WHAT IS COMPUTER?

✓ A computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result
(output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical
(arithmetic and logical) calculations.

✓ A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a

sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed
readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. ✓ Computers help make jobs
that used to be complicated much simpler. For example, a user can easily write letters in a word
processor and edit any portion of the letter anytime, spell check the letter, and move text from another
document into the letter, etc. This is just one of the millions of different things a computer is capable of
doing.

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

A Computer performs the following three operations in sequence. 1. It receives data & instructions from
the input device. 2. Processes the data as per instructions 3. Provides the result (output) in a desired
form Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. Example: Names of students and their
marks in different subjects listed in random order. Information: It is the data that is processed &
presented in an organized manner. Example: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical
order, total and average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information. Program:
Set of instructions that enable a computer to perform a given task. So, the computer system consists of
three units: 1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer:

Prograroil and data

Input unit

Storage Unit Secondary storage Primary storage Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit

Output unit

Result

Central Processing uni (CPU)

Basic Computer Organization

1. Input device: Reads information from input media and enters to the computer in a coded form AsCPU
a. Memory unit: Stores program and data b. Arithmetic Logic unit: Performs arithmetic and logical
functions c. Control Unit: Interprets program instructions and controls the input and output devices 3.
Output device: decodes information and presents it to the user Central Processing Unit: It is the part of
the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It is the unit that reads and
executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the brain of the computer. The CPU consists of
storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and control unit. a. Memory Unit: It is also known
as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program instructions, internal results and final
output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells
called storage locations. These cells activate with off-on or binary digits (0, 1) mechanism. Thus a
character either a letter or numerical digit is stored. as a string of (0, 1) Binary digits (BITS). These bits
are used to store instructions and data by their combinations. b. Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It is
the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true
false, male or female are performed. Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they
are held and transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes place. No process occurs in primary
storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later
time. Data may move from primary memory to ALU and back again to storage many times before the
process is finalized.

Control Unit – It acts as a Central Nervous System and ensures that the information is stored correctly
and the programs instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected from the
memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system.

. COMPUTER AS A SYSTEM

• A system is a group of integrated parts having a common purpose of achieving some objectives. • It
has the following characteristics: 1. A system has more than one element. 2. All the elements of the
system are related logically. 3. All system elements are controlled in a proper manner to achieve the
system goal. • As a computer has more than one components (like input unit, output unit, storage unit
and CPU), which work together to perform the steps called for in an executing program, it is a system. •
Input and output units cannot function until they accept signal from the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Similarly CPU or Storage unit Has no use in alone. • All the components of computer are controlled in a
proper manner to achieve the goal. • Consequently, we refer to a computer as a system.

All of the components of a computer system can be summarized with the simple equations. Computer
System = Hardware + Software+ User • Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices ✓ Hardware
refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case and everything inside it.
• Software = Programs ✓ Software gives "intelligence" to the computer. ✓ Computer software, or just
software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling a
computer what to, do and how to do it. ✓ In other words, software is a conceptual entity which is a set
of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation concerned with the operation of a
data processing system. • User = Person, who operates computer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

i. Automatic (Spontaneous) The computers are automatic. It may execute the process without any
involvement of user once they are assigned to a work. Once the data or instruction are fetched from the
secondary devices such as optical disks, hard disks etc Immediately they get stored into RAM (primary
memory) and then sequentially they get executed. ii. Accuracy (Authenticity)

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calcul with the same accuracy. The accuracy
level is determined on t of computer. iii. Speed (Celerity) As yoVidiow computer can work very fast. It t
calyiations that we take hours to complete. Corn y1,000,000) of instructions and even more per seco the
modern world has the speed of Nano and Pico 1 milli second = 1 x10-3 second 1 micro second = 1 x 10-6
second 1 nano second = 1 x10-9 second 1 pico second = 1 x10-12 second iv. Diligence (Attentiveness) A
computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, e, etc. It can work for hours without creating any
error. If millions of calculation re to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the
same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work. v. Memory
(Storehouse) A computer can store huge amount of data / information and retrieve any piece of this
information whenever required. Secondary storage devices are the key for the data storage. They store
the data for which the user wants to retrieve these data for future use. The examples for various
secondary devices are Floppy disk, Optical disks (CD and DVD), Zip drives, Thumb drives etc. The data of
smaller size can be easily fetched and they can be copied to the primary memory (RAM). vi. Reliability
(Consistency) A computer is reliable, dependent and can be run for many years without loss of data. vii.
Versatility (Adaptability) It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or
to prepare electric bills.

viii. No I.Q.

A•computer cannot take its own decisions, and has to be instructed what to do and in what sequence. It
has no I.Q. For this reason, only a user determines what takes a coniputer will execute. ix. No feelings A
computer cannot male judgments based on feelings and instincts, because it is a machine. It is devoid of
emotions. A Computer has memory but no computer possesses the equivalent of a human heart and
soul. It makes judgments based on the instructions given to them in the fin, of programs that are written
by human being.

TYPES OF COMPUTER BASED ON ELECTRONIC SIGNAL

• Differences in certain computer characteristics have led to the development of major computer
classifications based on the type of eleAtonic signal and memory size. • Computers, in general are of
three types as per the electronic sigh they transmit. 1. Analog Computers 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybrid
Computers
1.7.1 Analog Computer • Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of
valties\ • The results given by the analog computers will only be approximate since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously. • It generally deals with physical variables such as voltage, pressure,
temperature, speed, etc. An analog computer operates on inputs of continuously varying electrical
voltages.lAn example of the use of an electronic analog computer is that of controlling a flight simulator
for training pilots. The computer responds to the cockpit simulator control movements made by the
pilot and makes physical changes in the environment so that the pilot feels as if he is controlling an
actual aeroplane. • Analog computers are used mainly in scientific design and production environments.
Each one has to be constructed to do a specific job and will respond very quickly to changes in the
measurement of inputs. 1.7.2 Digital Computer • On the other hand a digital computeroperates on
digital data such as numbers. 4 uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1.
Each one is called a bit. • The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two
level's for an input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital Computers
can give more accurate and faster results.

