I

Explanatory notes to the thematic

geoscientific maps of Ethiopia
at a scale of 1 : 50,000

Map Sheet 0638-D2 Mejo

Kryštof Verner and Leta Megerssa (eds.)

with co-authors
Tomáš Hroch, David Buriánek, Karel Martínek, Mihret Yakob,
Abadi Haregot, Jana Janderková, Jiří Šíma, Eva Kryštofová, Jan Valenta,
Habtamu Bewketu, Aberash Mosisa, Gete Balke, Genet Assefa, Zoltán Pécskay,
Petra Hejtmánková and Zuzana Krejčí

Czech Geological Survey

Geological Survey of Ethiopia
2018
Reviewed by Rostislav Melichar (Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic)
and Ameha Atnafu Muluneh (Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia)

© Kryštof Verner, Leta Megerssa, Tomáš Hroch, David Buriánek, Karel Martínek,
Mihret Yakob, Abadi Haregot, Jana Janderková, Jiří Šíma, Eva Kryštofová, Jan Valenta,
Habtamu Bewketu, Aberash Mosisa, Gete Balke, Genet Assefa, Zoltán Pécskay,
Petra Hejtmánková and Zuzana Krejčí

ISBN 978-80-7075-950-9
 III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The field work, compilation of the map and explanatory notes were jointly done by
a combined team of geologists from the Czech Geological Survey, the Geological
Survey of Ethiopia and AQUATEST Ltd. within the framework of the Czech Official
Development Assistance Program supported by the Czech Government through the Czech
Development Agency. The SNNP Region President’s Office and the SNNP Region Mines
and Energy Agency are thanked for their welcoming and cooperative engagement. The
work also benefited from the undivided support and facilitation by the management
of the Geological Survey of Ethiopia, particularly Mr. Masresha G/Selassie (Director
General), Mr. Hundie Melka (Deputy Director), Ms. Genet Asefa (acting head of the Geo-
Hazards Investigation Directorate) and Miss. Almaz Mengiste (Secretary of Geo-hazards
Investigation Directorate). The team is also grateful to the drivers from the Geological
Survey of Ethiopia: Mr. Mulugeta Simegn, Mr. Mekonen Hailu, Mr. Mulisa Legese and
Mr. Getachew Tegene who were at the front of the demanding task of getting by around
the remote and rough terrain at different stages of the field work.
Finally, the team would like to acknowledge the untiring support of the local people
who assisted the team by all means possible and facilitated the data collection and those
who helped us in various ways.
Thorough reviews by Mr. Rostislav Melichar and Mr. Ameha Atnafu Muluneh
improved greatly this explanatory notes and are gratefully acknowledged. We would
also like to thank our colleague Vladimír Žáček for helpful discussion.

Verner K., Megerssa L., Hroch T., Buriánek D., Martínek, K., Yakob M., Haregot A.,
Janderková J., Šíma J., Kryštofová E., Valenta J., Bewketu H., Mosisa A., Balke G.,
Assefa G., Pécskay, Z., Hejtmánková P., Krejčí Z. (2018): Explanatory notes to
the thematic geoscientific maps of Ethiopia at a scale of 1 : 50,000, Map Sheet 0638-D2 Mejo.
131 pages, 3 annexes, 4 maps. Czech Geological Survey, Prague; AQUATEST Ltd.,
Prague; Geological Survey of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.
 V

CONTENS

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Summary in AMHARIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Location and accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Previous studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2) Environmental Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1 Topography and Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Hydrometeorological characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Land use and Land cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Prominent natural features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3) Regional Geological Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4) Remote Sensing Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.1 Data and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Morphotectonic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5) GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.1 Lithology and Petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2 Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Structural and tectonic patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6) Soil environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1 Methods and samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2 Reference Soil Groups in the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3 Opportunities for and threats to the soils in the studied area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7) Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1 Hydrometeorology and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.2 Hydrogeological surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3 Hydrogeological Classification/Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.4 Elements of Hydrogeological System of the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.5 Hydrogeological Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.6 Hydrogeochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.7 Water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

8) Engineering geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.1 Engineering geological characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.2 Engineering geological classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
VI M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

9) Geological Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.1 Endogenous hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.2 Exogenous hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

10) Local prevention and mitigation

measures of geological hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.1 Manageable geomorphic hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2 Preventive and mitigation measures for rehabilitation of natural
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.3 Suggested hazard monitoring and emergency response systems . . . . . . 108

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

ANNEXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Annex 1: Whole-rock geochemical composition of rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Annex 2: Representative chemical composition of rock-forming minerals . . . 128
Annex 3: Soil Texture and Chemical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
 L ist of F ig u res VII

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1-1. Adminstrative boundaries on the Mejo map sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 1-2. Location of key documentation sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 2-1. Geomorphological scheme of the Mejo map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 2-2. Rainfall pattern at the Hagere Salam meteorological station
(NMAE, source Halcrow, 2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 3-1. Digital elevation model showing the East African Rift in Ethiopia and
location of the studied area. Black rectangle is the extent of the regional
Dila map at a scale of 1 : 250,000 scheme, red rectangle represents extent
of the Mejo map at a scale of 1 : 50,000 scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 4-1. Landsat image of the Mejo map sheet. False colour image with
the bands 432 displayed as RGB composite (upper) is showing
vegetation in red colour. False colour image with the bands 531
displayed as RGB composite (lower) is showing different
lithological features by different colours; vegetation is masked
out (black). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figu. 4-2. Morphotectonic analysis of the Mejo map sheet. Morphotectonic
linear indices are displayed on the colour digital elevation model
(Aster DEM) combined with a shaded relief map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 5-1. Kyanite porphyroblasts in a sericite schist (DE412). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 5-2. Microphotograph of the sericite schist with kyanite
porphyroblasts (DE264), crossed polarizers (XPL image). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 5-3. Quartz vein crosscuts the foliation in biotite paragneiss (DE382). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 5-4. Microphotograph of the biotite paragneiss (KV221B), XPLimage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 5-5. Classification diagrams for biotite (a), feldspars (b), amphibole (c)
and Ca–Fe–Mg pyroxenes (d): metagabbro (DE283); hornblendite (KV275);
tremolite-talc schist (DE242); amphibolite (KV214, KV216) orthogneiss
(KV215, DE291); paragneiss (KV221, DE249); sericite schist (DE261)
and Getra-Kele basalt (DE260). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 5-6. Biotite orthogneiss with deformed melanocratic microgranular
enclaves (DE252). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 5-7. Microphotograph of the orthogneiss (DE291), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 5-8. Migmatitic amphibolites with a relict of garnets (DE410). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 5-9. Microphotograph of the amphibolite (DE049B), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 5-10. Radial aggregates of tremolite needles in the talc schist (DE242). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 5-11. Microphotograph of the talc-tremolite schist (DE242), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 5-12. Microphotograph of the metagabbro (DE283); XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 5-13. Microphotograph of the cumulate metagabbro-hornblendite (KV275);
XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 5-14. Basalt with a vesicular texture (DE266). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 5-15. Microphotograph of the basalt (DE260), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 5-16. Basalt lava flows, road cut west of the town of Mejo (DE251). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5-17. Microphotograph of the basalt (DE268), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5-18. Contact between the overlying ignimbrite and a weathered basalt,
a charred tree trunk in the bottom ignimbrite layer (DE293). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5-19. Microphotograph of the ignimbrite (DE220), XPL image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5-20. Outcrop of the Hantate ignimbrite (DE222B). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
VIII M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Fig. 5-21. Welded rhyolitic Hantate ignimbrite with feldspar

phenocrysts (DE159), planar polarized light (PPL) image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 5-22. Colluvial sandy soils with an admixture of angular cobble
of volcanic rocks, east of Gambelto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 5-23. Small fluvial meandering stream with wetlands
in the flood plain, north of Mejo town. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 5-24. Braided channel of the Genale River with a gravel accumulation
of a lateral bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 5-25. Chemical composition of the volcanic and metamorphic
rocks from Mejo map: (a) Total alkalis (Na2O + K2O) versus SiO2
(TAS; LeBas et al. 1986); (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Peccerillo
and Taylor 1976); (c) Zr/Ti versus Nb/Y diagram (Pearce 1996);
c) Th versus Co diagram (Hastie et al. 2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 5-26. Chemical composition of the metamorphic (a-b) and
volcanic rocks(c-d): (a-c) chondrite-normalised rare earth
element (REE) patterns (the values for normalization are based
on Boynton 1984), (b-d) Primitive mantle-normalised multi-element
variation diagrams (the values for normalization are based
on McDonough and Sun (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 5-27. Structural scheme of the Mejo map sheet showing a regional
fabric pattern and mapped faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 5-28. Orientation diagrams of primary structures in pre- and post-rift
volcanic deposits and ductile structures in metamorphic rocks
of the Arabian-Nubian Shield: (a) – Flow foliation and bedding planes;
(b) – Metamorphic foliation; (c) – Metamorphic lineation. Equal projection
to the lower hemisphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 5-29. Stretching lineation and parallel elongation of MME in biotite orthogneiss. . . . . . 47
Fig. 5-30. Aymmetrically stretched recrystallized quartz–feldspar melt indicating
left-lateral kinematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 5-31. Orientation diagrams. (a) Faults / fault zones in volcanic deposits (red)
and metamorphic rocks (black); (b) – Extensional joints in volcanic
deposits (red) and metamorphic rocks (black); (c) – Frequency diagram
of extensional joints in all units; (d) – Contacts of quartz vein (red)
and pegmatite dykes (black). Equal projection to the lower hemisphere. . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 6-1. Leptosol from basalt lava (KV212) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 6-2. Regosol in a colluvial material (KV221) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 6-3. Cambisols from orthogneiss in profiles JJ031 (left) and JJ032 (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig. 6-4. Deep and dark Eutric Cambisols (Colluvic) and Skeletic Colluvisols
on the slopes covered by colluvial sediments to the west of Mejo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 6-5. Luvisols along the road from Mejo to Ford,
near Dikicha - profiles JJ033 (left) and JJ034 (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 6-6. Eutric Nitisol near the road from Daye-Chebe and a well-developed
strong and coarse soil structure (JJ037) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fig. 6-7. Agricultural land on Fluvisols developed from fluvial sediments
along the river Genale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 6-8. Soil texture in topsoil (red) and subsoil (blue) of the sampled soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 6-9. A deep gully incised into the colluvial deposits (JJ030) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 6-10. Extensive land degradation as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. . . . . . . . 64
 L ist of F ig u res IX

Fig. 7-1. Hydrological scheme with location of the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Fig. 7-2. Genale River near Girja in the southern part of the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 7-3. Gonjobe River in the northern part of the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 7-4. Flow diagram of the Logita River at the Bensa river gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 7-5. Annual fluctuation of mean flow for the Logita River at the Bensa
river gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 7-6. Flow diagram of the Bonora River at the Daye river gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 7-7. Flow diagram of the Upper Genale River at the Girja river gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 7-8. Flow diagram of the Gambelto / Gonjobe River at the Aroresa river gauge . . . . . . 72
Fig. 7-9. Kille baseflow separation for Bonora, Logita, Gambelto
and Upper Genale rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 7-10. Hydrograph of baseflow separation for the Gambelto River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 7-11. Hydrograph of baseflow separation for the Upper Genale River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 7-12. Porous aquifers and aquifers with shallow groundwater
in the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 7-13. Aquifers with fissured permeability and aquifers in fissures
and the weathered mantle of basement in the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 7-14. Waterfall on the Gonjobe River tributary in the northern part
of the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 7-15. Small wetland near Kersa Bere in the northern part
of the Mejo map sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 7-16. Conceptual hydrogeological model of the Eastern Plateau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 7-17. Cation anion balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 7-18. Nitrate content in water samples in the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Fig. 8-1. Schmidt hammer (N-Type) in situ test of rock hardness
on outcrops in the Mejo sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 8-2. Point load strength test for irregular rock samples
from the Mejo sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 8-3. Laboratory physical test for water absorption,
porosity and bulk density of rock samples from major lithologies
in the Mejo sheet (multiple tests conducted for
each sample). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 9‑1. Surface erosion in the erosional landscape formed by metamorphic rocks,
Gambelto River Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 9‑2. Land degradation in highly weathered metamorphic rocks, west of Bule . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 9‑3. Accumulation of sediments in the mouth of an erosion valley
of the Gambelto River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 9‑4. Main scarp of a large fossil slope deformation,
east of Gambelto River Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 9‑5. Jointed basalts prone to rockfall outcropped in the road between
Gambelto River Valley and Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 9‑6. Reactivation of a landslide close to the ancient road
from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 9‑7. Debris flows from the embankment of the older road
from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 9‑8. Destruction of the old road from Gambelto River Valley
to Mejo by a shallow landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 9‑9. Shallow landslide in the weathered basalts, north of Mejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
X M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Fig. 10‑1. Deep erosion of the existing road embankment with a deep gully,
north of Girja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 10‑2. Backward erosion close to the road embankment, north of Girja . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 10‑3. Inappropriate slope in the road cut from Gambelto River Valley
to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 10‑4. Small debris in the unstable cutting in the upper part
of the slope of the road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 10‑5. Rock fall in the road cut from Gambelto River Valley
to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 10‑6. Inappropriate material (boulder blocks) for the road
embankment of the road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 10‑7. Shallow landslide of the road embankment of the road
from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 10‑8. Accumulation part of the landslide of the road
from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
 L ist of T A B L E S XI

