Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff.

Alaa Dawood Salma

Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Soil is a three phase material which consists of solid particles which make up
the soil skeleton and voids which may be full of water if the soil is saturated,
may be full of air if the soil is dry, or may be partially saturated as shown in
Figure 1.

Solid

Water

Air

Figure 1: Air, Water and Solid phases in a typical soil

Figure 2: The physical state of a soil sample.

It is useful to consider each phase individually as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Distribution by Volume, Mass, and Weight

Phase Volume Mass Weight

Air VA 0 0
Water VW MW WW
Solid VS MS WS

Units
For most engineering applications the following units are used:
Length metres
Mass tonnes (1 tonne = 103 kg)
Density (mass/unit volume) t/m3
Weight kilonewtons (kN)
Stress kilopascals (kPa) 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2
Unit Weight kN/m3
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

To sufficient accuracy the density of water w is given by

    w = 1 ton/m3
= 1 g/cm3

In most applications it is not the mass that is important, but the force due to the
mass, and the weight, W, is related to the mass, M, by the relation W= M g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. If M is measured in tones and W in
kN, g = 9.8 m/s2.Because the force is usually required it is often convenient in
calculations to use the unit weight,  (weight per unit volume).
W Mg
    = g
V V
Hence the unit weight of water, w = 9.8 kN/m3

Specific gravity (Gs): specific gravity of soil solids of a soil is defined as the
ratio of the density of a given volume of the solids to the density of any equal
volume of water at 4ºC. Another frequently used quantity is the Specific
Gravity, G, which is defined by:

Density of Material 
G  
Density of Water w
Unit Weight of Material 
G  
Unit Weight of Water w

It is often found that the specific gravity of the materials making up the soil
particles are close to the value for quartz, that is Gs  2.65

For all the common soil forming minerals 2.5 < Gs < 2.8

We can use Gs to calculate the density or unit weight of the solid particles

s = Gs w
s = Gs w

and hence the volume of the solid particles if the mass or weight is known

Ms Ws
Vs  
Gs  w Gs  w
Void Ratio (e):is the ratio of void volume to solid volume.
Using volumes is not very convenient in most calculations. An alternative
measure that is used is the voids ratio, e. This is defined as the ratio of the
Vv
volume of voids, Vv to the volume of solids, Vs, that is e 
Vs
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
where Vv = Vw +Va

V = Va + V w + Vs

A related quantity is the porosity, n, which is defined as ratio of the volume of

voids to the total volume.

Porosity (n): is the ratio of void volume.

Vv
n 
V
The relation between e and n can be determined by noting that

Vs. = V - Vv = (1 - n) V

Vv Vv n
Now e   
Vs (1  n) V 1 n
e
and hence n 
1 e
Example 1: A soil has a total volume of 250ml and a void ratio of 0.872.
What is the volume of solids of the sample?

Vv 𝑉−𝑉𝑠
e  =
Vs 𝑉𝑠

250−𝑉𝑠
0.872= ⇒ 250 − 𝑉𝑠 = 0.872𝑉𝑠 ⇒ 250 = 1.872𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠

𝑉𝑠 = 133.55 𝑚𝑙

Example 2: A soil has a porosity of 0.45. What is the value of its void ratio?
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
Degree of saturation (s): is the ratio of water volume to void volume.

𝑽𝒘
𝑺=
𝑽𝒗
if S =o dry soil (Vw =o)
S =100 saturated soil (Vw =Vv)
0 < S < 1→the soil is partially sat.

The degree of saturation, S, has an important influence on the soil behavior. It

is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids

Vw
S 
Va  Vw

The distribution of the volume phases may be expressed in terms of e and S,

and by knowing the unit weight of water and the specific gravity of the
particles the distributions by weight may also be determined as indicated in
Table 2.

Vw V
S   w
Vv eVs

Vw = e S V s

Va = Vv - Vw = e Vs (1 - S)

Table 2 Distribution by Volume, Mass and Weight in Soil

Phase Volume Mass Weight

Air e (1 - S) 0 0
Water eS e S w e S w
Solid 1 Gs w Gs w

Note that Table 2 assumes a solid volume Vs = 1 m3, All terms in the table
should be multiplied by Vs if this is not the case.

Water Content (w):is the ratio of water weight in a soil sample to the
𝑾𝒘
solids weight. 𝝎=
𝑾𝒔

Unit Weights

Several unit weights are used in Soil Mechanics. These are the bulk, saturated,
dry, and submerged unit weights.
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
The bulk unit weight is simply defined as the weight per unit volume
W
 bulk 
V

When all the voids are filled with water the bulk unit weight is identical to the
saturated unit weight, sat, and when all the voids are filled with air the bulk
unit weight is identical with the dry unit weight, dry. From Table 2 it follows
that

W  G   w eS  (G  e S )
 bulk   w s  w s
V 1 e 1 e

 w ( G s  e)
 sat  S=1
1 e

 w Gs
 dry  S=0
1 e

Note that in discussing soils that are saturated it is common to discuss their dry
unit weight. This is done because the dry unit weight is simply related to the
voids ratio, it is a way of describing the amount of voids.

