The center piping has openings
where heating elements, condensers, thermometers,
and/or agitators can be inserted. The body of the cell
is constructed of glass, resistant alloy, or coated steel.
This test can simulate many of the conditions experi-
enced in actual service, such as agitation, temperature
differential across the surface, and temperature
sources from inside or out. In evaluating a protective
coating for immersion, the test should be conducted
for a minimum of six months and ideally for one year
or more.
Any changes in the appearance of the coating
should be recorded. Failure is normally indicated if
blistering, severe softening, swelling, or severe
discoloration has been noted. With regard to softening
and discoloration, the difference between “severe” and
“less severe” or “inconsequential” requires consider-
able experience. Likewise, failure of the panel is
indicated if the liquid is affected by the exposure in any
significant manner.
Several different generic coating systems are
used as protective barriers for vessels in immersion
service. The resistance of each type varies with the
individual formulation. Resistance tables can be
obtained from coating manufacturers or organizations
such as SSPC and NACE. These tables should be
used with discretion since slight variations in formula-
tions could decrease the resistance of a specific
generic type. Interpretation is also important. Good
alkali resistance does not mean the system is resistant
to 73% caustic soda but possibly resistant to pH
slightly in excess of 7. Similarly, good solvent resis-
tance does not normally mean the coating system can
resist immersion in methylene chloride. This section
contains brief descriptions of the major generic coat-
ings used as linings.
Phenolic
A high-bake unplasticized pure phenolic
based on a phenol formaldehyde resin is often referred
to as a straight phenolic. Polymerization is accom-
plished by heat curing at metal temperatures ranging
between 350°F to 450°F (177° to 242°C). Phenolics
are spray-applied in a number of coats to a total dry
film thickness ranging between 4–8 mils. The pigmen-
tation used in formulations affects the end color,
adhesion, permeability, and spray characteristics. The
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chemical and physical properties of bake phenolic
systems are excellent. They are unaffected by most
solvents and resistant to concentrated sulphuric acid
but due to the limitation on total dry film thickness
cannot be used in dilute acids where the corrosion rate
on the underlying steel would be excessive. They
exhibit poor resistance to alkalies, alkali salts, and
strong oxidants. This system normally meets all the
requirements of the FDA and USDA for protecting
substrates exposed to products intended for human
consumption Because of the limitation on film thick-
ness, this system normally is not specified as a
pinhole-free lining.
Phenolic/Epoxy Baking Type
These formulations are based on a phenol
formaldehyde resin crosslinked with a Bisphenol A
Epichlorohydrin. Polymerization is accomplished by
heat curing at metal temperatures of 350° to 450°F
(177° to 242°C). Phenolic/epoxy baking formulations
are normally applied by spray in a number of coats to
a total dry film thickness ranging between 4 and 8 mils.
Pigmentation varies to enhance adhesion, permeabil-
ity, spray characteristics, and color. Chemical and
physical properties are excellent, although when
compared to the unmodified or straight phenolic
coatings, the resistance to solvents and concentrated
acids is lower. Some modifications can result in an
increase in resistance to alkalies and strong oxidants.
Due to the limitation on film thickness, this system
should not be used in highly corrosive areas and is not
pinhole free.
Similar, but generally less resistant formula-
tions are available that, while still thermosetting, can
be polymerized at lower temperatures. Optimum cure
is obtained at approximately 200°F (93°C) metal
temperature. Much of the disparity in resistance can
be overcome by this material’s ability to be applied at
much heavier films (8–12 mils).
Epoxy
Epoxy formulations are based on Bisphenol A
Epichlorohydrin resins utilizing either amines, amine
adducts, or polyamide curing agents for polymeriza-
tion. Heat, while not always necessary to cure, does
optimize resistance. This type of system can also be
modified with phenol formaldehyde resins, coal tar, or
other resinous materials. It is possible to formulate
systems with no volatile solvent, various solvent
combinations, or with water. Pigment is added to the
formulation to obtain color, workability, adhesion, or
abrasion resistance. Resistance varies substantially
with formulation, but, generally, resistance to various
chemicals with a pH range from 4 to 12 is excellent.