List of Tables
Tab. 1-1. Sources of data used for the base map preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tab. 2-1. Ethiopian climate classification for the Mejo area
(Gozálbez and Cebrián 2006 and Chernet 1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Tab. 2-2. Meteorological stations in the Mejo map sheet
and the surrounding area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Tab. 5-1. K-Ar cooling age of volcanic rocks (Mejo map sheet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Tab. 6-1. Soil particle distribution and color of the sampled soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Tab. 6-2. Selected chemical characteristics of the sampled profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tab. 6-3. Content of available nutrients (Mehlich III) in topsoil
of the sampled profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tab. 6-4. Cambisols from gneiss (JJ031) and basalt (EE24) - color
and texture of surface horizons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tab. 6-5. Cambisols from gneiss (JJ031) and basalt (EE24) – chemical
properties and available nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tab. 6-6. Soil erodibility estimation based on color for Ethiopia (Hurni, 1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Tab. 6-7. Major reference soil groups of the map sheet
and their susceptibility to land degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Tab. 7-1. Data at the river gauging stations of the Genale sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Tab. 7-2. Runoff data for the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Tab. 7-3. Baseflow data for the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Tab. 7-4. Aquifer classification based on well yield
for the Genale-Dawa basin (Lahmayer, 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Tab. 7-5. Cation anion balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Tab. 7-6. Hydrochemical types of the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Tab. 7-7. Groundwater descriptive statistics of TDS, EC and Cl values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Tab. 7-8. Groundwater chemistry compared to drinking water
standards and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Tab. 7-9. Suitability of water for irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Tab. 7-10. Salinity criteria for irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Tab. 7-11. Suitability of groundwater for livestock watering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Tab. 7-12. Suitability of water for use in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Tab. 7-13. Concentration limits for incrustation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Tab. 7-14. Concentration limits for corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Tab. 7-15. Aquifers of the area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Tab. 7-16. Assessment of water resources in the Mejo area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Summary

The Mejo map sheet is built by metamorphic rocks of Precambrian age and partly covered
by pre- and post-rift volcanic deposits. The metamorphic rocks belong to the ~N–S
trending, metavolcano-sedimentary Megado Belt, which forms a northern part of the
Adola Belt. Metamorphic rocks are exposed in the southern and central parts of the Mejo
map sheet, mainly along the rivers Genale and Gambelto (around the villages of Girja and
Chebe). From the lithological point of view, this unit consists of biotite to muscovite-biotite
paragneiss, graphitic schist, quartzite, biotite-muscovite phyllite, sericite schist, biotite
orthogneiss, amphibolite, talc-tremolite to chlorite schist and serpentinite and metagabbro.
The regional metamorphic foliation or compositional banding is mostly parallel to the
contacts and lithological boundaries dipping steeply to ~W (WNW) or ~E. These basement
rocks are overlied by two distinct volcanic units – pre-rift volcanic deposits (Eocene to
Pliocene age) and the syn-rift Dino Formation (Pliocene to Pleistocene age). The pre-
rift deposits include the Amaro–Gamo Basalts alternating with Shole ignimbrites. This
sequence is exposed mainly in the northern and eastern part of the map sheet. The syn-rift
volcanic deposits are represented by Pleistocene Hantate ignimbrites, cropping out as
the erosional relics in the valleys of Gambelto, Logita and Genale rivers and minor Yubo
Basalt. The lithological boundaries with the basement rocks as well as the planar fabrics
in the overall volcanic and volcanoclastic sequence are mostly horizontal. The geological
map representing all identified lithologies and structural relations is prepared at a scale
of 1 : 50,000, serving as the base for the thematic maps pertaining to soil, hydrogeology
and geohazards.
Soil type classification was compiled based on the geological map, field survey,
satellite image interpretation and digital elevation models. Six soil catena units have been
identified as reference groups: Leptosols, Regosols, Cambisols, Luvisols, Nitisols and
Fluvisols in the Mejo map sheet. The soil classes have been identified based on chemical
and physical properties, which are infuenced by the prevalent material and drainage
characteristics and variation.
Hydrogeological assessment has been made following the regional morphology, local
geological and inventory of water points from the field inventory and published secondary
data. Surface hydrological characteristics and groundwater dynamics have been addressed
to develop water resource assessment in the region. The total water resources in the
area were assessed to be as high as 434 million m3/year. The total volume of renewable
groundwater resources of active aquifers in the area has been assessed to be 169 Mm3/
year. The quality of water resources available is also investigated, showing that dominant
hydrochemical types of groundwater in the study area are mainly of a calcium-bicarbonate
type in composition, while magnesium and sodium bicarbonate types are identified as well.
Distribution of the aquifers along with the hydro-chemical compositions is combined in the
created hydrogeological map at a scale of 1 : 50,000 for the Mejo map sheet in this study.
Engineering geological assessment of the area indicates regions of rock mass ranging
in strength classes of high, medium and low. Such wider range of data correspond to the
variation in lithological units, which on average show distinctly variable intact strength and
 S u mmary 9

variable susceptibility to weathering based on the field documentation and physiographic

areal disposition. Prominent and sharp morphological regions stand out as generally
resistant and stronger rock mass units, contrary to the rock mass units in subdued and
smoothly undulating morphology. Genetic associations of the soil in the area are also
distinguished as residual lateritic soil, colluvium slope wash deposits and alluvial cones.
Only slight concern from earthquake risk is highlighted among potential endogenous
processes due to the proximity of Mejo map sheet to the Main Ethiopian Rift although
the area generally has low seismicity. Due to the morphological set up of the area, both
aggradation and suffusion-related hydrological hazards appear to be important, affecting
farmlands as well as infrastructure. In the hazard maps, all the potential risk areas
concerning such exogenous hazards are shown. In the scarps of deep valleys, an increasing
threat of reactivation of mass wasting processes occurs in the form of landslides, debris
avalanche and rockfalls. Due to expansion of agriculture and deforestation, the problem
of surface erosion and land degradation reveals the sign of agradation.
Summary in Amharic

አጭር የመጆ ማፕ (0638-D2) 1 : 50,000 መስፈርት ሥነ-ምዴር ካርታዎች መግሇጫ

መግቢያ (Introduction)

ይህ ጥናት እና አባሪ 1፡50,000 መስፈርት ካርታዎች በቼክ ሪፑብሉክ የሌማት ትብብር ኤጄንሲ
(CZDA) እና በኢትዮጵያ ፌዳራሊዊ ዱሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሉክ (ኢ.ፌ.ዱ.ሪ.) መካከሌ በተፈፀመ
የመግባቢያ ሠነዴ ማዕቀፍ ፤ በዯቡብ ብሔር ብሔረሰቦች እና ህዝቦች ክሌሌ በተመረጡ አካባቢዎች
ዝርዝር የሥነ-ምዴር ካርታ እና የተፈጥሮ አዯጋ ተጋሊጭነት እንዱሁም የከርሰ ምዴር ውሃ ሃብት
አሇኝታ ግምገማ ሊይ የሚያተኩር ነው፡፡ በዚህም መሰረት ጥናቱ በቼክ ሪፐብሉክ ጂኦልጂካሌ
ሠርቬይ (CGS) እና በኢትዮጵያ ጂኦልጂካሌ ሠርቬይ (GSE) በጋራ ከ2007 ዓ.ም. ጀምሮ እስከ
2010 ዓ.ም. የተካሄዯ ሲሆን ፤ በጥናቱ የተዲሰሱት አካባቢዎች በሲዲማ ዞን ሁሇት ስፍራዎች
ማሇትም በሇኩ እና በመጆ (በአቅራቢያው በሚገኙ አዋሳኝ የኦሮሚያ ክሌሌ የቦረና ዞን ሰሜናዊ)
አካባቢን ጨምሮ) ፤ በጌዱኦ ዞን በዱሊ አካባቢ (በአቅራቢያው በሚገኙ አዋሰኝ የኦሮሚያ ክሌሌ
የጉጂ ዞን ሰሜናዊ አካባቢን ጨምሮ) ፤ እና በጋሞ ጎፋ ዞን የአርባ ምንጭ አካባቢን ያካተተ ነው፡፡

ጥናቱ በአራት የሥነ-ምዴር ጥናት ዘርፎች ሊይ በማትኮር የተካሄዯ ሲሆን አነዚህም የመሰረታዊ
ዝርዝር የጂኦልጂ (የሥነ-ምዴር) ካርታ ዝግጅት በ1፡50.000 መስፈርት ፤ የአፈር ሽፋን ካርታ
ዝግጅት በ1፡50.000 መስፈርት ፤ የኃይዴሮጂኦልጂ (የከርሰ-ምዴር ውሃ አሇኝታ) ካርታ ዝግጅት
በ1፡50.000 መስፈርት እና የጂኦሃዛር (የሥነ-ምዴር አዯጋ ክስተት አመሊካች) ካርታ ዝግጅት በ1፡
50.000 መስፈርት ናቸው፡፡ እነዚህን ተዛማጅ ጥናቶች ሇማከናወን በመስክ የአፈር፤የአሇት፤ የውሃ
እንዱሁም ዝርዝር ቅኝትና የመስክ ሊይ ሌዩ ሌዩ ሣይንሳዊ ሌኬቶች የተዯረጉ ሲሆን፤ እነዚህ
መረጃዎች በሳተሊይት ፎቶ እና የገጸ-ምዴር ዱጂታሌ ሞዳሌ በዘመናዊ ጂኦግራፊያዊ መረጃ አያያዝ
(GIS) ታግዞ በማቀነባበር ካርታዎቹ ተዘጋጅተዋሌ፡፡

የዚህ ጥናት መሰረተ ሃሳብ በገፀ-መሬት እና በከርሰ-ምዴር አፈጣጠር መካከሌ ያሇውን ትስስር
በሣይንሳዊ ትንታኔ በመታገዝ ሇሰው ሌጆች ጥቅም የሚሰጡ ጠጣርና ፈሳሽ የማዕዴን ሃብት ፤
እንዱሁም ሇተፈጥሮ አዯጋ ተጋሊጭነትና ሇአካባቢ ጥበቃ ወሳኝ የሆኑ መረጃዎች ማመንጨት ነው፡፡
ባጠቃሊይ የተጠኑት ስፍራዎች የመሬት አወቃቀር ከእሳተ ጎሞራ (volcanic rocks) ጋር በተያያዘ
የተፈጠሩ አሇቶችና በከፍተኛ ሙቀትና ጭነት የተቀየሩ ሌውጥ አሇቶች (metamorphic rocks)
የተመሰረተ ሲሆን ከአሇቶቹ በሊይ ሰፍረው የሚገኙት የቅርብ ጊዜ በዯሇሌ እና በናዲ የተከማቹ
እንዱሁም ከበሰበሱ አሇቶች የተፈጠሩ የበሃ የአፈር አይነቶች በሁለም የተጠኑ ስፈራዎች ተዋቅረው
የሚገኙባቸው ናቸው፡፡

መጆ ማፕ (Mejo map)

የጂኦልጂ ካርታ (የሥነ-ምዴር ካርታ) (Geology)