The submerged unit weight, ´, is sometimes useful when the soil is saturated,
and is given by

´ = sat - w

Moisture content or Water Content (w):is the ratio of water weight in

𝑾𝒘
a soil sample to the solids weight. 𝝎=
𝑾𝒔

The moisture content, m, is a very useful quantity because it is simple to

measure. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid
Ww
material m 
Ws
If we express the weights in terms of e, S, Gs and w as before we obtain

Ww = w Vw = w e S Vs

Ws = s Vs = w Gs Vs
eS
and hence m 
Gs
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
Note that if the soil is saturated (S=1) the voids ratio can be simply determined
from the moisture content.

Example – Mass and Volume fractions

A sample of soil is taken using a thin walled sampling tube into a soil
deposit. After the soil is extruded from the sampling tube a sample of diameter
50 mm and length 80 mm is cut and is found to have a mass of 290 g. Soil
trimmings created during the cutting process are weighed and found to have a
mass of 55 g. These trimmings are then oven dried and found to have a mass of
45 g. Determine the phase distributions, void ratio, degree of saturation and
relevant unit weights.

1. Distribution by mass and weight

Phase Trimmings Sample Mass, M Sample Weight, Mg

Mass (g) (kN)
(g)
Total 55 290 2845  10-6
Solid 45 237.3 2327.9  10-6
Water 10 52.7 517  10-6

2. Distribution by Volume

Sample Volume, V =  (0.025)2 (0.08) = 157.1  10-6 m3

Ww 517  10 6
WaterVolume, Vw    52.7  10 6 m3
w 9.81
Ws 2327.9  10 6
Solid Volume, Vs    89.5  10 6 m3
Gs  w 2.65  9.81

Air Volume, Va = V - Vs - Vw = 14.9  10-6 m3

3. Moisture content

Ww 10 52.7  10 6
m     0.222
Ws 45 237.3  10 6

4. Voids ratio

Vv 14.9  10 6  52.7  10 6
e    0.755
Vs 89.5  10 6
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
5. Degree of Saturation

Vw 52.7  10 6
S    0.780
Vv 52.7  10 6  14.9  10 6

6. Unit weights

W 2845  10 6 kN
 bulk   6
 181
. kN / m3
V 157.1  10 m 3

Ws 2327.9  10 6
 dry   6
 14.8 kN / m3
V 157.1  10

If the sample were saturated there would need to be an additional 14.9  10-6
m3 of water. This would weigh 146.2  10-6 kN and thus the saturated unit
weight of the soil would be

(2845  10 6  146.2  10 6 )
 sat  6
 19.04 kN / m3
157.1  10

Example – Calculation of Unit Weights

A soil has a voids ratio of 0.7. Calculate the dry and saturated unit weight of
the material. Assume that the solid material occupies 1 m3, then assuming Gs =
2.65 the distribution by volume and weight is as follows.

Phase Volume Dry Weight Saturated Weight

(m3) (kN) (kN)
Voids 0.7 0 0.7  9.81 = 6.87
Solids 1.0 2.65  9.81 = 26.0 26.0

26.0 kN
 Dry unit weight  dry   15.3 kN / m3
. m3
17

(26.0  6.87)
 Saturated unit weight  sat   19.3 kN / m3
17
.

If the soil were fully saturated the moisture content would be

6.87
 Moisture content m   0.264  26.4%
26.0

Alternatively the unit weights may be calculated from the expressions given
earlier which are on p. 5 of the Data Sheets
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

Gs  w
 dry 
1 e
(Gs  e)  w
 sat 
1 e
See also pages 4 and 5 of the Data Sheets for most of the definitions and
equations given in this section.

Air Content (A):is the ratio of air volume to total volume.

The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by
water(is the ratio of air volume to total volume).

𝑽𝒂 𝑽𝒗 − 𝑽𝒘
𝑨= =
𝑽 𝑽

𝑨 = 𝒆 − 𝒆𝑺 = 𝒆(𝟏 − 𝑺)

𝐚𝐢𝐫−𝐯𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝑽𝒂 𝒆(𝟏−𝑺)

Air-voids content Av = = = = 𝒏(𝟏 − 𝑺)
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝑽 𝟏+𝒆

For a perfectly dry soil: Av = n , for a saturated soil: Av = 0

See figure : 3

Figure3 : e in term of V, Ws, Gs

Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕
Q1:Show that Gs=
𝜸𝒘 −𝝎𝒔𝒂𝒕 (𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 −𝜸𝒘 )

Q2: For a given soil , the following are given : Gs= 2.67 ; moist. Unit
weight 𝛾 = 112Ib/ft3 moisture content ω = 10.8%. Determine:
a-Dry unit weight
b-Void ratio
c-Porosity
d-Degree of saturation
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

