Group 4

Experiment F6
Aaditi S Basarkar, Deeksha Jena, Apeksha Dixit, Arya Agarwal

VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this experiment is to understand and experimentally verify Bernoulli’s equation for
incompressible fluid flow

The objectives of this experiment are:

1. To record the pressure head, flowrate and pressure differential

2. To calculate velocity (from measured flow rate)
3. To analyze the relationship between pressure and velocity
4. To plot the total energy line versus distance

APPARATUS

The experimental set-up for verifying Bernoulli’s theorem is a self-contained recirculating unit.
The set-up accompanies the sump tank, constant head tank, centrifugal pump for water lifting,
measuring tank etc. A control valve and by-pass valve are provided to regulate the flow of
water in the constant head tank. A conduit, made of Perspex, of varying cross section provided,
which is having converging and diverging sections. Piezometer tubes are fitted on this test
section at regular intervals. The inlet of the conduit is connected to a constant head tank. At the
outlet of conduit, a valve is provided to regulate the flow of water through the test section.
After achieving steady state, discharge through the test section can be measured with the help
of measuring tank and stopwatch.

UTILITIES REQUIRED

1. Water supply
2. Electrical supply: single phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with earth connection.
THEORY

Bernoulli's theorem states that when there is a continuous connection between particles of
flowing mass of fluid, the total energy at any section of flow will remain the same provided there
is no reduction or addition of energy at any point. Thus for a steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow, the same can be expressed in mathematical form as follows:

constant along a streamline (1)

where

P = pressure of fluid, Pa
u = velocity of fluid, m/s
ρ = density of fluid, kg/ m3
γ = specific weight (N/m3)
Z = elevation (m)

Basic assumptions used in the derivation are:

1. Viscous effects are assumed negligible

2. The flow is assumed to be steady
3. The flow is assumed to be incompressible
4. The equation is appropriate only along a streamline

An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing each term by
the specific weight .
Where

= constant along streamline (2)

Each of the terms in this equation has the units of energy per weight or length (m) and represents
a certain type of head.

● The elevation term z is called elevation head

● The pressure term, , is called the pressure head and represents height of a column of
the fluid that is needed to produce the pressure P.
 ● The velocity term, , is the velocity head and represents the vertical distance needed
for a fluid to fall freely if it is to reach velocity u from rest.

Bernoulli's equation thus states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the
elevation head is constant along a streamline.

Thus if 2 points along a streamline is considered then the Bernoulli’s equation can be written as
follows:

(3)

Where,

E = total energy per unit weight or total head available at any point along a streamline
P1 = pressure of fluid at point 1 on the stream line under consideration
P2 = pressure of fluid at point 2 on the streamline under consideration
u1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 on the stream line under consideration
u2 = velocity of fluid at point 2 on the stream line under consideration
ρ = density of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity

= pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head at point 1 on the stream line
under consideration

= pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head at point 2 on the stream line
under consideration

= kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head at point 1 on the stream line under
consideration

= kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head at point 2 on the stream line under
consideration

Z1 = Potential energy per unit weight or potential head at point 1 on the stream line under
consideration
Z2 = Potential energy per unit weight or potential head at point 2 on the stream line under
consideration
SKETCH OF APPARATUS

PROCEDURE

1. Close the drain valves provided.

2. Fill the sump tank ¾ with clean water.
3. Close the valve given at the end of the test section.
4. Open by-pass valve given on the water supply line to the overhead tank.
5. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
6. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
7. Switch on the pump ensuring supply of water back to the sump tank through the already
open by-pass valve
8. Slowly open the valve connecting the sump and overhead tank closing the by-pass valve at
the same time. These ensure that water is directed to the overhead tank for filling.
9. Once the overhead tank is filled to the desired level, regulate flow of water through the
main test section with the help of a given gate valve at the end of the test section. The
water in this case flows back into the sump tank
10. Measure flow rate using measuring tank and stopwatch. When measuring flow rate, ensure
that the water is directed to the measuring tank before measurement.
11. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates.

Closing Procedure
1. When the experiment is over, switch off the pump.
2. Switch off the power supply to the panel.