በመጆ አካባቢ የተዯረገው ጥናት 6° 15' እና 6° 30' ሰሜን ኬክሮስ እና 38° 45' እና 39° 00'
ምስራቅ ኬንትሮስ (ዱሊ ማፕ ሺት) ወሰን ውስጥ በምዕራባዊው በእሳተ-ጎሞራ የተፈጠረ የኢጥዮጵያ
ከፍታ ስፍራ አምባ ሊይ የሚገኝ ነው፡፡ በዚህ ስፍራ የሚገኘው ከርሰ-ምዴር ባጠቃሊይ በእሳተ ጎሞራ
አማካኝነት በተፈጠሩ አሇቶች እና በገናላ ወንዝ የሊይኛው ተፋሰስ ሸሇቆዎች ተገሌጠው በሚገኙ
የዯቡባዊ ኢጥዮጵያ ሌውጥ አሇቶች የተዋቀረ ነው፡፡ በእሳተ ጎሞራ አማካኝነት የተፈጠሩ አሇቶች
በይዘታቸው ሁሇት አይነት ማሇትም አሲዲዊ ይዘት ያሊቸውና ቤዚክ (ብረታማ ንጥረ ነገር አዘሌ)
ይዘት ያሊቸው ተብሇው ይከፈሊለ፡፡ አሲዲማ ይዘት ያሊቸው አሇቶች አፈጣጠራቸው ሁሇት ሲሆን
እነዚህም በእሳተ ጎሞራ ፍንዲታ ፍንጥርጣሪ የተፈጠሩና በእሳተ ጎሞራ ቀሌጦ ከፈሰሰ አሇት
የተፈጠሩ ናቸው፡፡ በመጆ ማፕ ሺት ውስጥ ያሇው የአፈር ሽፋን እና የአሇት መዋቅር ከግንባታ ፤

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 SUMMARY IN AMHARIC 11

ሌማት እና ተፈጥሮ አዯጋ ተጋሊጭነት አንፃር የተቃኙ ሲሆን በአሇቶቹ ባህያት ከተካሄደት የመስክ
እና የናሙና ሌኬት ከፍተኛ (> 60 MPa) ፤ መካከሇኛ (10–60 MPa) እና ዝቅተኛ (<10 MPa)
ጥንካሬ ያሊቸው ናቸው፡፡ በመጆ ማፕ ሺት ያለ የአሇትና የአፈር ሽፋኖች በስም ተሇይተው በካርታ
የሰፈሩ ሲሆን እነዚህም በአፈጣጠራቸው እዴሜ ቅዯም ተከተሌ ፤ ከቀዲሚው ወዯ ቀራቢው
እንዯሚከተሇው ተዘርዝረዋሌ፡፡ የነዚህ አሇቶች እና አፈር ስርጭት በተያያዘው አባሪ ካርታ ሊይ
የሰፈሩ ሲሆን በእንግሉዝኛ ቋንቋ ተገሌፀው ይገኛለ፡፡ ከታች በቀረበው ዝርዝር መነሻ ሊይ በቅንፍ
ውስጥ ከእያንዲንደ አሇትና አፈር አይነት ስም ትይዩ የተቀመጡት ቁጥሮች ከሥነ-ምዴር ካርታው
(Geological map) ሊይ የሚያርፉባቸውን ሥፍዎች ሇማየት ያስችሊለ፡፡

ከ1 ቢሉዮን ገዯማ እስከ 550 ሚሉዮን ገዯማ ዓመት በፊት ባሇው ዘመን የተፈጠሩ ሌውጥ አሇቶች

(16) ንብርብር ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በአነስተኛ የመሬት ጭነት (ከ3.7–17 ኪ.ሜ. ጥሌቀት) እና የመሬት
ውስጥ ሙቀት (ከ200°–400°C) የተፈጠሩ ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Sericite schist.
(15) አብሇጭሊጭ ነጭ ሌውጥ ዴንጋይ፡- ከፍተኛ ጭነት እና ሙቀትን ተከትል ከአሸዋማ ዝቅጤ
አሇት የተፈጠረ ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Quartzite.
(14) ዥንጉርጉር ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በመካከሇኛ ጭነት (ከ4–27 ኪ.ሜ. ጥሌቀት) እና ሙቀት (ከ400°–
600°C) የተፈጠሩ ዝቅጤ ሌውጥ አሇት ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Biotite to muscovite-
biotite paragneiss.
(13) ተሊሊጭ ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በአነስተኛ የመሬት ጭነት (ከ3.7–17 ኪ.ሜ. ጥሌቀት) እና የመሬት
ውስጥ ሙቀት (ከ200°–400°C) የተፈጠሩ ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Biotite-muscovite
phyllite.
(12) ዥንጉርጉር ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በመካከሇኛ ጭነትና (ከ4–27 ኪ.ሜ. ጥሌቀት) እና ሙቀት
(ከ400°–600°C) የሚፈጠር የእሳተ-ጎሞራ ሌውጥ አሇት የተፈጠሩ ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው
አጠራር Biotite orthogneiss.
(11) ጥቁር ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በመካከሇኛ ጭነትና (ከ4–27 ኪ.ሜ. ጥሌቀት) እና ሙቀት (ከ400°–
600°C) የሚፈጠር ሌውጥ አሇት ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Amphibolite.
(10) አሙሇጭሊጭ ንብርብር ሌውጥ አሇት፡- በአነስተኛ የመሬት ጭነት (ከ3.7–17 ኪ.ሜ.
ጥሌቀት) እና የመሬት ውስጥ ሙቀት (ከ200°–400°C) የሚፈጠር ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው
አጠራር Talc-tremolite to chlorite schist.
(09) ሌውጥ ጥቁር ዴንጋይ፡- በከፍተኛ ጭነትና ሙቀት የተሇወጠ አሇት ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው
አጠራር Serpentinite and Metagabbro.
(08) አብሇጭሊጭ ነጭ የአሇት ስራስር፡- በከፍተኛ ሙቀት በተፈጠረ የቀሇጠ አሇት በላልች አሇቶች
ውስጥ ተሰራጭቶ የሚገኝ አብሇጭሊጭ አሇት ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር Quartz vein.

ከ23 እስከ 5 ሚሉዮን አመት በፊት ባሇው ዘመን የተፈጠሩ የእሳተ ጎሞራ አሇቶች
(07) የአማሮ ጋሞ ጥቁር ዴንጋይ (ብረት ነክ ንጥረ ነገር አዘሌ አሇት ወይም እንግሉዚኛው አጠራር
Amaro–Gamo Basalt.
(06) የሾላ እሳተ ጎሞራ ፍንጥቅጣቂ አሇት ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Shole Ignimbrite.

በ2 ሚሉዮን ዓመት ገዯማ የተፈጠሩ የእሳተ ጎሞራ ውጤት አሇቶች

(05) የሃንታቴ የእሳተ ጎሞራ ፍንጥቅጣቂ (ትፌ) ጥብቅ አሇቶች ወይም በእንግሉዝኛው አጠራር
Hantate welded ignimbrite.
(04) የዩብድ ጥቁር ዴንጋይ (ብረት ነክ ንጥረ ነገር አዘሌ አሇት) ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር
Yubo basalt.

ከ2 ሚሉዮን ዓመት እስከ መቶ ሺህ ዓመታት ወዱህ የተፈጠሩ የገፀ-ምዴር ሊይ የአፈር ሽፋን

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(03) በናዲ የተከማቹ የአፈርና ስብርባሪ አሇት ክምችት ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Colluvial
sediments.
(02) የዯሇሌ አፈር ክምችት ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Alluvial sediments.
(01) የወንዝ ዯሇሌ (አሸዋ) ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Fluvial sediments.

ከዚህም በተጨማሪ ሌዩ ሌዩ የሥነ-ምዴር መዋቅሮች (ስንጥቆች) በአካባቢው የተሇዩ ሲሆን

በተሇይም ሌውጥ አሇቶች የሚገኙባቸው ስፍዎች አውራ የመሬት መዋቅሮች ከሰሜን ወዯ ዯቡብ
የተሰዯሩ ሲሆን ከነዚህ አሇቶች በሊይ ሰፍረው የሚገኙት የእሳተ ጎሞራ ውጤት አሇቶች ከሰሜን
ምስራቅ ወዯ ዯቡብ ምዕራብ በተሰዯሩ የመሬት ስንጥቅ የተዋቀሩ ናቸው፡፡
 ከ2 ሚሉዮን ዓመት እስከ መቶ ሺህ ዓመታት ወዱህ የተፈጠሩ የገፀ-ምዴር ሊይ የአፈር ሽፋን
(03) በናዲ የተከማቹ የአፈርና ስብርባሪ አሇት ክምችት ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Colluvial
sediments.
12 M apየዯሇሌ
(02) S heet
አፈር 0ክምችት
638-D 2 M በእንግሉዚኛው
ወይም ejo አጠራር Alluvial sediments.
(01) የወንዝ ዯሇሌ (አሸዋ) ወይም በእንግሉዚኛው አጠራር Fluvial sediments.

ከዚህም በተጨማሪ ሌዩ ሌዩ የሥነ-ምዴር መዋቅሮች (ስንጥቆች) በአካባቢው የተሇዩ ሲሆን

በተሇይም ሌውጥ አሇቶች የሚገኙባቸው ስፍዎች አውራ የመሬት መዋቅሮች ከሰሜን ወዯ ዯቡብ
የተሰዯሩ ሲሆን ከነዚህ አሇቶች በሊይ ሰፍረው የሚገኙት የእሳተ ጎሞራ ውጤት አሇቶች ከሰሜን
ምስራቅ ወዯ ዯቡብ ምዕራብ በተሰዯሩ የመሬት ስንጥቅ የተዋቀሩ ናቸው፡፡

ገፀ-ምዴር (Geomorphology)
የመጆ አካባቢ ማፕ ሺት የገፀ-ምዴር አቀማመጥ በሰሜን ምስራቅ እና በዯቡብ ምዕራባዊ ክፍሌ
በእሳተ-ጎሞራ የተፈጠረ የኢጥዮጵያ ከፍታ ስፍራና በመሃከሊቸው በገናላ ወንዝ የሊይኛው ተፋሰስ በተፈጠረ
ሰፊ ሸሇቆ ተፅእኖ ያረፈበት ነው፡፡ ባጠቃሊይ የመጆ ማፕን የሚያዲርሱት እነዚሁ የገናላ ወንዝ
የሊይኛው ገባር የሆኑት የጋምቤሌቶ እና የልጊታ ጅረቶች ናቸው፡፡ በሰሜን ምሥራቅና በዯቡብ
ምዕራብ በኩሌ ያለት ከፍታ ስፍራዎች ንጣፍ በአማካኝ ከ2600 - 3000 ሜ. ከባህር ጠሇሌ በሊይ
ሲዯርሱ በመካከሊቸው የሚገኘው የሊይኛው የገናላ ወንዝ ተፋሰሶች ሸሇቆ በአማካኝ 1400 ሜ. ከባህር
ጠሇሌ በሊይ ከፍታ ያሇው ነው፡፡ በተጨማሪም በጅረቶቹ አቅራቢያ በውሃ ዯሇሌ የተፈጠሩ የአፈር
ክምችት የሚገኝ ሲሆን በተፈጠሩት ሸሇቆዎች ጎን ወይም ግራና ቀኝ ባለት ከፍታ ስፍራዎች አፋፍ
(በተሇይም በስተሰሜን ምሥራቅ በኩሌ ባለት ክፍታ ስፍራዎች አፋፍ) ሊይ ወዯ ሸሇቆው የሚያመሩ
ታሊሊቅ ጥንታዊ የመሬት መንሸራተት ቅሪቶች ያካተተ ነው (Figure 2-1)::

የአፈር ሁኔታ (Pedology)

በመጆ ማፕ ሺት ውስጥ በአፈር ሳይንስ መርሆ የተሇዩት የአፈር አይነቶች ዋና ዋና ባህሪያት
የሚከተለት ሲሆኑ በዚህ ሪፖርት ያሇውን አጭር መግሇጫ ከተዘጋጀው አባሪ የአፈር ስርጭት
አመሌካች ካርታ ጋር ሇማናበብ ስማቸው በእንግሉዝኛ ቋንቋ ጭምር ተገሌጧሌ፡፡ በአጠቃሊይ
ከተወሰደት ናሙናዎች አብዛኛዎቹ ከፍተኛ አሲዲማነት የሚያጠቃቸው ፤ መካከሇኛ “Cation
Exchange Capacity” (ጠቃሚ ንጥረ ነገሮችን አምቆ በመያዝ በውሃ መሸርሸርን የመቋቋም ባህሪ)
፤ ዝቅተኛ የአፈር ውስጥ ብስባሽ ፤ ዝቅተኛ የናይትሮጂን ይዘት ፤ መካከሇኛ የካሌሲየም ይዘት ፤
ዝቅተኛ የማግኒዝይም ይዘት እና በጣም ዝቅተኛ የፎሰፎረስ ይዘቶች ያሳያለ፡፡