3
Q3 : For a moist soil , given the following : V = 0.25 ft ; W = 30.75 lb ;
ω = 9.8% ; Gs = 2.66 . Determine the following:
3 3
a. γ (lb/f ) , b. γd(lb/f ) ,c. e , d. n ,e. S , f. Volume occupied by
water
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

3
Q 4: A soil has unit weight of 126.8 lb/ft . Given Gs = 2.67 and ω=
3
12.6% determine: a.dry unit weight (lb/ft ) , b. void ratio , c. porosity
3
d. The weight of water in (lb/ft ) of soil needed for full saturation
Solution:

Q5 : For a soil given e = 0.86 , cω= 28% and Gs = 2.72 determine

a. moist unit weight (lb/ft3) ,b. degree of saturation (%)
Solution:
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

3
Q6 :For a saturated soil ; given γd = 15.29 kN/m ; and ω=21% ;
determine
a. γsat. , b. e, c. Gs , d. γ moist when the degree of saturation is 50%.

Solution :
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

Ex: . A newly excavated soil sample was found to have a mass of 431g
and a volume of 221ml. After oven drying the mass of the soil reduced to
401g. Calculate the:
(a) moisture content , (b) bulk density and bulk unit weight (c) dry
density and dry unit weight

Solution:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 431−401

a: 𝜔 = = = 7.5%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 401

𝑀
b: 𝜌𝑏 = V=221ml=221× 10-6m3
𝑉

431
: 𝜌𝑏 = = 1.94𝑀𝑔/𝑚3
221× 10−6

𝛾𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏 × 9.81 = 1.94 × 103 × 9.81 = 19.0𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

𝜌𝑏 ×100 1.94×100
c: 𝜌𝑑 = = = 1.81𝑀𝑔/𝑚3
100+𝜔 107.5

𝛾𝑑 = 𝜌𝑏 × 9.81 = 1.81 × 103 × 9.81 = 17.7𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

Example: A soil has a bulk density of 1.93 Mg/m3 and a moisture content
of 23%. If the void ratio of the soil is 0.652, determine its particle
specific gravity and degree of saturation
𝜌𝑏 1.93
𝜌𝑑 = = = 1.57𝑀𝑔/𝑚3
1+𝜔 1.23

𝜌𝑤 𝐺𝑠
𝜌𝑑 = →→ 𝐺𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑 (1 + 𝑒) = 1.57(1 + 0.652) = 2.59
1+𝑒

𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒 2.59 + 0.652 × 𝑆
𝜌𝑏 = →→ 1.93 =
1+𝑒 1.659
0.5945
𝑆= = 0.91 = 91%
0.652
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021
Example: A sample of soil was coated with paraffin wax. Before waxing
the soil had a mass of 983g and after waxing the total mass was 992g.
The sample was then immersed in water and the total volume was found
to be 481cc. On removal from the water the sample was broken open and
the soil was found to have a moisture content of 18%. If the particle
specific gravity was 2.65 and the specific gravity of the wax was 0.89,
then determine:
(a) the bulk density of the soil , (b) the void ratio of the soil , (c) the
degree of saturation of the soil.

Example: Determine moisture content, void ratio, porosity and

degree of saturation of a soil core sample. Also determine the dry
unit weight, γd
Data:
• Weight of soil sample = 1013g
• Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm3
• Specific Gravity, Gs = 2.65
• Dry weight of soil = 904.0g
Collage of Engineering Soil Mechanic Ass. Proff. Alaa Dawood Salma
Building and Construction 3rd Stage Lecture No.1
2020 -2021

H.W
Q1: An in-situ test to determine the unit weight of a soil was carried out
using the sand replacement method. A total of 4.62kg of soil was
extracted from the hole which was then refilled using 3.60kg of loose, dry
sand having a dry density of 1.57Mg/m3.
A specific gravity determination of the soil particles using a density bottle
yielded the following data:
Mass of bottle and stopper = 25.00g Mass of bottle, stopper and oven
dried soil = 36.91g Mass of bottle, stopper, soil and distilled water =
62.59g Mass of bottle, stopper and distilled water = 55.21g
The results of a moisture content test on a sample of the soil were as
follows:
Mass of tin and wet soil = 24.10g Mass of tin and dry soil = 22.10g Mass
of tin = 12.30g
Calculate the:
(a) specific gravity of the particles
(b) moisture content
(c) bulk unit weight
(d) dry unit weight
(e) degree of saturation 20

𝜸𝒅
Q2: Prove that 𝒏 = 𝟏 − 𝑮
𝒔 𝜸𝒘

𝒆
Q3: Prove that 𝜸𝒅 = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝟏+𝒆 𝜸𝒘
𝐧 𝛄𝐰
Q4: Prove that 𝛚 = 𝛄
𝐬𝐚𝐭 −𝐧𝛄𝐰
3
Q5: The saturated unit weight of soil is 20.12 kN/m . Given Gs = 2.74 ,
determine a. γdry , b. e , c. n , d. ωc