OBSERVATIONS

Known data

Cross sectional areas at piezometric points

Piezometric Distance from Reference point. Cross- sectional area at test points
point in m in m2
1. 0.03 6.1707 x 10-4
2. 0.07 5.0074 x 10-4
3. 0.11 4.1620 x 10-4
4. 0.15 3.3329 x 10-4
5. 0.19 2.7172 x 10-4
Piezometric Distance from Reference point. Cross- sectional area at test points
point in m in m2
6. 0.23 3.3006 x 10-4
7. 0.27 4.2273 x 10-4
8. 0.31 5.1794 x 10-4
9. 0.35 6.4063 x 10-4

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2; A = area of measuring tank = 0.1 m2

Data Acquisition

Height Piezometric column height.

of water Time of
collecte collecti
Run.
d in on in
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
measuri second
ng tank s
in cm
17.
1 10 20.68 22.5 20.6 18.0 13.9 7.3 11.8 14.8 16.5
0
2 10 21.05 23.6 22.7 20.9 17.7 11.9 16.4 19.0 20.7 21.
 9
23.
3 10 21.12 27.0 25.7 23.5 20.0 13.7 18.8 21.0 22.4
6
25.
4 10 22.05 27.9 26.6 24.5 21.2 14.8 19.5 22.1 23.9
0
26.
5 10 22.90 29.0 27.8 25.7 22.6 16.5 20.9 24.0 25.4
5
30.
6 10 23.85 33.1 31.9 30.0 26.6 21.4 25.4 28.0 29.1
2

DATA REDUCTION

Sample calculations are shown below in the image attached:

CALCULATIONS

Run 1:

Time = 20.68 s
Discharge = 4.835 ×10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.450 1.779 0.933
U (m/s) 0.7835 0.9656 1.1617 1.4649 1.1438 0.7547
7 4 5
P/ρ g = h
0.225 0.206 0.18 0.139 0.073 0.118 0.148 0.165 0.17
(m)
0.107 0.161 0.044
u2/2g (m) 0.0313 0.0475 0.0688 0.1094 0.0667 0.0290
3 4 4
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.246 0.234 0.209
E 0.2563 0.2536 0.2488 0.2274 0.2147 0.199
3 4 4

Run 2:

Time = 21.05 s
Discharge = 4.751×10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.439 0.917
U (m/s) 0.7698 0.9486 1.1413 1.4252 1.7481 1.1236 0.7415
1 1
P/ρ g = h 0.236 0.227 0.209 0.177 0.119 0.164 0.19 0.207 0.219
 (m)
0.105 0.042
u2/2g (m) 0.0302 0.0459 0.0664 0.1035 0.1557 0.0643 0.0280
6 9
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.269 0.249
E 0.2662 0.2729 0.2754 0.2805 0.2747 0.2543 0.247
6 9

Run 3:

Time = 21.12 s
Discharge = 4.734 ×10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.914
U (m/s) 0.7671 0.9454 1.137 1.4204 1.7422 1.4343 1.1199 0.7389
0
P/ρ g = h
0.270 0.257 0.235 0.200 0.137 0.188 0.210 0.224 0.236
(m)
0.042
u2/2g (m) 0.0299 0.0455 0.0659 0.1028 0.1547 0.1049 0.0639 0.0278
6
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.266
E 0.2999 0.3025 0.3009 0.3028 0.2917 0.2929 0.2739 0.2638
6

Run 4:

Time = 22.05 s
Discharge = 4.535 ×10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.360 0.875
U (m/s) 0.7349 0.9056 1.0896 1.6690 1.3616 1.0727 0.7079
6 6
P/ρ g = h
0.279 0.266 0.245 0.212 0.148 0.195 0.221 0.239 0.250
(m)
0.094 0.039
u2/2g (m) 0.0278 0.0418 0.0605 0.1420 0.0946 0.0587 0.0256
3 1
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.306 0.278
E 0.3068 0.3078 0.3055 0.290 0.2896 0.2797 0.2756
3 1
Run 5:

Time = 20.90 s
Discharge = 4.78 ×10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
U (m/s) 0.77 0.95 1.15 1.43 1.76 1.45 1.13 0.92 0.75
P/ρ g = h (m) 0.290 0.278 0.257 0.226 0.165 0.209 0.240 0.254 0.265
u2/2g (m) 0.031 0.046 0.067 0.105 0.158 0.107 0.065 0.043 0.028
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E 0.321 0.324 0.324 0.331 0.323 0.316 0.305 0.297 0.293

Run 6:
Time = 23.85
Discharge = 4.19 × 10-4 m3/s

Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
U (m/s) 0.679 0.837 1.007 1.257 1.542 1.269 0.991 0.809 0.654
P/ρ g = h
0.331 0.319 0.3 0.266 0.214 0.254 0.28 0.291 0.302
(m)
u2/2g (m) 0.023 0.036 0.052 0.080 0.121 0.082 0.050 0.033 0.022
Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E 0.354 0.355 0.352 0.346 0.335 0.332 0.33 0.324 0.324
EXPECTED RESULTS

1. Do calculations and tabulate results as shown above for different runs, i.e. different flow
rates.
2. Plot a graph and observe the variation of total energy (y axis) across the piezometric points,
i.e. Plot the energy grade line with piezometric distance for each run.
3. Interpret the result obtained and present conclusions for the same.
4. Understand and explain the significance of the hydraulic grade line.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Ensure that the sump tank is filled with water before start-up.
2. Keep a periodic watch on the pump ensuring it runs smooth without getting hot.
3. Do not run the pump at low voltages. (Less than 180 V).
4. Never at any time fully close the Delivery line and By-pass line Valve simultaneously.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this experiment is to understand the concept of pressure and the various instruments
used for measuring the same.

The objectives of this experiment are:

1. To understand pressure, atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure, standard pressure

and vacuum
2. To understand the difference between absolute and gauge pressures
3. To study the working principle of various pressure measuring devices like Bourdon
gauge, diaphragm gauge, U-tube and inclined manometers, etc.
4. To convert gauge pressure into absolute pressure
5. To calculate pressure from the density and height of a column of fluid
6. To understand the concept of pressure gauge calibration

APPARATUS

Pressure test bench consisting of different pressure measuring devices (for measuring
pressure above and below atmospheric pressure)

UTILITIES

1. Air compressor with appropriate 3 phase electric supply for the same
2. Oil for hydraulic comparator
3. Vacuum pump with appropriate single-phase supply

THEORY

Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area. The SI unit of pressure is Pa or N/m 2. The
pressure at the bottom of a static (non-moving column of fluid is given by

where

P = the pressure at the bottom of the column of fluid

F = force
A = area
= fluid density
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of fluid column
Po = pressure at the top of the column of fluid

Pressure like temperature can be expressed by either absolute or relative scales. Whether
relative or absolute pressure is measured in a pressure-measuring device depends on the
nature of the instrument used to make the measurements. Gauge pressure is pressure
measured relative to atmospheric pressure while absolute pressure is pressure measured
relative to absolute zero or complete vacuum.

The pressure of air that surrounds us all the time is referred to as atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer and is also referred to as barometric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure must never be confused with standard atmospheric
pressure. The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure in a standard gravitational field (g
= 9.80665 m/s2) and is equivalent to 1 atmosphere or 760 mm of mercury or other equivalent
value, whereas atmospheric pressure must be obtained from a barometer each time it is
needed. The value of standard atmospheric pressure in SI units is 101325 Pa
(1 Pa = 1 N/m2).