Solvent resistance will be fair. Exposures in severely
corrosive environments is limited by normal film
thicknesses ranges of 8 to 30 mils when applied by
spray. Heavier films can be formulated with flaking or
fibrous fillers and applied by spray, trowel, or hand
lay-up.
Polyester-Vinyl Ester
Formulations based on either a polyester or
vinyl ester resin contain styrene or a similar monomer
at a varying percentage up to 55%. The styrene
monomer enters into the cross-linking but also evapo-
rates; therefore, it is difficult to determine coverage by
normal volume/solids methods. Polymerization is
accomplished with peroxide catalysts and promoters.
Pot life can vary from 15 minutes to 8 hours, depend-
ing on the reactivity of the formulation. The pigmenta-
tion varies with the intended use and the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Formulations
containing chopped glass, glass flake, or inert oxide
flake pigment are used for lining vessels. Film thick-
ness varies with the formulation, but for immersion
application ranges from 30 to 60 mil as applied by
spray. Heavier films from 40 to 120 mils may be
applied by trowel or hand lay-up. Resistance to various
acid and alkali environments is excellent. Solvent
resistance is generally fair. A pinhole free film can be
obtained.
Neoprene
Neoprene includes synthetic elastomers that
may be dissolved in solvents or latex dispersed in
water. Common curing agents are zinc or magnesium
oxide. Solvent materials are spray-applied in thick-
nesses of 20 or more mils and have excellent resis-
tance to both alkalies and acids. Latex is sprayed in
thicknesses of 10–25 mils and is widely successful in
strong alkali immersion (50-73% caustic soda) but not
in acids.
Inorganic Zinc
Formulations are based on either alkali or alkyl
silicates with a varying percentage of zinc pigment.
The alkali formulations are water-based and the alkyl
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are solvent-based. The amount of zinc loading will
determine the degree of galvanic protection offered.
This kind of system may be self-curing, may rely on
moisture in the air, or may be post-cured by applying
an acid solution. Its chemical resistance is excellent in
solvents and petroleum products that are relatively
free of water and with a near neutral pH. It prevents
corrosion of steel substrates by sacrificial or preferen-
tial action, while providing barrier protection.
Topcoating may be advantageous to prevent rapid zinc
deterioration in some service conditions. Possible
contamination of the stored product may result when
zinc coatings alone are used for immersion service.
SSPC PS Guide 12 provides guidance in using and
selecting zinc rich primers.3
Vinyl
Vinyl solutions consist of vinyl chloride/vinyl
acetate copolymers in ketone/aromatic solvents. Low-
volume solids normally necessitate the application of
several coats to achieve the recommended film
thickness of 5–12 mils. Special high-build formulations
are available, but selection should be made with
extreme caution since the pigmentation can provide a
very porous film unsuitable for immersion service.
Vinyls were once widely used in a multitude of chemi-
cal and food services, but now are somewhat limited to
water, fatty acids, and salt solutions. They exhibit poor
resistance to solvents and their use has declined as a
result of VOC regulations.
Precautions
Care should be taken to ensure that coatings
used as linings are well within the shelf life as defined
by the material supplier. The storage or shelf life may
be materially affected by temperature elevations or
exposure to sunlight.4 Some linings, once frozen, may
not be suitable for use. Storage under controlled
temperatures and safe ventilation with scheduled
package inverting as recommended by the supplier is
essential for optimum shelf life.
Surface Preparation
Surface preparation should provide a sub-
strate that is free of contaminants, uniformly rough-
ened, and cleaned to white metal as specified in
SSPC-SP 5/NACE 1. The initial surface profile can be
created only by abrasive blast cleaning. Observation
indicates that with some coating systems in certain
environments the depth of surface profile can signifi-
cantly alter the results. Surface preparation is dis-
cussed in depth in a separate chapter of this book.
Surface preparation of tanks previously been
exposed to liquids requires special treatment. Prior to
blast cleaning, it may be necessary to remove existing
residues with solvent, caustic soda, acid, detergent,
or steam. None of these methods is consistently
successful.