• Digital computer is well suited for solving complex problems in engineering and technology. Hence
digital computers have an increasing use in the field of design, research and data processing. • Based on
the purpose, Digital computers can be further classified as, 1. General Purpose Computers - General
purpose computers are used for any type of applications. They can store different programs and do the
jobs as per the instructions specified on those programs.1Most of the computers that we see today are
general purpose computers. 2. Special Purpose CompuVrs - Special purpose computer is one that is built
for a specific application. 1.7.3 Hybrid Computers • Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit
features of analog computers and digital computes. /The digital component normally serves as the
controller and provides logical operationsiewhile the analog component normally serves as a solver of
differential equations. • It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes
and machines. Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming
the data into suitable form for either type of computation. • This type of computer operates by counting
as well as by measuring. In other words, the output can be either in the form of numbers or required
units of measurement, e.g., an analog device measures patient's heart beat (ECG). These measures will
be converted into digital form and a digital device checks for any abnormality. Further, we can also input
digital data like your marks and get digital results like the result of your cla s. Another example is a
Modem. (Which converts the digital signals into analog, ca it along the line and at the receiving end
again changes it back into digital signal) TYPES OF COMPUTER BASED ON\CONFIGURATION AND SIZE •
There are four different types of comp ers when we classify them based on their performance, capacity
and size. • These are, I. Super Computers 2. Mainframe Computers 3. Mini Computers 4. Micro
Computers 1.8.1 Super Computers • A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense
numerical calculations such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical
astrophysics, and complex scientific computations. • A supercomputer is a computer that is at the
frontline of rrent processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
• The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to
become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. • Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in
floating point operations per second or FLOPS. An example of a floating point operation is the
calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory
size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers
are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction
processing. Examples of Super Computer PARAM 8000, Cray-1, PARAM Yuva, EKA, SAGA-220, IBM
Roadrunner, Cray Jaguar, Tianhe-IA, Fujitsu K computer, IBM Sequoia

• Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at
Control Data Corporation (CDC), and later at Cray Research. While the supercomputers of the 1970s
used only a few processors, in the 1990s, machines with thousands of processors began to appear and
by the end of the 20th century, massively parallel supercomputers with tens of thousands of "off-the-
shelf" processors were the norm. • Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of
two paths: in one approach, e.g. in grid computing the processing power of a large number of computes
in distributed, diverse administrative domains, is opportunistically used whenever a computer is
available. In another approach, a large number of processors are used in close proximity to each other,
e.g. in a computer cluster. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging
direction. As of June 2012, IBM Sequoia is the fastest in the world. • India's supercomputer program was
started in late 1980s because Cray supercomputers were denied for import due to an arms embargo
imposed on India, as it was a dual use technology and could be used for developing nuclear weapons. •
PARAM 8000 is considered India's first supercomputer. It was indigenously built in 1990 by Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing and was replicated and installed at ICAD Moscow in 1991 under
Russian collaboration. • As of June 2012, India has 5 systems on the Top500 list ranking 58, 86, 129, 224
and 380.

1.8.2 Mainframe Computers • Mainframe computers (referred to as "big iron") are powerful computers
used primarily by corporate and governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk data
processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and
transaction processing. • A mainframe computer is a large, powerful computer that handles the
processing for many users simultaneously (up to several hundred users).

• The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to
become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. • Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in
floating point operations per second or FLOPS. An example of a floating point operation is the
calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory
size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers
are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction
processing. Examples of Super Computer PARAM 8000, Cray-1, PARAM Yuva, EKA, SAGA-220, IBM
Roadrunner, Cray Jaguar, Tianhe-IA, Fujitsu K computer, IBM Sequoia

• Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at
Control Data Corporation (CDC), and later at Cray Research. While the supercomputers of the 1970s
used only a few processors, in the 1990s, machines with thousands of processors began to appear and
by the end of the 20th century, massively parallel supercomputers with tens of thousands of "off-the-
shelf" processors were the norm. • Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of
two paths: in one approach, e.g. in grid computing the processing power of a large number of computes
in distributed, diverse administrative domains, is opportunistically used whenever a computer is
available. In another approach, a large number of processors are used in close proximity to each other,
e.g. in a computer cluster. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging
direction. As of June 2012, IBM Sequoia is the fastest in the world. • India's supercomputer program was
started in late 1980s because Cray supercomputers were denied for import due to an arms embargo
imposed on India, as it was a dual use technology and could be used for developing nuclear weapons. •
PARAM 8000 is considered India's first supercomputer. It was indigenously built in 1990 by Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing and was replicated and installed at ICAD Moscow in 1991 under
Russian collaboration. • As of June 2012, India has 5 systems on the Top500 list ranking 58, 86, 129, 224
and 380.

1.8.2 Mainframe Computers • Mainframe computers (referred to as "big iron") are powerful computers
used primarily by corporate and governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk data
processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and
transaction processing. • A mainframe computer is a large, powerful computer that handles the
processing for many users simultaneously (up to several hundred users).

12 I Computer Application

• They are often called personal computers because they are designed to be used by one person at a
time. Personal computers are the most common type of computers used at home, at school, or at
workplace. • Popular uses for microcomputers include word processing, surfing the web, sending and
receiving e-mail, spreadsheet calculations, database management, editing photographs, creating
graphics, and playing music or games. Examples of Micro Computer Desktop Computer, Laptop,
Notebook, Tablet computer, Smartphone, Palmtop, Handheld Computer / PDA (Personal Digital
Assistant)

COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTION

.1.1 Pi, DES( RI PTION Server . Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a
service. For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File
servers" manage a large collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web
applications. Many smaller servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to
providing services for other computers. Workstations Workstations are computers that are intended to
serve one user and may contain special hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.
Informationappliances Information appliances are computers specially designed to , perform a specific
user-friendly function —such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is most commonly
applied to mobile devices, though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class. Embedded
computers Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded
computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to
operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common.