Pressures are measured using pressure-measuring devices like manometers, pressure gauges,
pressure transducers etc. These devices can be used to measure pressures above and below
atmospheric, the latter referred to as negative pressure or vacuum. The values of gauge
pressures obtained from pressure measuring devices can be converted into absolute pressure
using the relation

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (for pressures above atmospheric)

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - gauge pressure (for pressures below atmospheric)

Several instruments are available for measuring pressure. In the case of a U-tube manometer, a
state of hydrostatic balance is reached wherein the manometric fluid is stabilized and the
pressure exerted at the bottom of the U-tube in the part of the tube open to the atmosphere or
vacuum exactly balances the pressure at the bottom of the U-tube in the part of tube
connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured. Another type of common
measuring device is the visual Bourdon gauge which normally (but not always) reads zero
pressure when open to the atmosphere. The pressure-sensing device in the Bourdon gauge is a
thin metal tube with an elliptical cross section head at one end that has been bent into an arc.
As the pressure increases at the open end of the tube, it tries to straighten out and the
movement of the tube is converted into a dial movement by gears and levers. Similarly, a
diaphragm gauge is used for measuring pressure of corrosive fluids.

PROCEDURE
Pressures above atmospheric: In this case emphasis is placed on understanding the working
principle of various instruments for measuring pressures above atmospheric pressure using a
pneumatic system. The pressure unit 2 (shown in figure below) has been provided with two
numbers gauge connection stations and one micro adjuster cylinder to raise or lower pressure
as required while maintaining the same above atmospheric pressure. The micro adjustor
cylinder is capable of generating adequate pressure for pressure gauges, manometers (if
needed without help of any external source)

Inclined
Manomete
r

0
Fine Adjusting Pressure
Screw Gauge Diaphragm Standard
Gauge Priming needle Gauge

U-Tube
Manomete
r

Pressure
adjusting Lever
To Compressor
Pressure unit 1
(Hydraulic)
Pressure unit 2
(Pneumatic)

Bourdon gauge

1. Start the air compressor.

2. Using the pressure regulator and valves (operate and release valves) provided for the
pneumatic comparator, control flow of air to the Bourdon gauge and read different
values of pressure from the gauge dial. Use the operating valve to allow air into the
gauge (to increase pressure). The release valve can be used to lower pressure reading
on the gauge.
3. Use the micro adjustor if needed to get the exact reading on the gauge.
4. Visually observe the working principle of the gauge.

U – tube manometer
1. Isolate the compressor before connecting the manometer to the gauge connection
provided for the same. To isolate the compressor, close all relevant valves which will stop
flow of air from the compressor to this section. In addition, before connecting the
manometer, ensure that the pressure levels at each gauge station is reduced to zero.
2. Manually using the micro adjustor varies pressure and for each value of pressure note the
difference in level of mercury in the limbs of the manometer.

Inclined manometer

1. Isolate the compressor before connecting the manometer to the gauge connection
provided for the same. To isolate the compressor, close all relevant valves which will stop
flow of air from the compressor to this section. In addition, before connecting the
manometer, ensure that the pressure levels at each gauge station is reduced to zero.
2. Carry out this test after disconnecting the U-tube manometer from the comparator.
3. Connect the inclined tube manometer and as in the case of the U-tube manometer,
manually using the micro adjustor vary pressure and for each value of pressure note the
height of fluid column in the manometer.

Pressures below atmospheric:

The unit for vacuum measurement contains two-gauge stations and one micro adjustor cylinder
to alter the amount of vacuum generated. The two-gauge stations are connected to a single
limb and U-tube manometer respectively. Start the vacuum pump and using the operating and
release valves, adjust the vacuum at each gauge station to a desired value. Read the dial gauge
and respective manometers. Repeat the experiment by altering the vacuum level at the
stations.
 Pressure measurement using hydraulic comparator

This system is provided to understand the concept of calibration and the function of a
diaphragm gauge.

1. Prime the system to ensure that no air is trapped within. Keeping the release valve open, rotate
the screw handle clockwise and anticlockwise several times until air stops coming out from the
oil cup. Lock the release valve at the end of the priming operation.
2. To start the experiment, rotate the screw slowly clockwise to generate the pressure required
and subsequently calibrate the instrument gauge using the master gauge provided.
3. Rotate the screw in anti-clockwise to release pressure.
4. Ensure full pressure release using the release wall.

