JSPM’s

Rajarshi Shahu College

of Engineering

Department of Electronics and

Telecommunication Engineering

Class : S.Y. B. Tech. (B)

Subject: Analog Circuits
Unit-IV : Operational Amplifier and its applications
By
Dr. B. D. Jadhav

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1
Contents:
Introduction of Op-amp
Differential amplifier using op-amp
Instrumentation amplifier
 V to I & I to V Converter
 Precision Rectifiers
 Comparator
 Schmitt Trigger
 Peak Detectors
 Sample and hold circuit
 What is an Op-Amp?
• An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-
Amp”) is a device that is used to amplify AC as
well as DC signal using an external power
source
• Op-Amps are generally composed of:
– Transistors, Resistors, Capacitors

= + +
 Brief History
• First patent for Vacuum Tube Op-Amp (1946)

• First Commercial Op-Amp available (1953)

• First discrete IC Op-Amps (1961)

• First commercially successful Monolithic Op-Amps (1965)

 History Continued…
• Leading to the advent of the modern IC which is still used even today
(1967 – present)

Fairchild μA741 Electrical Schematic of μA741

 Op-Amps and their Math

A traditional Op-Amp:
V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout : output
Vs+ : positive power supply
Vs- : negative power supply

Vout = K (V+ - V-)

• The difference between the two inputs voltages (V+ and V-) multiplied by the gain (K,
“amplification factor”) of the Op-Amp gives you the output voltage

• The output voltage can only be as high as the difference between the power supply (Vs+ / Vs-
)and ground (0 Volts)
Block diagram of OP-AMP
 Saturation
Saturation is caused by increasing/decreasing the input
voltage to cause the output voltage to equal the power
supply’s voltage*

Vout The slope is normally much steeper than it

is shown here. Potentially just a few milli-
VS+ volts (mV) of change in the difference
between V+ and V- could cause the op-
Slope = K (“gain of Op- amp to reach the saturation level
Amp”)

Vin
* Note that saturation level of
traditional Op-Amp is 80% of supply
VS- voltage with exception of CMOS op-
amp which has a saturation at the
power supply’s voltage
Saturation
Points
 An Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics
• Infinite voltage gain
• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite bandwidth
• Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero out
if zero in).
 Ideal versus Real Op-Amps
Parameter Ideal Op-Amp Real Op-Amp
Differential Voltage Gain ∞ 105 - 109
Gain Bandwidth Product (Hz) ∞ 1-20 MHz
Input Resistance (R) ∞ 106 - 1012 Ω
Output Resistance (R) 0 100 - 1000 Ω

Ideal

Real
 Basics of an Op-Amp Circuit
• An op-amp amplifies the difference of the inputs V+ and V-
(known as the differential input voltage)
• This is the equation for an open loop gain amplifier:

Vout= K(V+-V-)

• K is typically very large – at around 10,000 or more for IC

Op-Amps
• This equation is the basis for all the types of amps we will
be discussing
741 Op-Amp Schematic
current mirror current mirror

voltage
level
shifter
output
stage

differential amplifier current mirror high-gain amplifier

 Op-Amp Characteristics

• Open-loop gain G is typically over 9000

• But closed-loop gain is much smaller
• Rin is very large (MΩ or larger)
• Rout is small (75Ω or smaller)
• Effective output impedance in closed loop is very small
 Ideal Op-Amp Analysis

To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit:

• Assume no current flows into either input terminal
• Assume no current flows out of the output terminal
• Constrain: V+ = V-
Inverting Amplifier Analysis

virtual ground
Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis

R1
V1  ( ) XVo
R1  R 2
R1  R 2
Vo  V 1X ( )
R1
R2
Vo  V 1X (1  )
R1
V 1  Vin Virtual ground principle
R2
Vo  Vin (1  )
R1
V0 R2
Av   (1  )
Vin R1
 Op-Amp Buffer

Vout = Vin
Isolates loading effects

A B

High output Low input

impedance impedance
Op-Amp Integrator
Op-Amp Summing Amplifier
 Op-Amp Differential Amplifier

+VCC

• Differential Amplifier works as inverting

-VCC amplifier when V2 is grounded

• It works as non inverting amplifier when

v1 is grounded.