ሬጎሶሌ (Regosol) ፡ በአፈጣጠራቸው ያሌዲበሩና ሙለ በሙለ ወዯ አፈር ንጣፍነት ያሌተቀየሩና

በበሰበሱ ኮረት የተሞለ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡ በአብዛኛው ሇግጦሽ መሬት ባሇፈ በሰፊው
ሇመታረስ የሚያበቃ የተሟሊ ንጥረ ነገርና ላልች ባህሪያት የላሇው ሲሆን በአብዛኛው ከላልች
የአፈር አይነቶች ሇምሳላ ከላፐቶሶሌ እና ከካምቢሶሌ ጋር በአፈጣጠር ተቆራኝተው ይገኛለ፡፡

ካምቢሶሌ (Cambisols) ፡ ሇእርሻ ተስማሚ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ በአብዛኛው ሇእፅዋት
አስፈሊጊ ንጥረ ነገር አሟሌተው የያዙ ናቸው፡፡ ነገር ግን ሇረጅም ጊዜ የውሃ እጥበት ሲጋሇጡ
የንጥረ ነገር ይዘታቸውን የሚያጡ በመሆኑ ሇሽርሻሮና እጥበት እንዲይጋሇጡ በተሇይም በዝናባማ
ወቅት በተክልችና ዛፎች ሽፋን የሚሹ ናቸው፡፡ በተጨማሪም የናይትሮጅን ንጥረ-ነገር ታክልባቸውና
የተፈጥሮ ፍግ በመጠቀም እንዱሁም ተዲፋት መሬቶችን ባሇማረስ ምርታማነታቸውን ሇማስጠበቅ
የሚቻሌ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

ፍለቪሶሌ (Fluvisols) ፡ ታዲሽ የሆነ የንጥረ-ነገር አቅርቦት የሚያገኙ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ
እርጥበት በሚበዛባቸው ወይም በወንዞችና ውሃ አካሊት አቅራቢያ በስፋት የሚገኙ ሲሆኑ
ሇአሲዲማነት የመጋሇጥ እዴሌ የሚስተዋሌባቸው የአፈር አይነቶች ናቸው፡፡ በመሆኑም 3
በአቅራቢያቸው ባለ የውሃ አካሊት እንዲይጥሇቀሇቁ ጥንቃቄ የሚሹ የአፈር አይነቶች ናቸው፡፡

ላፕቶሶሌ (Leptosols) ፡ በአብዛኛው ሇግንባታ መሠረት አመቺ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ
ባጠቃሊይ አነስተኛ የንጥረ-ነገር ይዘት ያሊቸውና ውሃ ወይም እርጥበት የማዘሌ አቅማቸው ዝቅተኛ
በመሆኑ ሇእርሻ ምርት የማይፈሇጉ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

ለቪሶሌ (Luvisols) ፡ ሇእርሻ ተስማሚ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ የተሸሇ የአየር እንቅስቃሴ
በውስጣቸው የሚያስተናግደና በአብዛኛወ በንጥረ-ነገር ይዘት የዲበሩ ናቸው፡፡ በላሊ መሌኩ ባሊቸው
የእርሻ ተስማሚነት ባህሪ ምክንያት ሇረጅም ዘመናት ሇእርሻ ተመረጭ በመሆናቸው በአብዛኛው
አካባቢ የሊይኛው የአፈር ክፍሊቸው በመጥፋቱ የብስባሽ እና የናይትሮጂን እጥረት ያጠቃቸዋሌ፡፡
በተጨማሪም በተዲፋት መሬት ሊይ ሇከፋ ሽርሻሮ የተጋሇጡ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

ኒቲሶሌ (Nitisols) ፡ ሇሌዩ ሌዩ የሰብሌ ምርቶች ተስማሚ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ በተሇይም
ሇቡና ተክሌ ተመራጭ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡ ሆኖም በውስጣቸው ባሇው የብረት ንጥረ ነገር
ይዘት ባህሪ የተነሳ ፎስፌት የተባሇዉን ጠቃሚ ንጥረ ነገር ሇሰብሌ እንዲይውሌ አምቀው የመያዝ
ባህሪ ያሊቸው በመሆኑ በየአመቱ በፎስፌት የበሇጸገ የማዲበሪያ ግብአት የሚፈሌጉ ናቸው፡፡
በመሆኑ ሇእርሻ ምርት የማይፈሇጉ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

ለቪሶሌ (Luvisols) ፡ ሇእርሻ ተስማሚ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ የተሸሇ የአየር እንቅስቃሴ
በውስጣቸው የሚያስተናግደና በአብዛኛወ በንጥረ-ነገር ይዘት የዲበሩ ናቸው፡፡ በላሊ መሌኩ ባሊቸው
የእርሻ ተስማሚነት ባህሪ ምክንያት ሇረጅም ዘመናት ሇእርሻ ተመረጭ በመሆናቸው በአብዛኛው
SUMMARY IN AMHARIC
አካባቢ የሊይኛው የአፈር ክፍሊቸው በመጥፋቱ የብስባሽ እና የናይትሮጂን እጥረት ያጠቃቸዋሌ፡፡
13
በተጨማሪም በተዲፋት መሬት ሊይ ሇከፋ ሽርሻሮ የተጋሇጡ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

ኒቲሶሌ (Nitisols) ፡ ሇሌዩ ሌዩ የሰብሌ ምርቶች ተስማሚ የሆኑ የአፈር አይነቶች ሲሆኑ በተሇይም
ሇቡና ተክሌ ተመራጭ የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡ ሆኖም በውስጣቸው ባሇው የብረት ንጥረ ነገር
ይዘት ባህሪ የተነሳ ፎስፌት የተባሇዉን ጠቃሚ ንጥረ ነገር ሇሰብሌ እንዲይውሌ አምቀው የመያዝ
ባህሪ ያሊቸው በመሆኑ በየአመቱ በፎስፌት የበሇጸገ የማዲበሪያ ግብአት የሚፈሌጉ ናቸው፡፡
በተጨማሪም በአለሚኒየም ንጥረ-ነገር መብዛት በሚከሰት የተክልች መርዛማነት ተጽእኖ ሇመቀነስ
የኖራ ግብአት የሚስፈሌጋቸው የአፈር አይነት ናቸው፡፡

የከርሰ-ምዴር ውሃ (Groundwater)
የከርሰ-ምዴር ውሃ አሇኝታ ከተሇዩባቸው የውሃ አዘሌ አካሊት (aquifers) የመጀመሪውና በቀሊለ
ጥቅም ሊይ ሉውሌ የሚችሇው ባሌተጠቀጠቁ የአሇትና የአፈር ውስጣዊ ክፍተቶች ሰርጎ የሚገኝ
ውሃ ሲሆን በቀሊለ በሰው ኃይሌ ቁፋሮ ሉዯረስባቸው የሚችለ አሇኝታዎች ናቸው፡፡ በላሊ መሌኩ
በጠጣር አሇቶች ስንጥቅ እና አሇቶች ውስጥ ባለ ክፍተቶች የተጠራቀሙ የከርሰ-ምዴር ውሃ
ይዘቶች በሰፊው የሚገኙ ሲሆን በማሽን እገዛ በሚቆፈሩ ጥሌቅ ጉዴጓድች (100 ሜትር ወይም
በሊይ) ውስጥ ፓምፖች በመግጠም ውሃውን ማውጣት የሚቻሌ አሇኝታ ሲሆን ከፍተኛ ወጪ
የሚጠይቁ ናቸው፡፡ ባጠቃሊይ በአመት 434 ሚሉዮን ሜ. ኪዩብ የውሃ ሃብት ሇመጠቀም
የሚያስችሌ የከርሰ ምዴር ውሃ ሃብት ሉገኝ እንዯሚችሌ ተዯረገው ጥናት አመሊክቷሌ፡፡ በከርሰ-
ምዴር ውሃ ካርታ ሊይ የሰፈሩ ዝርዝር የውሃ አሇኝታ ቋቶች፡-

 ባሌተጠቀጠቁ አሇት እና አፈር ክፍተቶች ውስጥ በመካከሇኛ መጠን እና በውሱን ስፍዎች

የሚገኙ (Locally developed and Moderately productive porous aquifers)
 ባሌተጠቀጠቁ ኮረታማ አፈር ውስጥ ባለ ክፍተቶች በስፋት ነገር ግን ውሱን በሆነ መጠን
በቅርብ ጥሌቀት (ከ10 እስከ 25 ሜትር) የሚገኙ (Extensive and low productive porous
acquifers with shallow Groundwaetr Developed in Regolith)
 በጠጣር አሇቶች ስንጥቅ መካከሌ በመካከሇኛ መጠን ነገር ግን በስፋት ስርገው የሚገኙ
(Extensive and moderately productive fissured aquifer).
 በጠጣር የሌውጥ አሇቶች ስንጥቅ ክፍተቶች ውስጥ በአነስተኛ መጠን ነገር ግን በስፋት
ስርገው የሚገኙ (Extensive and low productive fissured aquifers in Basement rocks).

በአካቢው የሚገኘው የከርሰ-ምዴር ውሃ የተፈጥሮ ንጥረ ነገር ይዘት ከተወሰደት ናሙናዎች

እንዯታየው በከፍተኛ ቦታዎች በዋናነት ካሌሲየም ባይካርቦኔት ያሇው ሲሆን እንዱሁም የማግኒዝየም
እና የሶዴየም ባይካርቦኔት ይዘት ያለት ናቸው፡፡

የተፈጥሮ አዯጋ (Geohazards) 4

ከተፈጥሮ አዯጋ ተጋሊጭነት አንፃር ገፀ-ምዴራዊና (ውጪያዊ) ከርሰ-ምዴራዊ (ውስጣዊ) ክስተቶች

ጋር ተያይዘው የተገሇፁ ሲሆን፤ በውጪያዊ የመሬት ሊይ ሂዯቶች የሚፈጠሩ የተፈጥሮ አዯጋ
ስጋቶች በካርታ ሊይ ሰፍዋሌ፡፡ ከነዚህ የተፈጥሮ አዯጋዎች በተሇይም ከውጫዊ የተፈጥሮ አዯጋዎች
መካከሌ የመሬት መንሸራተት እና የቋጥኝ ናዲ የከፍተኛ ቦታዎችን አፋፍ ተከትል በሰፊው የሚታይ
ሲሆን በነዚሁ ከፍታ ስፍራዎች አምባ ሊይ በእርሻ መሬት እና መሰረተ ሌማት ሊይ ተከታታይ
አለታዊ ተፅእኖ የሚያዯርሱ አዯጋዎች ናቸው፡፡ ታችኛው የጋምቤሌቶና የልጊታ ጅረቶች ተፋሰስም
ሇተዯጋጋሚ የጎርፍ እና ዯሇሌ ሙሊት አዯጋ ተጋሊጭ ነው፡፡ ሉዯርሱ የሚችለ የጎርፍና ዯሇሌ
መሙሊት ችግሮች (aggradation, Suffusion) በመጆ ማፕ የሰፈሩ ሲሆን (Geo-hazard map)
በተጨማሪም ሇሚዯርሱ ዴንገተኛ የተፈጥሮ አዯጋዎች ምሊሽ እና ዝግጁነት አመሊካች ትንተና
ዝርዝር በሪፖርቱ ተካቷሌ፡፡
1) INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The project has been implemented since 2015 within the framework of the Memorandum
of Understanding between the Czech Development Agency (CZDA) and the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) for cooperation on priority issues. The
cooperation project was focused on detailed geological mapping conducted for geo-
hazards risk vulnerability assessment.
The project studies were carried out in four areas (1 : 50,000 map sheets): Arba
Minch, Leku, Dila and Mejo situated mainly in the areas of the SNNPR (Southern
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region). The project was financially supported by the
Czech Development Agency (CZDA) and implemented by the Czech Geological Survey
(CGS) in response to the request of the Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE). Within
the project, in addition to the study outputs for the areas investigated, strengthening of
skill sets to the local staff of the GSE and formulation of typical methodology for similar
studies in other geo-hazard vulnerable areas have been realized. The study started in
2015 running for 3 consecutive years in total.
The main focus has been put on the vulnerability of inhabitants, farmlands and the
environment related to geo-hazards phenomena. A current sharp increase in population
and settlement and tillage of land have merged with an unhealthy competition for
available natural resources, such as land for tillage, groundwater, grazing land and
settlement areas and the likes leading to an increasing conflict of interest. An example
can be seen in the extensive deforestation and endangering of indigenous vegetation
because of the expansion of settlements and farmlands into previously remote areas.
Hence, the extension of agricultural land into unsuitable land is becoming a common
practice increasing the risk of susceptibility to various forms of geo-hazards. Without
informed and planned management of the land, it is inevitable that expanses of land will
soon become a subject to accelerated erosion, formation of deep erosion gullies, and the
overall degradation of farmland leading to falling long-term viability and productivity.
These processes can lead to the formation of the so-called „badlands“, which are areas
with no soil cover, without vegetation and with a high density of erosion gullies, which
subsequently become unsuitable to sustain inhabitants if not treated and managed timely.
On the other hand, due to the setting of natural environment, where the great East
African Rift Valley passes through the study area, serious threats are being noticed
associated with the creation of ground fissures and subsidence causing substantial loss
of property and land as well as being a potential threat to the safety of inhabitants.
Comprehensive research and investigation of geology and lithology, including the
analysis of possible geological hazards in the tectonically active areas are hence crucial
for effective management and planning of development activities for sustainable agro-
practice, improved quality and long-term protection of agricultural lands. The study also
aids in directing and constraining the search for water resources and in the end to saving
considerable financial costs associated with the remediation of negative phenomena
 INTRODUCTION 15