5. Always keep the release valve closed to prevent repeated priming.

CALCULATIONS

1 kg/cm2 = 1 x 104 kg/m2

1 x 104 kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 x 104 Pa (because P = F/A= m x g/A)

1 atm pressure = 760 mmHg = 101325 Pa = Po

Where Pabs = absolute pressure

Po = atmospheric pressure
Pg = gauge pressure

For Standard Gauge:

First data = 20 kg/cm2

= 20×104 kg/m2
Corresponding Gauge Pressure (Pg) = 20*104 *9.81 Pa
= 19.65*105 Pa

Corresponding Absolute Pressure = Po + Pg

= 19.65*105 + 1.01325*105
= 20.66325*105 Pa
Same steps were followed for the remaining Data sets.
For Diaphragm Gauge:

First data = 7 kg/cm2

= 7×104 kg/m2
Corresponding Gauge Pressure (Pg) = 7*104 *9.81 Pa
= 6.867*105 Pa

Corresponding Absolute Pressure = Po + Pg

= 6.867*105 + 1.01325*105
= 78.8025*105 Pa
Same steps were followed for the remaining Data sets.

For Bourdon Gauge:

Gauge Pressure (Pg) = 100 mm of Hg = 13332.24 Pa

760 mm of Hg = 101325 Pa

100× 101325
100 mm of Hg = = 13332.24 Pa
760
Absolute Pressure (Pabs) = Po - Pg = 101325 - 13332.24
Pabs = 87992.76 Pa

For Single limb manometer:

Gauge Pressure (Pg) = 106 mm of Hg = 14132.17 Pa

760 mm of Hg = 101325 Pa

106× 101325
106 mm of Hg = = 14132.17 Pa
760
Absolute Pressure (Pabs) = Po - Pg = 101325 - 14132.17
Pabs = 87192.83 Pa

For the remaining data sets same steps were followed

DATA REDUCTION

(a) Hydraulic unit: (Here the gauge pressure is pressure above atmospheric)

Standard (Master) Gauge Diaphragm gauge

 kg/cm2 Pa (N/m2) Corresponding kg/cm2 Pa (N/m2) Corresponding absolute
absolute pressure pressure (Pa)
(Pa)
20 19.65*105 20.66325*105 7 6.867*105 78.8025*105
30 29.43*105 30.44325*105 15 14.715*105 15.72825*105
40 39.24*105 40.25325*105 26 25.506*105 26.51925*105
50 49.05*105 50.06325*105 34 33.354*105 34.36725*105
60 58.86*105 59.87325*105 46 45.126*105 46.13925*105

(B) Vacuum unit : (Here the gauge pressure is pressure below atmospheric)

Bourdon Gauge Single limb manometer

mmHg Pa (N/m2) Corresponding mm Hg Pa (N/m2) Corresponding absolute
absolute pressure pressure (Pa)
(Pa)
100 13332.24 87992.76 106 14132.17 87192.83
200 26664.47 74660.53 194 25864.54 75460.46
300 39996.71 61328.29 296 39463.42 61861.58
400 53328.95 47996.05 398 53062.30 48262.70
500 66661.18 34663.82 496 66127.89 35197.11
600 79993.42 21331.58 597 79593.45 21731.55

REQUIRED RESULTS

1) Measure the pressure difference using different instruments like Bourdon gauge,
mercury manometer, diaphragm gauge, and inclined manometer.
2) Convert the measured pressure into SI units then to absolute pressure.
3) Calibrate diaphragm gauge mounted on the hydraulic unit using master gauge.

TO LEARN MORE

1. Study construction of a Bourdon, diaphragm gauge.

2. Which is the more sensitive Bourdon gauge or mercury manometer?
3. How can you measure absolute pressure directly?

REFERENCE

McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

DISCUSSION

● Aaditi
There were two brief parts to the experiment that was performed. We verified
the working of Bernoulli's Theorem and further moved towards studying different
kinds of pressure measurement devices.

1. Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem: The objective of this experiment was

to find the velocity head, the pressure head(measured by height in the
manometer attached) and the elevation factor too. For this experiment,
throughout the pipe there was 0 elevation so eventually z=0 for all cases in
all runs. Then we found the discharge through the pipe by dividing the
volume by the time required to fill the particular tank. After finding Q, we
further calculated the velocity which would be the volumetric flow rate
divided by the area of cross section at that particular point. Then we add up
all the heads(velocity and pressure) to find the total energy and found that
this value is almost equal at all points throughout the pipe. Ideally, we
should have a straight line in a graph where the value of energy E is plotted
against the distance of the point from the reference head. Please refer to
the graph attached for conclusions.