Conventional wisdom has prescribed a
technique of solvent and abrasive blast clean the tank,
heat the tank to a temperature at least 25°F (14°C)
above the curing or highest operating temperature,
and abrasive blast clean to remove visible rust and
stains. The rationale was that the elevated tempera-
tures would accelerate the corrosion process, before
the moisture is driven off, and the rust and rust stain
would be visible indication of the salt contamination
that would be removed by abrasive blasting. SSPC TU
4 and the salts chapter of this book describe contem-
porary methods of extracting samples and determining
levels of contamination.
Application Techniques
The first coat is normally applied by spray. If
the material’s wetting properties are poor or the
surfaces are pitted, brushing should be considered.
After the first coat has been applied, it is a good
practice to brush one or more stripe coats on welds,
edges, or any area that is not ideally fabricated to
ensure better coverage and continuity.
Humidity must be controlled inside the tank
during coating application to combat surface conden-
sation. Common practice has been to specify that the
surface temperature remains at least 5°F (3°C) above
the dew point. While this requirement will ensure that
visible condensation does not form on clean steel, it
does not ensure that condensation will not form when
temperature conditions are changeable, unless the
contractor provides either temperature control or
dehumidification (DH). Further, this requirement does
not ensure the lower humidity conditions that are
favorable to solvent evaporation as required for the
coating to cure properly. More and more owners are
specifying that DH be used to maintain specific relative
humidity conditions in tanks. SSPC SSPC-TR 3/NACE
6A192 provides guidance in using dehumidification in
coating work.5
It must be recognized that when DH is used in
313
a tank, the effects of salt contamination may be
masked by the lack of available moisture in the air with
which to react and create a corrosion cell. This situa-
tion requires increased attention to testing for and
removing salts.
Figure 4. Two-hundred-foot diameter, open top tank
being lined via rolling scaffolding. Courtesy Tank Lining
Corp.
A spray painter must be properly trained to
apply a coating Applying a coating in a criss-cross
pattern provides a more uniform thickness and im-
proved film continuity. Some coatings require that a
first pass be applied as a fog or mist coat. This very
thin but uniform film allows solvents to “flash-off
“quickly, and the coating will then “hold” or “take”
subsequent and relatively heavier, slower passes.
Well-trained, experienced spray painters, with proper
supervision, can create the best spraying procedure
for any given material. Wet film thickness is measured
with a gauge. This is an estimate because the solvents
in the coating evaporate during the spraying process.
The type of solvent, method of application, and the
environmental conditions during the application are all
factors that impact gauge readings. Good air circula-
tion is required to remove the solvents.
Linings are spray-applied by conventional air
or airless spray (Figures 4 and 5). Multiple-coat
systems require a thorough visual inspection between
coats, with rough areas sanded or scraped then
repaired by brushing or additional spray applications.
Note previously undetected fabrication or plate short-
comings during an inspection after the first coat. In
most cases, these problems can be corrected by

Figure 5. Lining being spray applied in railroad tank car
for shipment of clean chemical or food product.
Courtesy Tank Lining Corp.
chipping or grinding and the first coat reapplied as a
touch-up. If additional welding is required or if the
coating material is one in which the depth of anchor
pattern is of real significance, then it becomes neces-
sary to reblast those areas and reapply that first coat.
Proper mixing of a coating system is important
and the supplier’s instructions should be carefully
followed. Restrictions on material temperature, relative
humidity, cleanliness of equipment, and proportion are,
in some cases, critical. Add only ingredients supplied
or specified by the supplier and adjust with thinner as
precisely as possible to the specified viscosity.
Curing and Baking
Coating materials are commonly classified as
air-dry, force-cured, or baked. Force curing an air-dry
material does improve its performance characteristics
to a degree, depending on the generic type. This
process can appreciably increase adhesion, improve
314
crosslinking, ensure that all solvents are removed and
provide a more complete reaction. When the lined tank
is to be exposed to food, food packaging materials, or
any other environment where odor or trace chemical
pickup could be of concern, force-curing normally is
necessary to eliminate all solvents and products of
polymerization.