arising from adverse geological processes. In connection with the current need for an
analysis of possible geological hazards in vulnerable areas of the southern Ethiopia,
the GSE turned to the Czech Republic for assistance in improving its professional’s
capacity in the field of geological mapping, geological hazards risk assessment and
hydrogeological investigation at a detailed scale of 1 : 50,000.
Such level of information is envisaged to be practical enough to be implemented and
therefore to allow a sufficient assessment of geological hazards risk and hydrogeological
characterization in the areas of strategic importance (e.g. current agglomerations, areas
with rapidly growing population, areas susceptible to negative impacts of climate change,
and areas with possible recent tectonic and seismic activity).
The GSE has chosen four areas exhibiting potential geological hazards to be
defined, and to be comprehensively prioritized in terms of vulnerability to geo-hazards
risk and suitability for agriculture from the geological point of view. These areas also
exhibit variability in geological structure and lithology, and consequently the variability
in potential geological hazards. On the basis of findings and practices of study in the
selected areas, GSE aims to develop practical methodologies in the form of a manual that
will be crucial for subsequent similar tasks elsewhere in the country.
Mejo (a part of Sidama Zone) can be considered as a natural reservoir of water
resources with vital importance deserving a high degree of protection. It is also prone
to a potential risk of mass wasting processes and erosion. The geological formation is
primarily comprised of metamorphic rocks of the Arabian-Nubian shield basement rocks
and overlying volcanic rocks and younger Quaternary sediments.

1.2 Objective

The objectives of the study are to produce a set of geological and thematic geoscientific
maps with explanatory notes for the selected areas that are susceptible to various forms
of geo-hazards. This includes large-scale geological mapping at a  scale of 1 : 50,000
showing the lithological, geochemical and structural characteristics of the area along
with a hydrogeological map, geo-hazards risk map and soil types map of the area. The
maps and explanatory notes are intended to be easily understood and be informative
enough for the local authorities and development officers. It is anticipated that the maps
will aid the effort for natural resources management and planning of land use practise
and local development strategies.

1.3 Location and accessibility

The Mejo map sheet is located in the southern Ethiopia, bound by the geographic
coordinates of 6° 15’ and 6° 30’ north latitudes and 38° 45’ and 39° 00’ east longitudes
(Figure 1‑1). It is situated on the dissected highland south-eastern plateau flanking the
Main Ethiopian Rift Valley on the east. The area is accessible by the road from Awassa
to Dilla, turning to the east after the town of Aleta Wondo on a paved asphalt road at the
overall distance of 80 km from Hawassa (350 km to the south from Addis Ababa). The
accessibility around the map sheet area is very low due to poor networks of roads (which
are unpaved but motorable in dry weather). The highly dissected and mountainous nature
of the terrain prevented an easy expansion of infrastructure in the area. Major nearby
16 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

towns include Mejo in the eastern part of the map sheet and Daye north of the map sheet.
Two perennial tributary rivers: Logita and Bonora confluence to form the upper course
of Genale River, the major river in the southern Ethiopia. The rivers form a valley that
runs from the northwest to southeast, dividing the map sheet into the South Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) Region in the north and the eastern part (Aroresa and
Bensa Woredas) and Oromia Region in the south-western part.

1.4 Methods

The investigation was carried out in close cooperation of geologists and other specialists
from CGS and those from GSE. The project began with reviewing and interpretation of
published and archived data available from various sources. This includes the existing
hydro-meteorological data (precipitation, water discharge, etc.) acquired from the Ethiopian
National Meteorological Agency (NMA), topographic maps from the Ethiopian Mapping
Authority (EMA), and digital elevation model of the terrain from the Global land cover
data/database, optical Satellite imagery (Landsat 8) for selected areas used for the detection
of tectonic features and Quaternary landforms. These data sources are summarized in Table
1‑1. Other references to previously conducted studies and relevant reports and published
articles were also used. Base maps for the field survey were prepared by fusing topographic
maps with digital elevation models and satellite images.

Figure 1‑1.
Adminstrative
boundaries on
the Mejo map sheet.
 INTRODUCTION 17

Table 1-1. Sources of data used for the base map preparation

Dataset Source Resolution

Land use and land cover FAO 1 : 2 Million scale

Soil map FAO 1 : 2 Million scale

Dem USGS 30 m

Landsat images USGS 28 m

Topographic maps EMA 1 : 50,000 scale

The approach adopted was to produce a set of geological and specialized thematic
maps of the area investigated. The set includes a  geological map, geohazards map,
hydrogeological and soil maps. For the sake of keeping uniformity and coherence in the
collection of field data by multidisciplinary experts at different time periods, a unified
methodology based on CGS experience and previous mapping work conducted on
a regional scale in Ethiopia was established. In the field, an appropriate documentation
and characterization of geological, hydrogeological and geo-hazards risk phenomena
were made. Characteristic rock, soil and water samples were collected at representative
localities. Laboratory investigations and analyses of collected samples aimed to classify
the local lithology and to describe and establish geochemical and hydrochemical
characteristics of the surveyed areas. These were used as a  basis for the geological
interpretation of potential geohazard risks. Laboratory studies and analyses of the collected
samples were carried out by various organizations and institutes. Physical properties of
rocks were analysed in Ethiopia at the GSE Central Laboratory. Geochemical analyses
were made at the ACME Labs in Canada, soil chemistry and microanalysis of polished
sections were carried out at CGS Laboratories in Prague and K-Ar dating was conducted
at ATOMKI, Institute for Nuclear Research Laboratory, Debrecen (Hungary).
The following text provides an overview of the methods used to compile the final
results. Diverse geoscientific information were analysed and integrated to draw the
implications on the major geo-hazards risk and vulnerability of the study area. The key
field documentation points are shown in Figure 1‑2 while the complete list is found in
the GIS database (GSE).

Satellite data analysis

Interpretation of remote sensing data (Landsat Images) was used to identify and delineate
the extent of tectonic pattern and lines as well as to establish the lithological boundaries
followed by field reconnaissance and by a  detailed survey afterwards. Delineation of
geomorphic features was also done using remote sensing data and interpretation of
patterns in topographic maps combined with digital terrain models.

Geological mapping
The field work was carried out in order to compile a geological map of the area
concerned, which at the same time serves as the basis for subsequent investigations.
Therefore, sampling and field observations as well as the identification and brief
characterization of geological units were undertaken in early stages of the project
18 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 1‑2. Location of

key documentation sites.

implementation. A tectonic pattern interpreted from the satellite images was compared
and confronted with field observations, including the measurements of strike and
inclination of geological units.

Geomorphological mapping
Geomorphological mapping appears to be one of the most effective tools or techniques
to identify geo-hazards in the field. It was focused on the identification and recognition
of fresh and recent characteristic landforms susceptible to geo-hazards and to assess the
level of potential risk. It also helps to trace neotectonic phenomena.

Soil mapping
Examination and mapping of major soil types and their parameters were done by the
combination of selective field sampling and fusion of geological map with land cover map
where the obtained data were compared and confronted with the existing soil database of
the country, which provides only regional distribution. In most cases, improvements of the
database have been made in terms of quality and detail. Soil sampling and site evaluation
were performed by a  CGS expert where the local GSE geologists working alongside
 INTRODUCTION 19

were given the opportunity to learn the methodology in the field. Representative soil
samples collected in the field were analysed in the Czech Republic.

Hydrogeological Investigation
The potential role, which the groundwater play in the occurrence or formation of geo-
hazards, was assessed by the hydrogeological characterization of lithological units,
interpretation of tectonic pattern and analyses of samples collected at the existing
water points. Local lithology, geological structure and tectonics were studied in order
to find out the extent to which these phenomena may affect the quality of groundwater,
and also if a  reasonable water management can be established in selected areas.
Hydrogeological mapping of the concerned areas was used to assess the vulnerability
of the landscape to slope deformation, dangers of erosion and possible occurrence of
flash floods.
The inventory of water points was based on a desk study, during which the relevant
materials such as geological reports, drilling logs, maps and aerial photographs from the
Regional Geological Department of GSE were acquired. Important data on climate and
the distribution of hydrometeorological stations and topographic maps were acquired
from various organizations and institutions. The desk study also included a preliminary
interpretation of the obtained data and the compilation of terrain maps using satellite
imagery, aerial photographs and digital elevation model (DEM) of the terrain with
simplified geology.
A total of 11 water samples were collected from boreholes (4), springs (5), dug well
(1) and the Genale River (1) in the Mejo map area. Data realted to other water analyses
from the adjacent areas were used for an assessment of hydrochemical characteristics of
water in the map area. All of the water samples collected for laboratory analyses were
submitted to the Central Laboratory of GSE and analyzed for chemical composition. The
chemistry of the water obtained from the samples is shown in Annex 2. Chemical analysis
of the major constituents (Mg, Ca, Na, HCO3, SO4, Cl) and secondary constituents (K,
NO3, F, SiO2), and the measurements of electrical conductivity (EC) and pH at room
temperature were performed in the laboratory. Field measurements of pH, temperature
and electrical conductivity were made at the time of sampling.

K-Ar dating
For determining the age of ignimbrites, the K-Ar method was used by analyzing the
samples at the Institute for Nuclear Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in
Debrecen, Hungary. The basic principles of the conventional K-Ar dating and applied
experimental techniques using the radioactive decay of the 40K isotope were described
by Dalrymple and Lanphere (1969). Approximately 0.05 g of finely grounded samples
were digested in acids (HF, HNO3) in teflon beakers and finally dissolved in 0.2 M HCl.
Potassium was determined by flame photometry with a Na buffer and Li internal standard
using Industrial M420 type flame photometer. Multiple runs of inter-laboratory standards
(Asia1/95, LP-6, HD-B1, GL-0) indicated the accuracy and reproducibility of this method
to be within 2%. Approximately 0.5 g of grounded samples were wrapped in aluminium foil
and copper sieve preheated for about 24 h at 150-180 °C in vacuum. Argon was extracted
under ultra-high vacuum conditions by RF induction heating and fusion of rock samples
in Mo crucibles. The gas was purified by Ti sponge and SAES St 707 type getters in order
20 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

to remove chemically active gas contaminants and some liquid nitrogen in a cold trap to
remove condensable gases. The extraction line is directly linked to a mass spectrometer
(90° magnetic sector type of 155 mm radius) used in static mode. Argon isotope ratios were
measured by an 38Ar isotope dilution mass spectrometric method, previously calibrated
with atmospheric argon and international rock standards. Experimental details of the K-Ar
dating method were described in Balogh (1985). Age of the samples was calculated using
the decay constants suggested by Steiger and Jäger (1977). Analytical error is given at 68%
confidence level (1σ) using the equation of Cox and Dalrymple (1967).