2. Pressure Measurement: In this experiment we studied about various types

of instruments to measure pressure and we also learnt about some
important terms like Absolute Pressure, Atmospheric Pressure, Gauge
Pressure and Vacuum Pressure.
a. Pressure above atmospheric level: We study a U-tube Manometer,
an inclined manometer and a Bourdon-Gauge manometer. Among
the three, the most precise and accurate will be the inclined
manometer as we have a factor of sinθ in the equation to find
pressure. Here we had values of pressure in kg/cm2 so we converted
it to pascals first and then added the value of atmospheric pressure
which is 101325 Pascals.
b. Pressure below atmospheric level: Here we had two vacuum units to
measure pressure. A comparator was used to measure the pressure.
Here the units were in mmHg. We then converted these values to
 Pascals and subtracted the atmospheric pressure value which is
101325 Pascals.
c. Gauge Pressure: It is the amount by which pressure in a fluid is more
than that of atmospheric pressure.
d. Absolute Pressure: It is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure.
The concept of gauge, absolute and atmospheric pressure is easier to
understand with a picture.

In conclusion, Bernoulli’s theorem was verified correctly and we adhered to all

the calculations stated above. Please refer to the graph attached for future
reference.

● Deeksha

We did two experiments in this session:

1. Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem:

Here we used 9 piezometers open to atmospheric pressure. The area of the

piezometers were the same from the back and the end. Also, because of
the minimum cross sectional area in the 5th piezometer, the velocity was
very high due to which there was a generation of turbulence and the
pressure was much less than the atmospheric pressure. This is why we
 didn't get any readings in the 6th, 7th and the 8th piezometer until we used
the control valve to regulate the flow. Also as the area of the 1st point is
the same as that of the 9th point, the pressure should have been the same
which wasn't seen, it was mostly because point 9 was very far away and
because of turbulence the pressure had decreased by the time it reached
there.

We measured the flow rate required to reach a constant height of 0.1 m

and calculated the velocity at each point. The elevation was 0 as the tube
was kept horizontal. We finally calculated the total head and plotted the
graph of total head versus the distance of the piezometric point from the
start. It formed a slightly decreasing curve which could be because of the
minor losses because of the flow patterns.
Applications of Bernoulli Theorems can be seen in a Venturimeter,
Manometer and a Hydraulic Bench.

2. Pressure measurement devices:

Here we learned about different devices like Bourdon gauge and

Diaphragm gauge.
When pressure is applied to a Bourdon gauge (Vacuum unit), it tries to
straighten itself as it is a metal and the deflection gives us the
pressure.Here we have a hole whose closure is directly proportional to the
vacuum inside it and this is compared using a single limb manometer whose
least count is smaller than the least count of the Bourdon gauge. The
measurement had a parallax error because there wasn't any pattern seen in
the readings.

The Diaphragm gauge is the Hydraulic unit which has a thin cloth and the
deflection of the cloth is in the direction of the air flow. Here priming was
done. And in our experiment, it wasn't showing the readings along with the
master gauge which was because it wasn't calibrated properly so it showed
a calibration error.
 We calculated the absolute pressure in each case of Diaphragm gauge,
Master gauge, Bourdon gauge and the single limb manometer by
converting kg/cm2 and mm Hg to Pascal.

● Apeksha
In the first experiment we verified Bernoulli’s theorem experimentally and
observed the following points:
❏ When we open the valve fully and the flow rate is maximum then at 5th
piezometric tube, where the area is smallest and therefore velocity is
maximum and pressure is minimum, the atmospheric pressure becomes
greater than the pressure inside the tube and it creates suction because of
which the air fills the piezometric tube in place of water and we get no
pressure reading there and also because suction is created we experience
turbulence in the flow.
❏ As the water moves further to 6th, 7th and 8th piezometric tube the area
becomes larger and therefore the velocity decreases respectively and as
the flow is maximum and turbulence is there in the flow, no pressure
readings are observed at these points too.
❏ But at 9th point we get some reading because 9th tube is a little farther
away from the 5th tube because of which turbulence is being experienced
but according to continuity equation the pressure reading at 9th tube
should be approximately equal to reading at 1st tube but this is not the
case in maximum flow rate because of turbulence.