PERSONAL COMPUTER — (PC)

• A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and original sales
price make it useful for individuals. • It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. • Software applications for personal computers include, but are not
limited to, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, Web browsers and e-mail clients, digital media
playback, games, and countless personal productivity and special-purpose software applications.

Fundamentals of Computer

13

• Modern personal computers often have connections to the Internet, allowing access to the World
Wide Web and a wide range of other resources. Personal computers may be connected to a local area
network (LAN), either by a cable or a wireless connection. • A personal computer may be a desktop
computer or a laptop, tablet, or a handheld PC.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

✓ Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are supercomputers, very large
computers with thousands of linked microprocessors that perform extremely complex calculations. At
the other end are tiny computers embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems, calculators, and appliances.
These computers are built to perform a limited number of tasks. ✓ The personal computer, or PC, is
designed to be used by erson at a time. This section describes the various kinds of personal co esktop,
Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, Handheld Computer, Smartpho t PCs. 1.11.1 Desktop computer ✓
Desktop computers are designed for use at the ✓ They are typically larger and more powerful than
computers.
✓ Desktop computers are made up of separate components. The main component, called the system
unit, is usually a rectangular case that sits on or underneath a desk. Other components, such as the
monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the system unit.

1.11.2 Laptop, Notebook & Ultrabook • Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen.
Laptops can operate on batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops, laptops combine
the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds down onto the keyboard when not in
use. • Small notebooks PCs are 1, affordable laptops that are designe , to perform a • limited number of
tasks. The ' e usually, less powerful than a laptop, so they us d mainly to browse the web and check e ail.

Laptop

• Difference betv■ een Laptop computers are larger than Notebook corn outers. Laptop • and Notebook
Notebook computers are smaller than La . to . computers. • It has optical drives, USB ports. • It does not
have optical drives,. but instead provides communication ports (like USB ports) so that an external drive
can be connected. • It is thicker than notebook. • It is thinner than la .to.. • It is expensive than
notebook. • It is cheaper than laptop.

An Ultrabook is a computer in a category of higher-end thin and lightweight ultraportable laptops,

defined by a specification from Intel. The name Ultrabook is an Intel trademark. Because of their
minimal size, the ability to have many ports (USB, HDMI, VGA, Ethernet, etc) is limited.

1.11.3 Handheld PC / Palmtop / PDA Palmtop - A small computer that literally fits in your palm Handheld
computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are battery-powered computers small enough
to carry almost anywhere. Although not as powerful as desktops or laptops, handheld computers are
useful for scheduling appointments, storing addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some
have more advanced capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the Internet. Instead of
keyboards, handheld computers have touch screens that you use with your finger or a stylus (a pen-
shaped pointing tool). 1.11.4 Tablet PC A tablet computer, or a tablet, is a mobile computer, larger than
a mobile phone or personal digital assistant, integrated into a flat touch screen and primarily operated
by touching the screen rather than using a physical keyboard. It often uses an onscreen virtual keyboard,
a passive stylus pen, or a digital pen. Some Tablet PCs are "convertibles" with a screen that swivels and
unfolds to reveal a keyboard underneath.

BASIC PART OF A DESKTOP COMPUTER

I f you use a called the "corn The physical pa (Software, on the what to do.)

► System Unit or Computer case 10. Monitor (LCD monitor)

40-70. Mouse Keyboard Basic parts of a Desktop Computer top computer, you might already know that
there isn't any single part uter." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. s, which
you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. ther harid, refers to the instructions, or
programs, that tell the hardware

The following illus ation shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system
might ook a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has simila parts
but combines them into a si e, n i tebook-sized package.

• Monitor • Keyboard • Mouse • System Unit ➢ Front-side o he System Unit • CD/DVD • Floppy Driv •
Sockets for sp • USB ports • Restart Switch • Turn on Switch ➢ Inside of the System Unit • Motherboard
• CPU • Hard-disk • RAM • ROM • Floppy disk drive, CD and D • Graphics • SMPS / Power Supply

ROM drive

➢ Back-side of the System Unit / Ports of the System Unit • Power on socket • Power out socket •
Sockets for speaker and microphone • USB ports • - Keyboard connector socket • Mouse connector
socket

MOnitor A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the
monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen
can show still or moving pictures.

CRT monitor (Left), LCD monitor (Middle), LED monitor (Right) Keyboard • The computer keyboard is
used to enter text information into the computer, as when you type the contents of a report. • The
keyboard can also be used to type commands directing the computer to perform certain actions.,, •
Commands are typically chosen from an on-screen menu using a mouse, but there are often keyboard
shortcuts for giving these same commands. • In addition to the keys of the main keyboard (used for
typing text), keyboards usually also have a numeric keypad (for entering numerical data efficiently), a
bank of editing keys (used in text editing operations), and a row of function keys along the top (to easily
invoke certain program functions).

0113111011

1:111111121:11

Oil LI 111111111111111A111111 II ill ill 4). in mill 611111111111111111611 SI

F1O

F71

ES

c==1 mom Lock

C=3 cock. Lock

r=St Lod,

Keyboard

Mouse

• In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion

relative to its supporting surface. • • A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your
computer screen. • Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual
mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some
newer mice are wireless.

A mouse usually has two b secondary button. Many m allows you to scroll smooth

on ce also throug

A primary button (usually t ave a wheel betwe ormatio

System Unit / Computer case — ( ront- *de, In-side & B

A computer case/system unit is the enclosure hat contains th computer. Cases are usually constructed
from ste 1 or aluminum such as wood and plastic have been used. Case can come in form factors. The
size and shape of a computer case is usually factor of the motherboard that it is designed to
accommodate, sin and most central component of most computers.

k-side)

Mouse

ain comp al ough of y dif erm.