Mineral chemistry
Chemical analyses of minerals were obtained using a Cameca SX-100 electron microprobe
at the Joint Laboratory of the Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science,
Masaryk University in Brno and the Czech Geological Survey, Brno. The measurements
were carried out in a wave-dispersion mode under the following conditions: acceleration
voltage of 15 kV, beam diameter of 5 µm and probe current of 30 nA. The integration time
was 20 seconds and the standards employed (Kα lines) were: augite (Si, Mg), orthoclase
(K), jadeite (Na), chromite (Cr), almandine (Al), andradite (Fe, Ca), rhodonite (Mn) and
TiO2 (Ti). Data were reduced on-line using the PAP routine procedure (Pouchou and
Pichoir 1985). The empirical formulae of feldspars were recalculated to 8 oxygen atoms.
The amphibole formulae were obtained on the basis of 23 oxygen atoms (Leake et al.
1997). The Fe2+/Fe3+ ratios in amphiboles were estimated assuming the cation sum of 13
without Ca, Na and K (13 eCNK). Pyroxenes are classified according to Morimoto et al.
(1988). The formulae were obtained on the basis of 4 cations and the ferric iron estimated
after Droop (1987).

Whole-rock geochemistry
About 4 kg samples were crushed (jaw crusher) and homogenized in an agate
planetary ball mill for the whole-rock chemical analyses. Major and trace elements
were determined at the Acme Analytical Laboratories, Ltd., Vancouver, Canada. Major
oxides were analyzed by the ICP-OES method. Loss on ignition (LOI) was calculated
from the weight difference after the ignition at 1,000 ºC. The rare earth and other trace
elements were analysed by ICP-MS following LiBO2 fusion (analytic code: A4B4 –
major oxides, Ba, Be, Co, Cr, Cs, Ga, Hf, Nb, Ni, Rb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Th, U, V, W, Y, Zr,
REE; 1DX - Ag, As, Au, Bi, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, Zn; 2ALeco – Ctot,
Stot; for analytical details, reproducibility, and detection limits see http://acmelab.
com). Geochemical data were handled and plotted using the GCDkit software package
(Janoušek et al. 2006).

1.5 Previous studies

Previous studies focusing on the Mejo area are only referred to the regional development
studies. The Ministry of Water Resources of Ethiopia (now designated Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Electricity) carried out the integrated resources development master plan
study in the context of the Genale-Dawa rivers basin and the Wabi Shebelle River, two
major rivers in the area (MoWR 2005, 2007).
 INTRODUCTION 21

The regional geological map of the Dilla map sheet including the Mejo sub map
at a scale of 1 : 250,000 was recently compiled by the Geological Survey of Ethiopia
(Yismaw et al. 2015). It has also been extended to be used as the base map in producing
an integrated geohazards map of the same map sheet (Rapprich et al. 2014) and
hydrogeological map (Agezew et al. 2014). The hydrogeological map identified the
regional aquifer systems along with the regional hydrochemical affinity, giving an
extensive inventory of water points in the region (Agezew et al. 2014). The eastern
adjacent bordering map of Dodola was mapped by Gobena et al. (1997), which features
similar geological setup to the Mejo area.
Other studies in the area give only a  marginal account of the area, given close
proximity to the much studied mineralization belt of basement rocks to the south in
the Adola belt. Geological mapping, mineral investigation and hydrogeological studies
including drilling have been made in some proximity to the Mejo map. Glover and Clark
(1974) give a brief account of prospection for nickel and cobalt mineralization in the
context of the well-known mining district further south in relation to serpentinite rocks.
Biazegn (1974) studied the geochemistry of the Chembi area to the south of the Mejo area
in metamorphic rocks and produced a 1 : 50,000 scale geological and geochemical map
indicating copper mineralization. Investigation for groundwater by drilling test wells
was conducted by Zakula (1974) and revealed the bedrock to be comprised of pegmatite
and granitic gneisses. Kitachew et al. (1978) reported a lignite deposit in the Sodo area
and proved that it is a low-grade coal due to the high ash content. Areas prospected for
iron deposits southeast of the Mejo map were reported by Berhe (1990). Other authors
have made extensive studies of mineral deposits (e. g. Gebreab 1992; Woldehaimaot
and Behermann 1995; Yibas et al. 2002; Tadesse 2003). For example, the occurrences
of placer gold in the southwestern part of the area (closer proximity to the Mejo map)
as a result of quartz veins mineralization in shear zones and iron ores in metagabbro are
reported (Gobena et al. 1997).
 2) ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

2.1 Topography and Morphology

The Mejo map sheet is located in the south-eastern sector of Ethiopia as a part of the
easternmost shoulder of the Main Ethiopian Rift. The area is represented by a deep
valley of the Genale River that drains southeast to Somalia and then into the Indian
Ocean after confluence with the Dawa River coming from the west. Deeper incision
coinciding with the Mejo sub sheet exposes a sequence of Neoproterozoic medium-
grade metamorphic rocks overlied by Eocene to Pleistocene volcanic deposits. The
Mejo sub map has a  typical morphology with deeply eroded N–S trending valleys
in the central part and volcanic plateaus along the southwestern and eastern margin
(Figure 2-1). These volcanic plateaus attain an elevation slightly above 3,000 m a.s.l.
(eastern part) and around 2,400 m a.s.l. (southwestern part).

Figure 2‑1.
Geomorphological
scheme of the Mejo map.
 E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E T T I N G 23

The lowest elevation in the Mejo map sheet is located in the southern part at the
notch of the Genale River at around 1,400 m a.s.l. The northeastern sector is noted for
numerous seasonal spectacular waterfalls along the torrents formed on the cliffs of
various volcanic plateaus. Relatively moderate vegetation cover is limited to the higher
peaks and ridges, being mostly comprised of indigenous forests. Enset, sorghum, and
coffee plants are common on the less elevated and densely populated homesteads and
community woodlots areas.

2.2 Hydrometeorological characteristics

According to the Koppen-Geiger world climate classification, the Mejo map sheet falls
to the major climate regime of warm temperate and fully humid precipitation conditions
and mainly warm summer temperatures. However, the eastern border is also influenced
by a similar climate zone, but with a winter dry precipitation pattern (Kotek et al. 2016).
On the other hand, the climatic conditions in Ethiopia are mostly controlled by
altitude. According to Daniel Gamatchu (1977), there are wide varieties in climatic
zones. Climatic zones defined by Javier Gozálbez and Dulce Cebrián (2006) and Tesfaye
Chernet (1993) are based on altitude and precipitation, being listed in Table 2‑1 and
shown in Figure 2‑2. The Dega climatic zone is found in the NE and SW part of the map
sheet in highlands formed by volcanic rocks. Weina Dega and Kolla zones are found in
the central part, comprising the valleys along Gelana, Borona and Gonjobe rivers. The
area is covered by vegetation, which is classified as a distributed high forest.

Table 2‑1. Ethiopian climate classification for the Mejo area (Gozálbez and Cebrián 2006
and Chernet 1993)

Name
Precipitation
Altitude Precipitation Precipitation
between
Mean annual below 900 mm above 1,400 mm
900 and 1,400 mm
temperature

Afro-mountain
(temperate)
Afro-mountain
bamboo forest
(temperate)
Dega barley, wheat,
forest – woodland
3,200–2,300 m – nug, pulses
barley, wheat, pulses
10–15 °C Juniperus,
Juniperus, Hagenia,
Hagenia,
Podocarpus
Podocarpus,
bamboo

Shrub-savannah Wooded savannah

Savannah (sub-tropical) (sub-tropical)
Weina Dega
(sub-tropical) corn, sorghum, teff, corn, teff, nug,
2,300–1,500 m
wheat, teff, some corn enset, nug, wheat, enset, barley
15–20 °C
acacia savannah barley Acacia, Cordia,
Acacia, Cordia, Ficus Ficus, bamboo

Tropical Wet tropical

Kolla Tropical
sorghum, teff, nug, mango, sugar cane,
1,500–500 m sorghum and teff
peanuts corn, coffee, oranges
above 30 °C acacia bushes
Acacia, Cordia, Ficus Cyathea, Albizia
24 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

There are no meteorological stations operated by the Meteorological Institute and WMO
within the mapped area, but several others are located in the close surroundings (see
Table 2‑2). Hence, the annual precipitation at three localities around the Mejo map
sheet shows ~1,200 mm to ~1,550 mm of annual rainfall with two peaks (rainy seasons)
corresponding to April-May and August-October. The monthly average rainfall during
the main rainy seasons is just above 125 mm, while the rest of the months receive an
average of just above 40 mm monthly rainfall. Figure 2‑2 shows the rainfall patterns
in the area. For further analysis in this document, the mean annual rainfall amount of
1,300 mm is adopted for the Mejo map sheet.

Table 2‑2. Meteorological stations in the Mejo map sheet and the surrounding area.

Station Class X UTM Y UTM Altitude Data duration Sub basin

Hager Salam 1 447342 716983 2,620 1956–2005 Genale

Woshi 4 500000 734991 2,500 1989–2001 Genale

Chenbe 3 492718 675921 1,025 1988–1990 Genale

Figure 2‑2. Rainfall

pattern at the Hagere
Salam meteorological
station (NMAE, source
Halcrow, 2008).

2.3 Land use and Land cover

Most of the arable land is used for coffee, enset and barley farms at a small household
scale. The traditional local agro-climatic classification influences the land cover and
accordingly also the land use. The main factor influencing this classification system is
the elevation, which controls variation in temperature and rainfall and divide the area into
the Moist Weyin Adega (elevations less than 2,000 m a.s.l.) and Moist Dega (elevations
above 2,000 m a.s.l.) regions. The Moist Weyin Adega regions span the central,
northwest-southeast running valleys and are notable for farming of maize, sorghum, teff,
enset and barley growing regions with Acacia, Cordia and Ficus occurring as indigenous
 E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E T T I N G 25

trees. The northeastern and southwestern highland plateau, on the other hand, are the
Moist Dega regions notable for farming of barley, wheat and pulses having one cropping
season with rain, where the indigenous trees such as Juniperus, Hagenia and Podocarpus
grow as well. Because of the rugged terrain, most population are concentrated in the mid-
altitudes. The recent boom in the extraction of resources is evident from the encounter in
the field related to the traditional mining of gold as well as and also some indications of
industrial minerals such as lead, talc and graphite.

2.4 Prominent natural features

Several notable natural features are found in the Mejo area, which are worthwhile and of
potential economic revenue from tourism. This includes numerous spectacular waterfalls
and caves in the plateau region and the Genale upstream rivers. This area is also notable
for the appearance of gemstones and precious metals resources. These and other attractive
traditional and natural environments can be a great value to be preserved and managed
for promoting a positive image and generating income for the region.
3) REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The map sheet is built by metamorphic rocks of Precambrian age and partly covered by
Cenozoic volcanics. The metamorphic rocks belong to the ~N–S trending, metavolcano-
sedimentary Megado Belt, which forms the northern part of the Adola Terrain. This
Precambrian unit includes the low- to high-grade metamorphic rocks, which underwent
two main tectonometamorphic episodes due to the Pan-African orogeny. The overall
geodynamic evolution has been explained as being a result of the paleo-ocean closure,
which resulted in the formation of north–south trending volcanic arcs and back arc basins
(Woldehaimanot 1995), followed by continental collision of the east and west Gondwana
paleo-continents assembly, crustal thickening and accretion of different crustal units
forming the Arabian-Nubian Shield (Gobena et al. 1997). Desta (1978) divided these
Precambrian rocks into five different units based on lithology, stratigraphy and structural
settings. The metamorphic units were intruded by syntectonic to post-tectonic granitoid
plutons and maffic intrusions (Desta, 1978; Gobena et al. 1997).
The basement rocks are best exposed in the Genale River Gorges. These basement
rocks are overlied by two distinct volcanic units – the pre-rift Nazret Group (Eocene to
Pliocene age) and the syn-rift Dino Formation (Pliocene to Pleistocene age) as a part
of the EARS volcanic sequence. The volcanites either lie above the oldest suite or rest
directly on the crystalline basement, and all of them lack basal red grit beneath them
(Ayalew et al. 2006).
The volcanism in the EARS is mainly concentrated in its northern part, which is
interpreted as being a result of the Afar mantle plume impact (e.g. Schilling et al. 1992).
Characteristic volcanic rocks are represented by alkaline to hyperalkaline types, which
developed from continental tholeiites through alkaline to transitional magmas (Mohr
et al. 1972). Recent geophysical survey revealed that volcanic activity in the MER is
concentrated in magmatic segments localized along rift axis (e.g. Beutel et al. 2010;
Keranen and Klemperer 2008). The ages of volcanic rocks largely differ within the entire
EARS. The volcanic activity in the MER started at around 45 Ma followed by more
extensive ruptions of tholeiite to alkaline basalts between 31 and 28 Ma (Hofmann et
al., 1997; Woldegabriel et al. 1991). A second volcanic event of intermediate and felsic
compositions took place mainly between 17 and 11 Ma in the southern and central parts
of the MER (Ebinger et al., 1993), and at around 12 Ma in its northern part (Wolfenden
et al. 2004). These events were followed by basaltic eruptions with cooling ages ranging
from 11 to 8 Ma and minor basaltic lava flows dated at 7 Ma (Bonini et al. 2005). By
1.8 Ma, volcanism and faulting were localized into N–NE trending magmatic segments
within the rift (Keranen et al. 2004). These segments are separated from one another
by shorter intervals in a  right-lateral en echelon pattern. The volcanisms that ensued
were bimodal with acidic and basic composition. This late volcanic activity started with
the eruption of widespread Pleistocene ignimbrites dated at 1.6–0.5 Ma that may be
correlated to the northern MER (Bonini et al. 2005). The younger NW–SE and NE–SW
trending regional faults were active from Tertiary to Quaternary (Desta, 1978; Gobena
et al. 1997).
 REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING 27