For all force intercoat drying, an indirect fired
heater should be used. An invisible film from the
combustion products may be deposited on the surface
and affect the adhesion of succeeding coats. The size
of the tank and the equipment available dictates the
type of heat source. For indirect heaters the common
fuels are oil, steam, natural gas, or propane.
Curing high bake coatings, where metal
temperatures of 350°F to 450°F (177°C to 242°C) are
necessary, usually requires direct-fired heaters.
Common fuels are natural gas or propane. To attain
these temperatures on large tanks (up to 80 ft. in
diameter), the exteriors must be insulated.
Smaller shop-fabricated vessels are usually
force-cured and/or final baked in ovens. The prerequi-
site is an even distribution of heat with reasonable
temperature control. The heat source can be electric-
ity, gas, or oil, but, again, the products of combustion
should be of primary concern. Ovens provide a more
controlled environment and better heat distribution and
are more economical for handling small components.
Proper control in curing high-bake systems
prevents overcuring on intermediate bakes, which
would result in a loss of adhesion, or undercuring of
the final coat, which causes poor chemical resistance.
Overcuring the final coat, short of charring, is not
considered detrimental. There is no correlation be-
tween air temperature and metal temperature during
tank heating. The only concern for proper cure is the
temperature of the lining. For practical purposes, the
exterior metal temperature and the lining temperature
are identical. It is most convenient, unless baking in an
oven, to use the exterior metal temperature as a
control by using recording or contact thermometers
and heat indicating crayons. This measurement allows
the operator to determine when minimum tempera-
tures are obtained and where cold or hot spots exist,
thus assuring uniform distribution of heat. NACE
provides additional information on force-curing,
including special procedures and precautions.6
Throughout drying between coats, force-
curing, and/or baking, substantial volumes of air
should be directed to ventilate all areas. Inadequate
ventilation can result in insufficient cure and/or a build-
up of solvent vapors until runs or solvent wash occur.
Inspection
Full-time, competent inspection provides
additional assurance that every phase of surface
preparation, application, and curing is properly per-
formed. Variations in any phase must be immediately
recognized and corrective action taken or performance
can be adversely affected, even though the lining may
not fail any acceptance inspection test. Inspectors
must possess a broad knowledge of coatings work in
order to evaluate quality.
The surface should be inspected for contami-
nants such as grease, oil, dust, or blasting abrasive
both before and after surface preparation. Visual
gouges, laminations, weld defects, and other defects
are best detected at the earliest possible time and
corrected before the surface preparation is continued.
The intensity and depth of anchor pattern can be
measured with a number of instruments or by compar-
ing it to previously prepared laboratory panels.
An extra coat or additional thickness may
diminish rather than enhance the quality of the tank
lining. Even the most rigid tank moves appreciably as
it is loaded, emptied, heated, or cooled. Stresses exist
or develop in many of the materials used as linings;
therefore, applying the coating to the minimum thick-
nesses required allows the film to maintain its adhe-
sion and still have a low permeation rate so that it
performs effectively.
There are numerous guides available for
assisting in developing inspection programs for tank
linings. NACE RPO288 is specific to tank linings, while
ASTM D 3276 is general for inspecting coatings on
steel substrates, and SSPC’s The Inspection of
Coatings and Linings provides guidance in all aspects
of developing inspection programs.7, 8, 9
Inspecting for discontinuities (holidays) is
extremely important when the corrosion rate of the
solution involved is extreme or the risk of product
contamination is high. When the lining is used solely
for protecting from contamination, isolated pinholes
may not be detrimental, as when a baked phenolic
system is immersed in concentrated sulfuric acid.
NACE RP0188-99 provides guidance in continuity
testing, utilizing either a high- or low-voltage (wet
sponge) tester.10 The wet sponge tester is effective
315
with coating films up to approximately 20 mils.
Discontinuities in heavier films can be located with a
high-voltage detector. Little work has been done to
determine what detrimental effects voltage has on
lining films. When coatings are used as linings in
severely corrosive environments, it is imperative that
every possible passageway be located and corrected.