The system unit is the core of a computer system. on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are
information. The most important of these (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts s component is random
access memo (RA that the CPU uses while the compu r is on. when the computer is turned off.

tton) and a ns, which

nents of a er materials rent sizes, or ed by the form his is the largest

Usually it's a rectangular box placed y electronic components that process nents is the central
processing unit `brain" of your computer. Another hich temporarily stores information information
stored in RAM is erased

System Unit Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

Front-side of the System Unit

►CD/DVD Drive Open. Button Floppy Drive open Button 11■Sockets for Speaker & Microphone

Inside of the System Unit Motherboard The motherboard, also referred to as system-board or
mainboard, is the primary circuit board within a personal computer. A motherboard is the central
printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial -components of
the system, providing connectors for other peripherals.

► USB ports • Restart Button Turn on/off Button

Motherboard
CPU - Central Processing Unit The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is that part of a computer which
executes software program instructions. CPU is known as the Brain of the Computer. All the
computations are really performed by Central Processing Unit (CPU). RAM - Random access memory

I 1. as tcs • IMMIll 11111111111111111 1111111111WM11111111111111111 •

RAM is known as Primary Storage/Memory. Random access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data
storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow

Fundamentals of Computer 19

stored data to be accessed in any order with a worst case performance of constant time.

ROM BIOS Chip - Read-Only Memory Basic Input Output System Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of
storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices. ROM chips contain data, instructions
or information that is recorded permanently. ROM contains the basic input/output system, which is a
structure of instructions the computer follows to load the operating system and other files when you
first turn on the computer. Hard-disk Drive A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive, hard disk, or disk
drive) is a device for storing and retrieving digital information, primarily computer data. It consists of
one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating discs (often referred to as platters), coated with
magnetic material and with magnetic heads arranged to write data to the surfaces and read it from
them. Hard disks are meant for secondary storage. Floppy disk drive Floppy disk drives store information
on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only
a small amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For
these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to be, although some computers still
include them.

Floppy disk drive (left) and Floppy disk (Right) CD (Compact Disc) / DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) drive
Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the
system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD; many CD drives can also write
(record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank
CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

DVD drive (Left) and DVD (Right)

20 I Computer Application

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive, you can watch
movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.

Graphics Card The graphics card is also called as video card, graphics adapter or video adapter -
processes and renders the graphics output from the computer to the computer display, and is an
essential part of the modern computer. SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) / Power Supply A SMPS
converts the AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) that a computer can use. Overheating of the
parts inside the System Unit is barred by the fan inside the SMPS / Power Supply. Back-side of the
System Unit / Ports of the System Unit In computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between the
cbmputer and computers or peripheral devices. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of
equipment to which a plug or cable connects. Electronically, the several conductors making up the
outlet provide a signal transfer between devices. The term 'port' is derived from a Latin word 'porta'
(gate, entrance, and door).

other

Power Supply.port Keyboard port Mouse port Serial Port Printer port (Parallel) Video Port USB Port
Phone/ Modem/ Ethernet

Audio Ports Slots for Add-in Cards

CHAPTER
2

HISTORY AND GENERATION OF COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION

A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. This term is also used
in the different advancements of computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has
gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. So, the state of improvement
in the development of a computer is called as Generation of computer. yAs a result of the
miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers have proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play. The development
of computers started with mechanical and electromechanical devices (17th through 19th century) and
has progressed through five generations of computers. MECHANICAL DEVICES

The abacus was the first mechanical calculating machine that could count numbers and do arithmetic. It
is also called a counting frame.is a calculating tool used primarily in parts of Asia for performing
arithmetic processes. It consists of a number of rods with beads to represent numbers. Calculations on
the abacus are done by sliding these beads across the rods. /

1.41.1,1 a in years to come.

2.9 CONCEPT TABLE MAP OF GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Generation Key , tech nologies Characteristics Example First Generation Computer (1940-1956) Vacuum
Tubes • The computers of this generation used vacuum tubes. • These computers used machine
language for giving instructions. • They used the concept of stored program. • These computers were
very big in size. The ENIAC machine was 30 x 50 feet in size and 30 tons in weight. So, these machines
required very large space for their workings. • Their power consumption was very high. • These
computers had slow operating speed and small computing capacity. • These computers had a very small
memory. UNIVAC, ENIAC, ABC Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) Transistors • The computers
of this generation replaced vacuum tubes with transistors. • Magnetic cores were invented for storage.
• Different magnetic storage devices were developed in this generation. • Commercial applications were
developed during this period. Eighty percent of these computers were used in business and industries.
IBM 700, IBM 650, 1401, ATLAS, ICL 1901
r

CHAPTER

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

INTRODUCTION

• The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world. Input / Output
devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. • In simple terms, input devices bring
information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. •
These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a
computer system. IPO CYCLE

• A computer is a machine that works on the principle of IPO cycle. • In IPO cycle, data and instructions
are entered. They are processed, stored and finally the result is given out. 1. Instructions and commands
given to the computer are called Inputs or data. 2. A computer accepts, examines and calculates the
result. This is called processing. 3. The result given by the computer after processing is called output.
This can be understood in the following way:

The computer takes in data and instructions which we feed into it using input devices such as a
keyboard and mouse.

Input

--■

It processes and stores the instructions we feed into it using the CPU.

"1 Processing I IPO cycle map

Then it gives the result using output devices such as a monitor and printer.

Output

{:112(313
INPUT DEVICES

• Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices. • An input
device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer. Some important Input devices are listed
below: Keyboard Mouse 3. Trackball 4. Joystick 5. Light Pen 6. Touch pad %.."7: Touch Screen Scanner
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) . Bar Code Reader Magnetic-ink
Character Recognition (MICR) -4-3. Microphone Webcam Keyboard ✓ The computer keyboard is used
to enter text information into the computer, as when you type the contents of a report. ✓ The most
popular keyboard used today is the QWERTYkeyboard having normally

4.