Within the Mejo map sheet, the volcanic flat areas belonging to Somali Plateau (Abbate
et al. 2015) are separated from the southern and western Ethiopian plateau (apparent
in Figure 3‑1). The trap series consists of Arussi and Bale basalts of Miocene age at
24 to 9 Ma with a  composition of transitional to alkaline basalts, having a  thickness
of about 3,000 m (Kunz et al. 1975; Morbidelli et al. 1975; Merla et al. 1979; Zanettin
et al. 1980; Juch 1975). Abundant rhyolitic intercalations occur in this trap series.
The prominent morphological feature of Bale Mts., which are Pliocene to Quaternary
volcanic complexes reaching elevations of 4,300 m, are resting on the wider Arussi and
Bale basalts (Abbate et al. 2015).

Figure 3‑1. Digital

elevation model
showing the East African
Rift in Ethiopia and
location of the studied
area. Black rectangle
is the extent of the
regional Dila map at
a scale of 1 : 250,000
scheme, red rectangle
represents extent of the
Mejo map at a scale of
1 : 50,000 scheme.
4) REMOTE SENSING ANALYSIS

Remote sensing techniques were used for a better understanding of lithologies on the
Earth surface, geological structures and to provide an overview of the regional context
of study areas. The area of the Mejo map sheet is extensively covered by vegetation,
so that the spectral data from optical sensors (Landsat, Aster, and Quick Bird) provide
mostly information on land use, but limited information on lithological variation. The
main use of remote sensing data in this area is the utilization of digital elevation model
(DEM) for the identification of geological structures using the morphotectonic analysis.
Remotely sensed data (optical images, DEMs) were also used to identify and understand
geomorphic processes and related potential natural hazards.

4.1 Data and methods

Remote sensing data used in this study comprise: satellite images of Aster, Landsat 7 ETM+,
DigitalGlobe and the digital elevation model AsterDEM. Landsat and Aster images and
Aster digital elevation model (AsterDEM) have a spatial resolution of approximately 30 m,
which is the best option for mapping at the 1 : 50,000 scale. Aster DEM is derived from the
optical stereoscopic satellite ASTER images. DEMs represent key data for understanding
the main geomorphological and tectonic features of the study area. We are also using the
optical satellite imagery such as Landsat and ASTER for understanding lithology and land
cover of poorly accessible areas. However, the usage for the geological applications is
limited to the areas with no or poor vegetation cover (arid, semiarid, lowlands and uplands).
Landsat satellite images were used to help to understand surface lithology. The area
is greatly vegetated; even the image from the dry season show lots of vegetation
cover especially in the central, northern and south-western parts of the map sheet (see
Figure 4‑1). This complicates lithological interpretations. Vegetation was masked out
and possible lithologies in the areas with no or rare vegetation was enhanced by RGB
composite bands 531 as RGB with histogram equalize stretch. Different colours may
represent different minerals, rock and soil types on the surface, but it is still complicated
by a  partial cover of vegetation and weathering (Figure 4‑1). The comparison of the
results of Landsat 531 image with the geological map shows that most of the lithological
indices are obliterated by vegetation, land use, geomorphology and weathering pattern.
In the Abaya Lake lowlands, dark purple colour indicates the Amaro-Gamo basalt and
Shole ignimbrite, while the Hantate ignimbrite is expressed mostly in purple-reddish
colours. For the eastern uplands, purple colour indicates the exposure of the Bule
ignimbrite, while the Kebado basalt is expressed mostly in purple, orange and yellowish
and its weathered parts also in greenish colours.
High-resolution satellite imagery DigitalGlobe with a spatial resolution up to 0.6 m
were also used for selected areas, where a detailed understanding of geomorphology is
necessary (e.g. for landslides and other geohazard studies).
R E M OT E S E N S I N G A N A LY S I S 29

Figure 4‑1. Landsat

image of the Mejo map
sheet. False colour
image with the bands
432 displayed as RGB
composite (upper) is
showing vegetation in
red colour. False colour
image with the bands
531 displayed as RGB
composite (lower)
is showing different
lithological features
by different colours;
vegetation is masked
out (black).
30 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

4.2 Morphotectonic analysis

Structural characteristics of an area can be revealed from the remotely sensed data by
interpretations of linear features. It is the large synoptic view of satellite images that
allows the recognition of features that are difficult to follow and interpret during field
campaigns. The shape of the features is determined by their dip angles. Except for thrust,
most faults dip steeply and form straight lineaments relatively unaffected by topography.
However, there are also other possibilities how the linear features can be created in
remotely sensed data; from being actual faults, dykes, steep or vertical strata, to roads
and data artefacts. Neotectonic faults can be identified by (1) their morphology, forming
asymmetric ridges with one side corresponding to breaks in slope or scarps, (2) the
displacement of late Neogene lithological boundaries, structural or erosional surfaces,
and (3) the occurrence of straight lines of several tens of kilometres in length (Dhont
and Chorowitz 2006, Jordan et al. 2005, Snyder et al. 2000, Saintot et al. 1999). We have
systematically compared our satellite images and DEMs with geological maps in order
to carefully separate the scarps formed by fault planes (active) from those resulting from
the differential erosion of contrasted lithology (ancient faults or non-tectonic lithological
boundaries). The active fault scarps, even eroded, are much higher and longer than the
scarps formed by lithological contrasts.
Identification of kinematic indices (whether it is a strike-slip, normal or reverse fault)
is based on these features: strike-slip faults have rectilinear traces and they locally bound
push-up hills or extensional basins at step-over or bends of the fault trace. They can be
associated with typical patterns such as tail-crack or horse-tail structures at fault ends.
Reverse faults have sinuous traces and they are associated with half-cylindrical-shaped
hills of the uplifted blocks due to drag folds deforming the ancient planar erosion surface
in the hanging wall. Normal faults are recognized by the following geomorphic characters:
(1) they generally have a  widely arched trace, concave (mainly) or convex toward the
footwall, in contrast to the strike-slip faults, whose trace is generally straighter; (2) they
bound tilted plateaus (tilted blocks); (3) as is also the case for the strike-slip faults, they are
not related to half-cylindrical-shaped hills corresponding to the recent drag folds, which
accompany active reverse faulting (Snyder et al. 2000; Saintot et al. 1999). Mapping of
the recent folds, the synclines, forming lowlands filled with sediments, and the anticlines
corresponding to regularly-shaped elongate hills is also possible. It is important to point out
that this approach provides information on the finite strain, but not on its detailed history.
Faults usually develop in conjugate directions, where one direction can be dominant. The
recognition of conjugate fault systems allows the general estimation of the maximum and
minimum principal stress axes orientation. Faults represent local weaknesses in the Earth’s
crust and become eroded easily so that they can form linear depressions often followed by
streams, which are recognizable on digital terrain models and optical images. The higher
water saturation of fault zones provides an excellent environment for plants that may grow
along the fault line and enhance its discernment. However, as a rule, other geologically
significant features such as truncations, displacements of lithological units, geophysical
indices or direct field checking should support the statement that a linear feature in an
image represents a real fault structure. Active faulting in an area may be beneficial to the
recognition of faults as it may produce specific landforms like headless valleys, facetted
spurs, shutter ridges, offset streams or sag ponds (Snyder et al. 2000; Saintot et al. 1999).
Although the area of the Mejo map sheet is situated more than 60 km east of the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER) valley, it is still affected by the major N–S (a dominant strike of the
 R E M OT E S E N S I N G A N A LY S I S 31

Figure 4‑2.
Morphotectonic analysis
of the Mejo map sheet.
Morphotectonic linear
indices are displayed
on the colour digital
elevation model (Aster
DEM) combined with
a shaded relief map.

main rift normal faults to the south of the MER) and minor NNE–SSW trending structures
(typical for the northern part of the MER). Both directions correlate well with the prominent
morphotectonic linear indices on the map sheet, especially in its central and northeastern
parts (Figure 4‑2). On the other hand, the western part of the study area also contains
prominent NW–SE striking morphotectonic linear indices, which are almost perpendicular
to the NNE system of structures. Linear indices of the E–W trending directions also occur
significantly, especially in the central and southwestern parts of the map sheet. They
do not show significant vertical displacement, they may represent small strike-slip faults
or fracture zones. Validation of the morphotectonic linear indices with the field data and
geological map eliminated several lines representing lithological boundaries. The results
presented in Figure 4‑2 show linear indices, which are interpreted mainly as faults, fault
zones and prominent fracture systems. Their prominent geomorphological expression
points to their possible present-day (Cenozoic) activity.
The comparison of results of the morphotectonic analysis with the geological map
(see Geological map attached) shows an agreement of most of the major morphotectonic
linear indices with the verified and presumed faults by geological mapping. A  good
correlation is seen within the N–S oriented structures, the not so prominent geomorphic
features of NE to SW trending structures and the shorter but numerous E–W and NW
oriented linear indices were all confirmed by the field geological mapping.
5) GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET

5.1 Lithology and Petrology

Proterozoic metamorphic rocks belong to the ~N–S trending, volcano-sedimentary Megado

Belt, which forms a part of the Adola Terrane. Metamorphic rocks in the Adola Terrane
can be interpreted as the northern part of the Southern Ethiopian Shield and represents
the reworked pre-Neoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic juvenile lithosphere (Worku 1996).
The Southern Ethiopian Shield occurs at the interface between the Mozambique Belt in
the south and the Arabian-Nubian Shield to the north. Metamorphic rocks are exposed
in the southern and central parts of the Mejo map sheet, mainly along the rivers Genale
and Gambelto (around the villages of Girja and Chebe) and consist of mafic to ultramafic
rocks associated with metasediments and orthogneisses. Mafic to ultramafic rocks form
discontinuous NNW–SSE oriented belts ranging from 1 to 3 km in width. Several authors
(Kazmin et al. 1978, Beraki et al. 1989 and Worku and Schandelmeier 1996) described the
presence of mafic to ultramafic (ophiolite) belts consisting of amphibolites, serpentinites
and talc-tremolite-chlorite schists. The metasedimentary rocks are represented by biotite
to muscovite-biotite gneisses with minor intercalated quartzite and graphitic rocks.
The Precambrian granitic rocks in the study area vary from orthogneisses to deformed
granodiorites. South of the studied area, the Meleka foliated granodiorite was dated at
610 ± 9 Ma (U–Pb zircon SHRIMP; Yibas et al., 2002).