Any instrument destructive to the integrity of
the coating should not be used for testing. If it be-
comes necessary to use such an instrument, the
damage must be repaired in accordance with either
supplier or specification procedures.
Inspecting the cure of most coatings is ex-
tremely difficult. Hardness and solvent softening tests
require considerable skill. Consult the supplier for
instructions on testing a specific coating. For high-
bake coatings, the degree of cure is determined by the
change in color when compared to control panels.
Maintenance
Maintenance is just as important for coating
systems used in tanks as it is for exterior paint sys-
tems although the economics and programs differ
substantially. To obtain access to a process tank
interior, operations must be shut down. For exterior
paint systems, it is practical and economical to inspect
on some engineered schedule, such as each quarter
or each year, and touch-up as needed. Lining systems,
on the other hand, must be designed for a
maintenance-free extended service life. A common
rule of thumb is a minimum of three years, but in most
environments a five-year minimum is required and
readily obtainable. The economics for each situation
should be evaluated. A typical, good grade, propri-
etary, high-bake thermosetting phenolic performs for
five years in the most severe instances and ten years
in many more.
When designing a lining system, consideration
must be given to its ability to be touched-up or re-
paired because of physical damage, design changes,
industrial accidents, or shortcomings in application.
Repair materials should be selected for their compat-
ibility with the original coating material, their adhesion
to steel, and their resistance to the environment.
The procedure for repairing a coating is
normally identical to the procedure used in initial
application. Where the repaired coating intersects the
existing coating, it is normally recommended that the
existing coating be feathered to accept the repaired
coating. Feathering requires sanding or abrasive blast
cleaning to obtain roughness, and then wiping with a
solvent to remove the sanding particles. With high-
bake and most thermosetting materials the overlap is
kept to a minimum as the solvents will not wet the
completely cured coating.
About the Authors
Wallace P. Cathcart
Wallace Cathcart was the technical counsel for Trinity
Industries, Inc. He also co-founded Tank Lining Corp.
and served as its CEO for 34 years.

References Albert L. Hendricks

1. NACE RPO178. Fabrication Details, Surface Finish Albert Hendricks was president of the Wisconsin
Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Protective Coatings Corp. where he was involved in
Tanks and Vessels to Be Lined for Immersion Service; manufacturing, testing, research, quality control,
NACE: Houston. application, and specifying beginning in 1958.
2. NACE TM0174. Laboratory Methods for the Evalua-
tion of Protective Coatings and Lining Materials in Joseph H. Brandon
Immersion Service; NACE: Houston. Joseph H. Brandon, a protective coating specialist with
3. SSPC-PS Guide 12.00: Guide to Selecting Zinc- the Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center
Rich Coating Systems; SSPC: Pittsburgh. (NFESC), specializes in industrial coatings for both
4. Zohn, Bryan I. Protective Lining Performance. steel and concrete. A member of the International
Chemical Engineering Progress, August 1970. Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI) and several SSPC
5. SSPC-TR 3/NACE 6A192. Dehumidification and and NACE committees, he holds protective coatings
Temperature Control During Surface Preparation, specialist certifications from both SSPC and NACE
Application, and Curing for Coatings/Linings of Steel and is a NACE certified coating inspector. He has a BS
Tanks, Vessels, and Other Enclosed Spaces; SSPC: degree in structural engineering.
Pittsburgh.
6. NACE TPC Publication 2. Coatings and Linings for
Immersion Service; NACE: Houston
7. NACE RPO288. Inspection of Linings on Steel and
Concrete; NACE: Houston.
8. ASTM D3276. Standard Guide for Painting
Inspectors (Metal Substrates); ASTM: West
Conshohocken, PA
9. The Inspection and Coatings and Linings; Bernard
R. Appleman, ed.; SSPC: Pittsburgh, 1997.
10. NACE RP0188-99. Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing
of New Protective Coatings on Conductive Substrates;
NACE: Houston.

Acknowledgements
The authors and SSPC gratefully acknowledge the
participation of Jack Delahunt and Walt Harris as peer
reviewers for this document.

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