Derivation as Inverting Amplifier

Make V2=0;
V2’=V1’= Due to virtual ground Principle
V01=(-Rf /R1) X V1-------(1)
Vo2= (1+(Rf/R1)) V2’--------(2)
Derivation as Non inverting Amplifier
V2’=(Rg/(Rg+R2)) X V2-----(3) Make V1=0;
Put equation (3) in equation (2)
 Op-Amp Differential Amplifier
R1  Rf
Vo2  ( ) XV 2'
R1  Rf
Vo1  ( ) XV 1
Rg R1
V 2'  ( ) XV 2
Rg  R 2 Vo  Vo1  Vo2
R1  Rf Rg Rf
Vo  ( ) X (V 2  V 1)
Vo2  ( )X ( ) XV 2
R1 Rg  R 2 R1
Rf  R1
WhenRg  Rf
Vo  (V 2  V 1)
R1  R 2
R 2  Rg Rf
Vo2  ( )X ( ) XV 2
R1 Rg  R 2
Rf
Vo2  ( ) XV 2
R1
Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier
Requirements of Good Insturmentation Amplifier:
1. Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain: Since the instrumentation amplifiers are
required to amplify very low-level signals from the transducer device, high and
finite gain is the basic requirement. The gain also needs to be accurate and the
closed-loop gain must be stable.
2. Easier Gain Adjustment: Apart from a finite and stable gain, variation in the
gain factor over a prescribed range of values is also necessary. The gain
adjustment must be easier and precise.
3. High Input Impedance: To avoid the loading of input sources, the input
impedance of the instrumentation amplifier must be very high (ideally infinite).
4. Low Output Impedance: The output impedance of a good instrumentation
amplifier must be very low (ideally zero), to avoid loading effect on the
immediate next stage.
5. High CMRR: The output from the transducer usually contains common mode
signals, when transmitted over long wires. A good instrumentation amplifier must
amplify only the differential input, completely rejecting common mode inputs.
Thus, the CMRR of the instrumentation amplifier must be ideally infinite.
6. High Slew Rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier must be as high
as possible to provide maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier

Op-AMP- 1 and 2 are input stage of Instrumentation Amplifier

OP-AMP 3 is difference amplifier
Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier
By Virtual ground principle Potential at
Node A is equal to Node B
 Potential at B is equal to A and equal to G
V1= VG
 By Virtual ground principle Potential at
Node D is equal to Node C
 Potential at C is equal to A and equal to H
V2= VH
Ideally the current to the input stage op-
amps is zero. Therefore the
current I through the resistors R1, Rgain and
R1 remains the same.
Applying Ohm’s law between the nodes E
and F,
I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(R1+Rgain+R1) —— 1
I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain)
 Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier
Since no current is flowing to the input of the op-amps 1 & 2, the current I between
the nodes G and H can be given as
• I = (VG-VH)/Rgain = (V1-V2)/Rgain ------------------------------ 2
• Equating equations 1 and 2,

• (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) = (V1-V2)/Rgain

• (Vo1-Vo2) = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain —————— 3

• The output of the difference amplifier is given as,

• Vout = (R3/R2) (Vo1-Vo2)

• Therefore, (Vo1 – Vo2) = (R2/R3)Vout

• Substituting (Vo1 – Vo2) value in the equation 3, we get

• (R2/R3)Vout = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain

• i.e. Vout = (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}(V1-V2) Vout= Gain (V1-V2)

Gain= (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}
Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier
Conclusion :
1. The overall voltage gain of an instrumentation
amplifier can be controlled by adjusting the value of
resistor Rgain.