9. 3.

Keyboard The keyboard can also be used to type commands directing the computer to perform certain
actions. Commands are typically chosen from an on-screen menu using a mouse, but there are often
keyboard shortcuts for giving these same commands.

38 I Computer Application

✓ In addition to the keys of the main keyboard (used for typing text), keyboards usually also have a
numeric keypad (for entering numerical data efficiently), a bank of editing keys (used in text editing
operations), and a row of function keys along the top (to easily invoke certain program functions). ✓
Laptop computers, which don't have room for large keyboards, often include a "fn" key so that other
keys can perform double duty (such as having a numeric keypad function embedded within the main
keyboard keys). ✓ Most keyboards attach to the PC via a PS/2 connector or USB port (newer). The keys
on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function: • Typing (alphanumeric) keys-
These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional
typewriter. • Control keys- These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo key, and Esc. •
Function keys- The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labelled as F 1, F2, F3, and
so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
• Navigation keys- These keys are used for moving around in documents or WebPages and editing text.
They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down, Delete, and Insert. • Numeric keypad-
The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are grouped together in a block like
a conventional calculator or adding machine. Mouse • In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that
functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. • A mouse is a small
device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. • The mouse's motion typically
translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user
interface (GUI).

A computer mouse with the most common standard features: two buttons and a scroll wheel, which can
also act as a third button.

Input and Output Devices I 39

Mechanical Mouse / Ball Mouse . A mechanical mouse has a ball inside it that partially projects out
through an operating in its base. It is also called as Ball Mouse. The ball mouse has two freely rotating
rollers. They are located 90 degrees apart. One roller detects the forward—backward motion of the
mouse and other the left—right motion. Optical Mouse & Laser Optical mouse make use of one or more
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface, rattier than internal moving parts as does a mechanical mouse. A laser mouse is an
optical mouse that uses coherent (laser) light. Wireless Mouse & USB Cordless or wireless mice transmit
data via infrared radiation or radio (including Bluetooth). The receiver is connected to the computer
through a serial or USB port, or can be built in (as is sometimes the case with Bluetooth). Modem non-
Bluetooth wireless mice use USB receivers. The industry-standard USB (Universal Serial Bus) protocol
and its connector have become widely used for mice; it's currently among the most popular types.

• A mouse usually has three buttons: Mouse 1- Primary button (Left button), Mouse 2 - Secondary
button (Right button), Mouse 3 - Mouse scroll button (Mouse wheel button)

110. Mouse button 1 /Left Click Mouse Wheel/Mouse button 3 ►. Mouse button 2 /Right Click

• You will use the primary button most often. Mouse also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to
help you scroll through documents and WebPages more easily. On some mouse, the scroll wheel can be
pressed to act as a third button. • When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen
moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's
positioned on your screen.)
Mouse pointers

40 Computer Application

• When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and

release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main

way to interact with your computer.

Trackball

• The trackball is sort of like an upside-down mouse, with the ball located on top.

• You use your fingers to roll the trackball, and internal rollers (similar to what's

inside a mouse) sense the motion which is transmitted to the computer.

• Trackballs have the advantage over mice in that the body of the trackball remains

stationary on your desk, so you don't need as much room to use the trackball.

• Trackball is a ideal device for CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design / Computer

Aided Manufacturing) applications, Click buttons

because a designer can move the

graphics cursor with hand movements

only without any movement of

equipment. This is more appropriate Roller ball

to the style of working of designers

 and makes it easier for them to work

on large drawings.

Trackball

• Early laptop computers often used

trackballs (before. superior touch pads came along).

Joystick

• A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that

pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to

the device it is controlling.

• A joystick, also known as•the control column, is the

principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian

and military aircraft, either as a centre stick or side-

stick. It often has supplementary switches to control

various aspects of the aircraft's flight. Joystick

Light Pen

• A light pen, also called a selector pen, is a computer input device in the form of a

light-sensitive wand used in conjunction with a computer's displaY;

• It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar

way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy.

• Light pen uses a photoelectric (light sensitive) cell and optical lens mounted in a

pen shaped case.

• The light sensitive cell and optical lens congregation is in such a way that it focuses

on to it any light in its field of view.

• Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens

to directly draw on screen.

Teed pad

• Most laptop computers today have a touch pad pointing device. You can move the

on•acreen cursor by sliding your finger along the

ourlitet, of the touch pad. The buttons are located

below the pad, but most touch pads allow you to

porlbrm "mouse clicks" by tapping on the pad

• Touch pads have the advantage over mice that

they take up much less room to use. They have

the advantage over trackballs (which were used

on early laptops) that there are no moving parts to Laptop touch pad

get dirty and result in jumpy cursor control.

'Pouch Screen

A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and

location of a touch within the display area.

• The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with a finger or

hand. Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. Touch

screens are common in devices such as

game consoles, all-in-one computers, tablet

computers, and smart phones.

• The touch screen has two main attributes.

First, it enables one to interact directly with

what is displayed, rather than indirectly with

a pointer controlled by a mouse or touchpad.

 Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring

any intermediate device that would need to

be held in the hand (other than a stylus, which

is optional for most modern touch screens). Touchscreen computer monitor

• Such displays can be attached to computers,

or to networks as terminals.

' • They also play a important role in the design of digital appliances such as the personal

digital assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices, mobile phones, ATM machine

and video games.

Scanner

In computing, an image scanner often

abbreviated to just scanner is a device that

optically scans images, printed text,

handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a

digital image.

Flatbed Scanner

2 Computer Application

Flatbed Scanner

• A flatbed scanner is usually composed of a glass pane (or platen), under whi

there is a bright light (often xenon or cold cathode fluorescent).

• To scan a document, a user has to place it upside down on the glass plate. A brig

light below the glass plate moves horizontally from one end to another when activat
Hand-held Scanner

• Hand scanners come in two forms: document and

3D scanners. Hand held document scanners are

manual devices that are dragged across the surface

of the image to be scanned.