❏ Now when the flow rate is being controlled by the valve, we observed that
there is a very slight change in E (total energy) across the length of the
tube. The very slight change that we observed is generally because of the
minor losses as the flow pattern is changing and the area of the cross
section is also changing.
❏ Velocity is also varying because of varying cross section areas.
But overall, the continuity equation is being followed as the flow rate
decreases.

Application of Bernoulli’s equation:

 ❏ Airplane: The wings of an airplane are made such that the air passes at high
speed from above the surface as compared to the lower surface because of
which pressure difference is created and an upward force acts on the plane.
❏ Blowing of roof by wind storms: When a high-speed wind blows a pressure
difference between the upper and the lower surface of the roof due to
which blows off.
❏ Swinging of a cricket ball: The bowler continually polishes the ball so when
the ball is passed through the air the one side of the ball has higher
pressure than the other which results in pressure difference and leads to
ball rotating while travelling through air.

In the second experiment we calculated the pressure using different instruments

in vacuum unit (Bourdon gauge and Single limb manometer) and hydraulic unit
(Diaphragm gauge and Standard Gauge) and observed that:
❏ In the hydraulic unit, in the diaphragm gauge there is 15+ error because of
calibration error as it is not calibrated but standard gauge is.
❏ Here, the difference between the readings of diaphragm and standard
gauge is significant but it is constant in every set of reading.
❏ In the vacuum unit, no significant difference in measurement is observed
between the bourdon gauge and single limb manometer.
❏ The slight difference which is observed in the vacuum unit is because of the
parallax error because the difference is not constant for every set of
reading.

● Arya
In this session, we studied Bernoulli's theorem, verified it using a 9-
piezometric tube apparatus. We also studied the different types of pressure
measuring devices.

Bernoulli’s theorem:

The main objective of the experiment is verification of Bernoulli’s theorem.

In this experiment major and minor loss components are identified.

The overhead tank has to be filled and maintained at a constant height in

order to achieve a steady flow. The pressure is observed to be maximum
(velocity minimum) at the larger area of the cross-section and minimum at
the converged part. We observe that when we increase the flow rate
tremendously, air enters in through tube 5. This is because atmospheric
pressure exceeds pressure inside the tube and enters at the point of
minimum area. When we closed tube 5, air entered through the next
minimum is (tube 6) and so on. Potential Head (Z) is zero throughout by
virtue of the apparatus. Across point 1 to 9, the min area is at point 5. Thus,
as area decreases, the kinetic head increases upto tube 5 and again
decreases. Pressure head decreases with decrease in area and again starts
to increase from tube 6.

We calculated discharge, velocity head and pressure head in order to find

the value for E, thus verifying Bernoulli’s theorem. We can notice a slight
gradual change in E across length. This is due to the minor losses as flow
patterns change. Frictional losses can be neglected here as the length of the
pipe isn’t substantial.

All the graphs showed a steady decrease in the total head along the tube
length.

Pressure Measurement Devices:

Here, we studied the different types of pressures: Atmospheric pressure,

Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Vacuum Pressure. There were 2
different units: Hydraulic unit consisting of Diaphragm Gauge and Standard
Gauge, Vacuum Unit consisting of Single Limb Manometer and Bourdon
Gauge.

We also leant the following:

● In comparison to U-Tube manometer, Inclined manometer is more

sensitive as it has sin(theta) in formula so it has more precision than
U-Tube manometer.

● The Hydraulic unit was primed. The Diaphragm gauge reads out an
error of 13-15 units as it is not calibrated. But since the error is
constant, the relative difference for all sets remains constant.
● In the Vacuum unit, no significant difference in measurement is
observed between the bourdon gauge and single limb manometer.
The slight variation is due to parallax error.