2. The common mode signal attenuation for the

instrumentation amplifier is provided by the
difference amplifier.
Op-Amp As Instrumentation Amplifier
Advantages of Three Op-amp Instrumentation Amplifier
• The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit can be easily
varied and controlled by adjusting the value of Rgain without changing the
circuit structure.

• The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used.
Hence, it is easy to set the gain accurately by choosing the resistor values
carefully.

• The input impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is dependent on the

non-inverting amplifier circuits in the input stage. The input impedance of a
non-inverting amplifier is very high.

• The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is the output

impedance of the difference amplifier, which is very low.

• The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the common
mode signal will be rejected.
Application of Instrumentation Amplifier
(Temperature Measurement system)
 V to I & I to V Converter
• Voltage to current converter produce a current which
is directly proportional to the applied voltage and the
resistance used in the circuit.
• It should be noted that all the resistances used in the
circuit are equal to R.

• There are two types of V-I converters :

1. V-I converts with Floating load
2. V-I converts with Grounded load
 V to I & I to V Converter
Voltage to Current Converter with floating loads (V/I) :
 Voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is floating (not connected to
ground).
 Vin is applied to the non-inverting input terminal, and the feedback voltage across
R1 devices the inverting input terminal.

• This circuit is also called as a current – series negative feedback amplifier. Because
the feedback voltage across R1 (applied Non-inverting terminal) depends on the
output current i0 and is in series with the input difference voltage Vid.
• Writing KVL for the input loop,
Voltage Vid=Vf and IB=0, Vi = RLi0 Where io=Vi/RL
• Input voltage Vin is converted into output current of Vin/RL [Vin -> i0].
In other words, input volt appears across R1. If RL is a precision resistor, the output
current (i0 = Vin/R1) will be precisely fixed.
•
V to I & I to V Converter with floating load
Voltage to current converter in
which load resistor RL is floating
(not connected to ground).
Vin is applied to the non-
inverting input terminal, and the
feedback voltage across RF as
RL devices the inverting input
terminal.
R1 is proportional to the output
current Io and appears in series
with input
Vin =VF (virtual ground )
Vin=R1X Io
Io= (Vin/R1)
 V to I & I to V Converter with Grounded load
For that, we apply Kirchhoff’s
current law at the node V1

For a non-inverting amplifier, gain is

A = 1 + ( RF / R1 )
Here, the resistor, RF = R = R1.
So, A = 1 + R/R = 2.
Hence the voltage in the output will
be

Thus, we can conclude from the above equation that the current IL is related to the
voltage, VIN and the resistor, R.
 Applications of V-I Converters

• Diode Match Finder

• Zener diode
• As a relay Driver circuit
• LED driver/ Tester
• DC voltmeter
I-V Converter
Ib2=Ib1=0 (ideal input Bias
current is zero

 Avf=(-Rf/R1)= Vo/Vin

Vo=(-Rf/R1)X vin

V2=V1=0 (virtual ground

principle)

Iin=-IF

Vo=-Iin X RF
Applications:
1. In light intensity meter
2. In D to A converter
 OP-AMP as a Precision Rectifiers
Need of Precision Rectifier:
1. In Basic rectifiers Diode characteristics is non-linear for
and conducts for more than 0.63V for Si diode and 0.3V
for GE diode.
2. If input signal is less than 0.63V it won’t be act as
rectifier.
3. If signal is more than 0.63v then also waveform is not
linear and distortion is arrived.
4. Hence precision rectifier with op-amp circuit is used to
rectify the signal less than 0.63V without distortion.
5. Two types of precision rectifiers:
A. Half wave precision Rectifier
B. Full Wave precision Rectifier
 Half wave Precision Rectifiers

Non-Inverting Precision rectifier Inverting Precision rectifier

Full wave Precision Rectifiers
Full wave Precision Rectifiers
Full wave Precision Rectifiers
 OP-AMP as COMPARATORS
Definition :
Compares two input voltages and produces an output in either of two
states indicating the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs.