• Scanning documents in this manner requires a steady

hand, as an uneven scanning rate would produce

distorted images - a little light on the scanner would

indicate if the motion was too fast.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Hand-held Scanner

• Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to

OCR, is the n—rhanical or electronic conversion of scanned images of handwritten,

typewritten or p-inted text into machine-encoded text.

• OCR is widely used as a form oc '1,ta entry from some sort of original paper data

source, wl3etner documents, — snail, or any number of printed records.

• It is a common method of digitizing printed texts so that they can be electronically

searched, stored more compactly, displayed on-line, and used in machine processes

such as machine translation, text-to-speech and text mining. OCR is a field of

research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and computer vision.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

• Optical mark recognition (also called optical mark reading and OMR) is the process

of capturing human-marked (for example - Pen or Pencil mark) data from document

forms such as surveys and tests.

• The method used by an OMR device for recognition of marks on a document

involves focusing a light beam on the document and detecting the reflected light
 pattern from the marks (for example - Pen or Pencil mark).

Barcode reader

• A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is

an electronic device for reading printed

barcodes.

• Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light

source, a lens and a light sensor translating

optical impulses into electrical ones.

Barcode Reader (Left) : Barcode (Right)

Input and Output Devices I 43

Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing the

barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to

the scanner's output port.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, or MICR, is a character recognition technology

used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of cheque and

makes up the routing number and account number at the bottom of a cheque.

• The technology allows computers to read information (such as account numbers)

off printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however, MICR

codes can be easily read by humans.•

• MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner,

usually containing iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first
 magnetizes the characters in the plane of the paper. Then the characters are passed

over a MICR read head, a device similar to the playback head of a tape recorder. As

each character passes over the head it produces a unique waveform that can be

easily identified by the system.

Microphone

• The "Microphones - Speech Recognition" is a speech Input device.

• A microphone can be attached to a computer to record sound (usually through a

sound card input or circuitry built into the motherboard).

• To operate it we require using a microphone to talk to the computer. Also we need

to add a sound card to the computer. The sound is digitized—turned into numbers

that represent the original analog sound waves—and stored in the computer to later

processing and playback.

Webcam

A webcam is a video camera that feeds its images in real

time to a computer or computer network, often via USB,

lithernet, or Wi-Fi.

Their most popular use is the establishment of video links,

permitting computers to act as videophones or

videoconference stations. This common use as a video camera

for the World Wide Web gave the webcam its name. Other

popular uses include security surveillance and computer

vision and there are also uses on sites like video broadcasting

services and for recording social videos.

OUTPUT DEVICES

• Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an

 Output device.

• Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the

desired form.

44 Computer Application

Some important. Output devices are listed below:

1. Monitor

2. Printer

3. Plotter

4. Screen Image Projector

5. Sound card & Computer Speakers

Monitor

• A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics.

• A monitor or display (also called screen or visual display unit) is an electronic visu

display for computers.

• The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The display

device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display

(TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as

deep as the screen size.

Basic types of monitors:

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors

2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitors

 3. LED(Light-Emitting Diode) monitors

CRT monitor (Left), LCD monitor (Middle), LED monitor ,(Right)

=Mlfr

CRT (Cathode Ray The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRT).

Tube) monitors It is bigger and heavier than LCD & LED monitors. It is a

non-portable Computer monitor.

LCD (Liquid Crystal LCD monitors is much thinner and lighter than CRT

Display) monitors monitor. It produces sharp images. It is a portable

Computer monitor.

LED(Light-Emitting Light-emitting diode (LED) monitors provide higher

Diode) monitors contrast and better viewing angles than LCDs. It produces

sharp images. It is a portable Computer monitor.

 Input and Output Devices I 45

Printer

A printer is a peripheral which produces a text or graphics -of documents stored in

iloctronie form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many

printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in

most new printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document source.

Some printers, commonly known as network printers, have built-in network interfaces,

typically wireless or Ethernet based, and can serve as a hard copy device for any user

on the network. Individual printers are often designed to support both local and network

connected users at the same time.

Dot-matrix printers

In the general sense many printers rely on a

matrix of pixels, or dots, that together form the

larger image. However, the term dot matrix

printer is specifically used for impact printers

that use a matrix of small pins to create precise

dots. }The advantage of dot-matrix over other

impact printers is that they can produce

graphical images in addition to text; however

Abe text is generally of poorer quality than

impact printers that use letterforms (type):Dot-matrix Printer

Inkjet printer

An inkjet printer is a type of computer printer

that creates a digital image by propelling

droplets of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers are

the most commonly used type of printer and

rage from small inexpensive consumer models

to very large professional machines that can cost

tens of thousands of dollars.

Laser printer

A laser printer is a common computer peripheral

that rapidly produces high quality text and

graphics on plain paper. As with digital

photocopiers and multifunction printers

(MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic

printing process, but differ from analog

photocopiers in that the image is produced by

the direct scanning of a laser beam across the

printer's photoreceptor. Laser printer

Line printer

The line printer is a form of high speed impact printer in which one line of type is printed at a time. They
are mostly associated with the early days of computing, but the technology is still in use. Print speeds of
600 to 1200 lines-per-minute (approximately 10' to-20 pages per minute) were common.

Plotter

A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. That is, the plotter
is a graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and three-dimensional graphics as
well as high-quality coloured documents. It can also produce larger size of documents.

It interprets computer commands and makes line drawings on paper using multicoloured
automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc. Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with a series of lines. There are
two main types of plotters:

1. Drum Plotter: This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to produce
plots. Pens in a drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A drum plotter is
usually used to produce smaller drawings.
2. Flatbed Plotter: This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter draws
graphics on the paper placed on the bed. There are several size of beds. This plotter is usually used
for producing large drawings.

Input and Output Devices I 47

run Image Projector

An image projector is an optical device that projects an image (or moving images)

onto a surface, commonly a projection screen. It is an output device.