The comparator is an op-amp circuit that compares two input

voltages and produces an output indicating the relationship between
them. The inputs can be two signals (such as two sine waves) or a
signal and a fixed dc reference voltage.

Often used as an interface between digital and analog signals.

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 Symbol & Transfer Characteristics

Vin
+
Vout
Vref _

Vout Vout

VH VH

Vin Vin
0 Vref 0 Vref
VL VL

Ideal transfer characteristic Practical transfer characteristic

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 Threshold Comparators

The voltage at which a comparator changes from one level to

another is called the crossover (or threshold) voltage.
 Its value can be adjusted by adding resistors, as shown in the
non-inverting comparator.

Vref
RF

+
R1 Vout
_
V+
V-
VS Vin
R

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 From the superposition theorem, the voltage at V+ is given by

R1 RF
V  Vref  Vin
R1  RF R1  RF
Ideally, the crossover will occur when V+ = 0. That is

R1Vref  RFVin  0
which gives the low threshold voltage VLt = Vin as

R1
VLt   Vref Vout
RF
V
H
Thus, the output voltage becomes high (VH) at the
positive saturation voltage. VL
t 0 Vi
(+Vsat) when V+ > 0 (i.e. Vin > VLt) n

VL 43
 If the input signal is connected to the inverting terminal, the
output will change from high (VH) to low (VL).

The high threshold voltage VHt = Vin is given by

R1
Vout VHt  Vref
R1  RF

VH
Thus, the output voltage becomes low (VL) at the
negative saturation voltage :-
VHt
Vin (-Vsat) when Vin > V+ (i.e. Vin > VHt)
0

VL
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 BASIC COMPARATOR CIRCUITS

COMPARATOR WITH ZERO REFERENCE

 COMPARATOR WITH NON ZERO REFERENCE

 COMPARATOR WITH HYSTERESIS

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 Comparator with Zero Reference
 The simplest way to build a comparator is to connect op-amp
without feedback resistors.

Vout
+V
_
Vin +Vsat
Vout
+
Vin
0
-V
-Vsat
a) Comparator with zero reference
b) Input/output response

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 Comparator with Zero Reference
 Because of the high open-loop gain, positive input voltage
produces positive saturation (+Vsat), and a negative input
voltage produces negative saturation (-Vsat).

 This comparator is called a zero-crossing detector.

 The minimum input voltage that produces saturation is:

 Vsat
Vin (min) 
Aol
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 Comparator with Zero Reference
• If a sinusoidal input voltage applied to the non-
inverting input of this circuit, the result will look like
this:

Vin

0 t

Vout +Vsat

0 t

-Vsat

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Comparator with Zero Reference

• Let Vsat = 15V, Aol = 100,000. Then the input

voltage needed to produce saturation is:

 15V
Vin (min)   0.015mV
100,000
Vin > +0.015 mV  +Vsat

Vin < -0.015 mV  -Vsat

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Comparator with Zero Reference and Bounded
output
 The output swing of a zero-crossing detector may
be too large in some applications.

 We can bound the output by using a zener diode.

 There are three types:

1.Bounded at positive value
2.Bounded at negative value
3.Double bounded

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Comparator with Zero Reference and Bounded
output
1.Bounded at positive value

Dz

+V
_ +Vz
Vin
R Vout
+ 0

-V -0.7V

51
Comparator with Zero Reference and Bounded
output

2.Bounded at negative value

Dz

+V
_ +0.7V
Vin
R
Vout 0
+
-V -Vz

52
Comparator with Zero Reference and Bounded
output
3.Double-bounded

Dz1 Dz2

+V Vz2 + 0.7V

Vin
_
R 0
Vout
+
- (Vz1 + 0.7V)
-V

53
Comparator with Non-Zero Reference

• In some applications a threshold voltage

different from zero may be preferred. By
biasing either input, we can change the
threshold voltage as needed.

• It also known as non-zero level detection

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 Comparator with Non-Zero Reference
Positive Threshold
+V Vout

R1 +V
+Vsat
Vref _
Vout
R2 Vin
Vin + Vref
-V -Vsat

R2 •When Vin > Vref, Vout is High (+Vsat)

Vref  (V )
R1  R2 •When Vin < Vref, Vout is Low (-Vsat)

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 Comparator with Non-Zero Reference

Negative threshold
Vout
• If a negative limit is
preferred, connect –V
to the voltage divider. +Vsat

Vref Vin

-Vsat

•When Vin > Vref, Vout is High (+Vsat)

•When Vin < Vref, Vout is Low (-Vsat)
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 Comparator with Non-Zero Reference
Using Zener diode
CONDITIONS:
• Vref = Vz
•When Vin is less than Vref, the output remains at the max negative level
•When Vin is more than Vref, the output goes to the max positive level
+V

Vref
R +V Vin t
Vz _
Vout
Vin + +Vsat

-V Vout t
-Vsat
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 Sample and Hold circuit
Definition:
1.Sample and Hold circuit: It is an electronic circuit
which creates the samples of voltage given to it as
input, and after that, it holds these samples for the
definite time.
2. Sampling time :The time during which sample and
hold circuit generates the sample of the input signal is
called sampling time.
3. Holding time: the time duration of the circuit during
which it holds the sampled value is called holding
time.
 Sample and Hold circuit

When the switch is closed sampling process will come into the picture
• when the switch is opened holding effect will be there.
Practical Sample and Hold circuit
 Working of Practical Sample and Hold circuit
• The N-channel Enhancement MOSFET will be used a switching element.

• The input voltage is applied through its drain terminal and control voltage will be applied through
its gate terminal.

• When the positive pulse of the control voltage is applied, the MOSFET will be switched to ON
state. And it acts as a closed switch.

• On the contrary, when the control voltage is zero then the MOSFET will be switched to OFF state
and acts as the open switch.

• When the MOSFET acts as a closed switch, then the analogue signal applied to it through the drain
terminal will be fed to the capacitor.

• The capacitor will then charge to its peak value.

• When the MOSFET switch is opened, then the capacitor stops charging. Due to the high impedance
operational amplifier connected at the end of the circuit, the capacitor will experience high
impedance due to this it cannot get discharged.

• This leads to the holding of the charge by the capacitor for the definite amount of time. This time
can be referred as holding period. And the time in which samples of the input voltage is generated
is called sampling period.
• The output processed by operational amplifier during the holding period. Therefore, holding period
holds significance for OP-AMPS.
Waveforms of Practical Sample and
Hold circuit
Performance Parameters of S & H circuit
• Acquisition Time (TAC): The time required by the capacitor to get
the charge of the input voltage applied to the sample and hold circuit.
It is referred as acquisition time.
• Aperture Time (TAP): The aperture time can be defined as the time
required by the capacitor to change its state from sampling to
holding. Due to the propagation delay of switches, even after the
hold command is given the capacitor still keeps on charging for the
short duration of time. This is nothing but aperture time.
• Voltage Droop: The voltage droop is the voltage drop down in the
capacitor due to leakage of charge by a capacitor. Ideally, we require
capacitors which do not possess any leakage, but it is not possible
practically. No matter how good quality material we use there will be
some voltage drop.
• Hold Mode Settling Time: After the generation of hold commands,
the analogue input voltage which is used by the capacitor for
charging takes some time to settle completely. This is called Hold
Mode settling time.
 Applications of Sample and Hold circuit

• Data Distribution System

• Sampling Oscilloscopes

• Data Conversion System

• Digital Voltmeters

• Analog Signal Processing

• Signal Constructional Filters