Most projectors create an image by shining a light through a small transparent

Image, but some newer types of projectors can

 project the image directly, by using lasers. A virtual

retinal display, or retinal projector, is a projector

that projects an image directly on the retina instead

of using an external projection screen.

• l'he most common type of projector used today is

called a video projector. Video projectors are

digital replacements for earlier types of projectors

such as slide projectors and overhead projectors.Screen Image Projector

Bound card & Computer Speakers

• Computers also produce sound output, ranging from simple beeps alerting the user,

to impressive game sound effects, to concert quality music. The circuitry to produce

sound may be included on the motherboard, but high

quality audio output from a PC usually requires a

sound card in one of the expansion slots, connected

to a set of good quality external speakers or

headphones.

• Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are

speakers external to a computer that disable the

lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a

low-power internal amplifier. The standard audio Computer Speakers

connection is a 3.5 mm (approximately 1/8 inch)

stereo jack plugs often colour-coded lime green for computer sound cards.
 CHAPTER

r..rittl

COMPUTER MEMORY

I N'I'RODUCTION TO COMPUTER MEMORY

• Computer memory refers to the physical devices used to store pro rams (sequences

of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent

basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.

• The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which

are fast (i.e. RAM).

• The term Secondary memory is physical device for program and data storage which

are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity.

• Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory".

Computer Memory

Main / Primaty Memory Mass / Secondary Memory

RAM ROM • Magnetic media

[ SRAM PROM Optical media

DRAM EPROM Solid-state memory

EEPROM UVEPROM
 Types of computer memory

50 I Computer Application

• The term "storage" is often (but not always) used in separate computed of traditional

secondary memory such as tape, magnetic disks and optical discs (CD-ROM and

DVD-ROM). The term "memory" is often (but not always) associated with

addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-

based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in

computers and other digital electronic devices.

• There are two main types of semiconductor memory: Volatile and Non-volatile.

• Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored

information. Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically

 dynamic RAM, D,RAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM,

SPAM, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity

per area unit than DRAM). •

• Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information

even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only

memory (ROM), flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices

(e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and magnetic tape), and optical discs.

CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA

Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer. Any

storage unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following criteria:

1. Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the
 storage unit in response to program instructions.

2. Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

3. Cost per bit of storage.

UNITS OF COMPUTER MEMORY MEASUREMENT

The basic unit used in computer data storage is 1 bit Binary digit

called a bit (binary digit). Computers use these 8 bits 1 byte

little bits, which are composed of ones and 1024 bytes 1 KB (Kilobyte)

zeros, to do things and talk to other computers. 10;4 KB 1 MB (Megabyte)

All your files, for instance, are kept in the 1024 MB _1 GB (Gigabyte)

computer as binary files and translated into 1024 GB 1 TB (Terra byte)

words and pictures by the software (which is 1024 TB 1 PB (Peta byte)

1024 PB 1 EB (Exa byte)

also ones and zeros). This two number (0 & 1) 1024 EB 1 ZB (Zetta byte)

system is called a "binary number system" since 1024 ZB 1 YB (Yotta byte)

it has only two numbers in it. The decimal 1024 YB 1 Bronto byte

number system in contrast has ten unique digits, 1024 Bronto byte 1 Geop byte
 zero through nine.

Computer Memory 151

PPS OF MEMORY

A computer memory is of two types

I Main / Primary Memory

2. Mass / Secondary Memory

Main / Primary memory

• Primary memory (or main memory or internal memory) is an important part of a

computer.

• It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored.

• The stored data can be recalled instantly and correctly whenever desired. This

memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or storing information.

• Primary memory is further classified into two types:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

2. Read- Only Memory (ROM)

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

• Random access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage.

• RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and

written onto it.

• RAM is a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs

and the data. The CPU can directly access the data from RAM almost immediately.

However, the storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary, till the time
 the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the

computer is switched off, because it is a volatile memory.

• The two main forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM

(DR AM) .

✓ In static RAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a flip-flop.• This form

of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less

power than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as cache memory

for the CPU.

✓ DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair, which together

comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0,

respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry

on the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this form of

memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant

form of computer memory used in modern computers.

✓ Both SRAM and DRAM are considered volatile, as their sate is lost or reset

when power is removed from the system.

Read- Only Memory (ROM)

• Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers and

other electronic devices.

 Computer Application

It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not writt or changed
onto ROM. ROM is the built-in memory of a computer. It stores so basic input — output
instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the compute The storage of data and
instructions in ROM is permanent. It does not depend o the power supply because it is a
non-volatile memory.
Read-only memories can be manufacturer-programmed or user-programmed.
While manufacturer-programmed ROM has data burnt into the circuitry, us programmed
ROM can have the user load and then store read-only programs. PRO or Programmable

NOTE
ROM stores an initial program called the 'bootstrap loader' whose function is to
start the computer software operating, once the power is turned on.
ROM is the name given to user programmed ROM.




Information once stored PROM chip cannot be altered. However, another type o memory called
EPROM (Erasable PROM) allows a user to erase the informatio stored on the chip and
reprogram it with new information. EEPROM (Electrical) EPROM) and UVEPROM (Ultra
Violet EPROM) are two types of EPROM's.
Virtual memory

Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating system. When
a program needs memory, it requests it from t e operating system. The operating system
then decides what physical location to ace the memory in.
This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where
the memory is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory.
It also allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some memory can be
stored in physical RAM chips while other memory is stored on a hard drive. This drastically
increases the amount of memory available to programs. The operating system will place
actively used memory in physical RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the
amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation
where the computer spends more time moving memory from RAM to disk and back than it
does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing.
Virtual memory systems usually include protected memory, but this is not always the case.
Cache memory

Cache memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a computer's central processing unit
(CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip.
The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run programs,
improving overall system speed.
The advantage of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use the motherboard's
system bus for data transfer.
 Computer Memory I 53

Nuffer memory

• A buffer memory used to temporarily hold data while it is being moved from one

place to another.

• Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such

as a mouse) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as speakers).

• However, a buffer may be used when moving data between processes within a

computer. This is comparable to buffers in telecommunication.

• Buffers can be implemented in a fixed memory location in hardware - or by using

a virtual data buffer in software, pointing at a location in the physical memory.

• In all cases, the data stored in a data buffer are stored on a physical storage medium.

A majority of buffers are implemented in software, which typically use the faster

RAM to store temporary data, due to the much faster access time compared with

hard disk drives.

• Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the rate at which data

is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates

are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming.

Mass / Secondary Memory

• The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient

lir large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the auxiliary or

secondary memory ist•sed. It is also referred as backup storage as it is used to store

large volume of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary

memory whenever required for processing.

• Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main (primary

memory) storage. Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk,

Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVl and Flash drive.

• Some important Secondary memory devices are,

1. Magnetic media

• Floppy disk

• Hard disk

• Magnetic Tape

2. Optical media

• CD

• DVD
 3. Solid-state memory

• USB Flash Drive

• Memory cards -

Magnetic media

Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This metal is then

processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros.
54 Computer Application

Historically, magnetic media has been very popular for storing programs, data, and maki

backups. It looks set to continue in this role for some time.

Floppy Disk

It is also referred as Diskette and is made of flexible Vinyl material. It has a small hol

on one side called Right protect notch, which protects accidental writing/deleting th

information from the disk. There is a hole in the

centre through which the spindle of drive unit

rotates the disk.

The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and

3.5 inches and these could be either low density

or high-density floppies. Stofage capacity of

floppies is measured in kilobytes (KB) and

megabytes (MB). The details about the storage

capacities of the floppies are presented below: Floppy Disk

The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches and these could be either lo

density or high-density floppies. Storage capacity of floppies is measured in kilobytes

(KB) and megabytes (MB). The details about the storage capacities of the floppies are

presented below:
 Floppy Disk Storage Capacity Size (Diameter)

Low Density 360 KB 5.25 inches

High Density , 1.2 MB 5.25 inches

High Density 1.44 MB 3.5 inches

Extended 2.8 MB 3.5 inches

Hard Disk

• A hard disk is a device for storing and retrieving digital information, primarily

computer data. It consists of one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating discs

(often referred to as platters), coated with magnetic material and with magnetic

heads arranged to write data Spindle Head

to the surfaces and read it Platter

from them. Hard disks are Actuator Arm

meant for secondary storage. Actuator Axis

• The hard disk can hold more

information than the floppy

disk and the retrieval of

information from hard disk is

faster when compared to

floppies or tapes. Per Connector

• Hard disks are usually found Jumper Block

inside computers to store Actuator

 programs and data. IDE Connector

Components of hard-disk

Computer Memory 55

nu, Hard disk constructed from several key components:

Platter - Metallic disks where one or both sides of the platter are magnetized, allowing

data to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the spindle.

There may be several platters, with data stored across them

Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several platters

there may two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each

Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can be

read and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random fashion,

you don't need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of

Ithrmation, you can jump right there. Seek time is very low.

Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run

the electronics

IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters

Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID

Magnetic Tape

• It is a plastic ribbon usually 1/2 inch or 'A inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet long. Its

surface has a coating (such as iron oxide or chromium dioxide) that can record

data by magnetization. Data is recorded on the coated surface as very small, unseen

magnetized and non-magnetized spots (representing ls and Os).

• Modem magnetic tape is most commonly packaged in cartridges and cassettes.

The device that performs actual writing or reading of data is a tape drive. Autoloaders

and tape libraries are frequently used to automate cartridge handling.

• When storing large amounts of data, tape can be substantially less expensive than

disk or other data storage options. Tape storage has always been used wit,h large

computer systems. Modern usage is primarily as a high capacity medium for backups

and archives.

Optical media

• Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface.

• Compact discs (CDs), DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media

which can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic name;

drives are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Blu-ray", followed by "drive",

"writer", etc.

• Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located

on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a

CD; many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable

disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD

drive to play music CDs on your computer.

56 I Computer Application

DVD drive (Left) and DVD (Right)

• DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a

DVD drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record

data onto blank DVDs.

Optical Discs

Full form

( apacit∎

1. CD-ROM

2.

CD-R

3. CD-RW

1.

Read Only

2.

Write once then

Read only

3.

re.-Writable

Compact Disc

700 MB

xx

Q 666

>>>>
rx 6 6 6

1.

Read Only

2.

Write once then

Read only

3.

re-Writable

4.

re-Writable

Digital Versatile Disc

Digital Video Disc

Single-sided-single layer — 4.7 GB

Single-sided-dual layer — 8.5 GB

Double-sided-single layer — 9.4 GB

Double-sided-dual layer — 17 GB

HD-DVD

Re-Writable and

Read Only versions

available

High Definition

Digital Video Disc

Single sided — 15 GB
Dual-sided — 30 GB

Triple sided — 45 GB

Blu-Ray

Blu-Ray

Single layer — 25 GB

Dual layer — 50 GB

Triple layer — 100 GB

Quad layer — 128 GB

Solid-state memory

USB Flash drives

Computer Memory 157

A UNIVINUal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive is a small, portable device that plugs into a

ompider's USB port. Like a hard disk, USB flash drive stores information, but with a

ilaoh drive you can easily transfer that information from one computer to another. USB

111416 drives vary in size and shape and can hold gigabytes of information. USB flash

Ili Isla are also called pen drives, key chain drives, key drives, and memory keys.

Mowry cards
• A memory card or flash card is an electronic

Flash memory data storage device used for

Miming digital information. They are commonly

used in many electronic devices, including

digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop

computers, MP3 players and video game

consoles. They are small, re-recordable, and

able to retain data without power.

• Some of the most popular ones are secure SD Memory card

I)igital (SD) and Multimedia Card (MMC).