Southern Ethiopian Shield

Neoproterozoic

16. Sericite schist is exposed mainly along in the valley of the Logita River (south of Huluka).
A fine-grained, pale-gray to yellowish, strongly foliated rock (Figure 5‑4) is spatially related
to quartz hydrothermal veins. Sericite schist consists of muscovite (19–58 mod. %), quartz
(15–40 mod. %), plagioclase (1–36 mod. %), pyrite (0–8 mod. %), magnetite (0–5 mod. %),
chlorite (1–4 mod. %) and kyanite (0–4 mod. %). Muscovite (sericite) and chlorite show
strong parallel alignment (Figure 5‑5). Quartz and plagioclase are often recrystallized to fine-
grained granoblastic aggregates. Kyanite forms up to several cm long porphyroblasts (Figure
5‑1 and Figure 5‑2). Quartz vein parallel with the foliation is also common in this rock.

15. Quartzite is exposed mainly around the valley of rivers Genale and Kinkomo, and
usually forms several meters thick lenses inside the biotite paragneisses and graphitic
schist. Quartzite is a  massive fine-grained rock, reddish or brown and predominately
consist of anhedral quartz (more than 75 mod. %), biotite, muscovite and rarely also
graphite and aluminosilicates (kyanite, sillimanite).

14. Biotite to muscovite-biotite paragneiss is mainly exposed in the Genale River

Valley, mainly around the village Girja. It is a medium- to fine-grained, dark gray rock
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 33

Figure 5‑1. Kyanite porphyroblasts Figure 5‑2. Microphotograph of the sericite schist with kyanite
in a sericite schist (DE412). porphyroblasts (DE264), crossed polarizers (XPL image).

Figure 5‑3. Quartz vein crosscuts the foliation in biotite Figure 5‑4. Microphotograph of the biotite paragneiss (KV221B),
paragneiss (DE382). XPLimage.

(Figure 5‑3) with a  variable content of muscovite and plagioclase (locally resembles
mica schists). Muscovite-rich paragneisses to mica schists are associated with abundant
pegmatite lenses, mainly near the confluence of rivers Genale and Gambelto. Paragneiss
(Figure 5‑4) is characterized by the predominance of plagioclase (22–45 mod. %),
biotite (19–43 mod. %) and quartz (22–30 mod. %) over the other rock-forming minerals
such as muscovite (0–22 mod. %) and subordinate amphibole (0–4 mod. %) or garnet
(0–2 mod. %). The biotite (Figure 5‑5a; IVAl = 2.42 to 2.58 apfu. and XFe = 0.45 to
0.52) flakes are preferentially oriented subparallel with schistosity and partly altered
to chlorite. Subhedral plagioclase is normally zoned (Figure 5‑5b; An19–45) and locally
slightly altered to white mica and/or clay minerals. Inclusions of zircon and/or monazite
are surrounded by intense pleochroic halos. Garnet is locally present (Alm57–70 Sps3–21
Grs6–16 Prp10–14 Adr1–4) as small crystaloblasts up to 2 mm in size. Muscovite forms
laths, coarser and more poorly oriented than biotite. A  certain part of the paragneiss
sequence is characterized by the presence of abundant intercalations of graphitic schists,
amphibolites and quartzites. Graphitic schist is present only as several meters thick
34 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑5.
Classification diagrams
for biotite (a), feldspars
(b), amphibole (c) and
Ca–Fe–Mg pyroxenes
(d): metagabbro
(DE283); hornblendite
(KV275); tremolite-
talc schist (DE242);
amphibolite (KV214,
KV216) orthogneiss
(KV215, DE291);
paragneiss (KV221,
DE249); sericite schist
(DE261) and Getra-Kele
basalt (DE260).

layers within the complex of biotite paragneisses exposed in the southern part of the
Bubisa ridge. The graphite schist is a dark grey, fine-grained and strongly foliated rock.
It consists of quartz, graphite, muscovite, plagioclase, biotite and or chlorite.

13. Biotite-muscovite phyllite forms up to 150 m thick body at the contact of gneisses
and amphibolite in the area west of Kechabo. Usually, the phyllite is a fine-grained dark-
gray to pale-gray rock. A dark-gray to pale-gray, fine-grained, foliated rock consists of
alternating layers of quartz and muscovite that are visible along the biotite (chlorite)
aggregates. Graphite and iron oxides are also present. Biotite is partially replaced by
chlorite. Flakes of mica and biotite and/or chlorite oriented nearly perpendicular to
the main foliation can be found in these layers. Minor albite and tourmaline occur as
crystaloblasts up to 0.1 mm in size.

12. Biotite orthogneiss crops out mainly below the southeasthern escarpment near
Fechena and Girja. Medium and rarely fine-grained, light-gray orthogneiss is locally
porphyroclastic, with a variable degree of deformation. Mafic microgranular enclaves
up to 20 cm in length are locally visible (Figure 5‑6). Fine-grained, elongated enclaves
contain a higher content of biotite (and often also epidote) than the surrounding
orthogneiss. Orthogneiss is dominantly composed of quartz (34–42 mod. %), plagioclase
(32–37 mod. %), K-feldspar (10–20 mod. %) and biotite (8–15 mod. %) and sometimes
of minerals of the epidote-clinozoisite group (0–7 mod. %). Accessory minerals
include zircons, apatite, allanite and opaque minerals. Subhedral plagioclase (An21–34
Ab65–78 Or1) often shows polysynthetic twinning. Perthitic orthoclase (Ab9–10 Or90–91)
occurs as subhedral to anhedral grains ranging in size from 0.01 to 1.5 mm. The biotite
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 35

(IVAl = 2.37 to 2.49 apfu and XFe = 0.60 to 0.72) forms subhedral laths that are oriented
subparallel to each other (Figure 5‑7). In some cases, several mm thick strips with biotite-
or quartz-dominant assemblages are visible. Minerals of the epidote-clinozoisite group
form euhedral grains and subhedral granular aggregates in the groundmass.

11. Amphibolite is associated with the metasedimentary and ultramafic rocks forming
narrow, N–S trending belts mainly in the Valleys Logita and Genale Rivers. It also occurs
as several m thick layers and lenses in the gneisses, which can not be mapped at the scale
1 : 50,000. The dominant type is represented by a banded or striped amphibolite, which
is characterized by alternating of several cm thick leucocratic and dark amphibole-rich
layers (Figure 5‑8).
Medium- to fine-grained, grey green to dark amphibolites (Figure 5‑9) consist of amphibole
(46–80 mod. %), plagioclase (12–43 mod. %), epidote-clinozoisite (0–9 mod. %), quartz
(0–6 mod. %), biotite (0–5 mod. %), garnet biotite (5–0 mod. %) and opaque minerals
(magnetite and/or ilmenite). Plagioclase dominates in leucocratic layers. Subhedral to

Figure 5‑6. Biotite orthogneiss with deformed melanocratic Figure 5‑7. Microphotograph of the orthogneiss (DE291),
microgranular enclaves (DE252). XPL image.

Figure 5‑8. Migmatitic amphibolites with Figure 5‑9. Microphotograph of the amphibolite (DE049B),
a relict of garnets (DE410). XPL image.
36 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

anhedral prismatic grains of amphibole (Figure 5‑5c; tschermakite; Si = 6.09 to 6.30

apfu. and XMg = 0.52 to 0.55) often have preferred orientation subparallel with schistosity.
Subhedral plagioclase is normally zoned and ranging from andesine to labradorite (Figure
5‑5b; An46–68); also, it commonly shows polysynthetic twinning. Garnet (Alm54–61 Grs16–26
Sps9–10 Prp7–10 Adr3–4) is rare and often forms poikilitic porphyroblasts up to 1 cm in size
(plagioclase and amphibole inclusions are common). Garnet is often partially replaced by
plagioclase. The biotite (Figure 5‑5a IVAl = 2.14 to 2.24 apfu and XFe = 0.44 to 0.45) occurs
as small flakes partly altered to chlorite. Euhedral to subhedral epidote or clinozoisite
crystaloblasts up to 2 mm in size are locally present.

10. Talc-tremolite to chlorite schist is exposed mainly in the southeastern part of the
Mejo map sheet (e.g. around the peak of Bubisa or in the Denbobi Robele area). The
composition, texture, and colour of this rocks are variable. Predominant medium- to fine-
grained, green to whitish-green, strongly foliated rocks are composed mainly of talc and
tremolite. Elongated crystals or radial aggregates of tremolite needles up to 5 cm long
are sometimes visible in the hand specimen (Figure 5‑10). Chlorite and/or phlogopite,
minerals of the serpentine group and carbonates are rare. Both, talc and chlorite occur
as fine-grained flakes and laths in the groundmass (Figure 5‑11). Usually, they show
well-developed parallel alignments, which define foliation planes. Tremolite (Figure
5‑5a; Si = 7.79 to 7.82 apfu. and XMg = 1) occurs as light green crystals. Magnetite and
apatite are typical accessory minerals. Up to 1 m thick layers of chlorite granofels are
locally present, which predominantly consist of chlorite with subordinated magnetite
and apatite.

9. Serpentinite and metagabbro are massive rocks, which form tectonic lenses in talc-
tremolite to chlorite schists of several m to several hundred meters in size. Serpentinite is
fine-grained, greenish to rusty rock composed mainly of serpentine minerals and magnetite.
Metagabbro shows a medium- to coarse-grained, nematoblastic to granonematoblastic
texture. It sometimes also shows a cumulate texture of amphibole rich layers and spots of
several m in size. Metagabbro (to hornblendite) is composed of approximately 96–w45
mod. % of amphibole, 1–41 mod. % of plagioclase, 0–3 mod. % of pyroxene, 0–2 mod. %
of epidote and 0–1 mod. % of magnetite. Plagioclase (An88–89) is present as subhedral and
rarely twinned crystals (Figure 5‑12). Randomly distributed aggregates of recrystallized
magnesiohornblende to tschermakite are typical (Si = 6.46 to 7.46 apfu and XMg = 0.78 to
0.96). Irregular diopside (Fig. 5-5d; XMg 0.84 to 0.85 and Ca 0.97 to 0.98 apfu) inclusions
in hornblende are interpreted as magmatic relics (Figure 5‑13).

8. Quartz vein (commonly up to 1.5 meter in thickness) is composed of homogeneous

milky to grayish white quartz. Quartz veins have been found in all the metamorphic
lithologies, but they are mostly exposed in biotite orthogneisses cropping out in the
southern part of the map sheet. Their contacts are sharp, mostly discordant to the regional
metamorphic fabrics.

Volcanic deposits
Volcanic activity on the Mejo map sheet (as part of the southern MER) is divided to
two episodes: (a) Eocene to Oligocene pre-rift volcanic activity (~45 to 27 Ma) and (b)
Pleistocene post-rift volcanic activity. The pre-rift Amaro-Gamo sequence (Ebinger et
al. 1993, George et al. 1998 and George and Rogers 2002) has a  minimum thickness
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 37

Figure 5‑10. Radial aggregates of tremolite needles i Figure 5‑11. Microphotograph of the talc-tremolite schist (DE242),
n the talc schist (DE242). XPL image.

Figure 5‑12. Microphotograph of the metagabbro (DE283); Figure 5‑13. Microphotograph of the cumulate
XPL image. metagabbro-hornblendite (KV275); XPL image.

of ~1150 meters dominated by tholeiitic and transitional basalts. The associated Shole
Ignimbrites known also as the Amaro Tuffs (JICA 2014; Ebinger et al., 1993, George et
al., 1998) have a rhyolitic composition with the thickness of ~150 meters. The post-rift
volcanic sequence is represented by Pleistocene Hantate Ignimbrites and Yubo Basalts
(Dino Formation).

Pre-rift volcanic deposits

Paleogene

7. Amaro-Gamo Basalts: basalt to trachybasalt with minor basaltic pyroclastic

deposits (Figure 5‑14) and basaltic pyroclastic deposits. They are the oldest volcanic
rocks exposed in the area of the Mejo map sheet. Numerous small outcrops are situated
around the villages of Dikicha and Hameraro. The lower part of the Amaro–Gamo
basalt sequence is mainly comprised of layers of up to 3 m thick massive lava flows,
38 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑14. Basalt with a vesicular texture (DE266). Figure 5‑15. Microphotograph of the basalt (DE260), XPL image.

with slightly to strongly weathered surfaces. Dark-grey basalts to trachybasalts are

characterized by a  hyaloophitic texture in their groundmass (Figure 5‑15) and a  flow
structure. Elongate laths of plagioclase and/or subhedral clinopyroxene phenocrysts are
often present. The volcanic glass is affected by alterations and replaced by clay minerals
and chlorite. Accessory minerals include ilmenite and magnetite.
The upper part of the Amaro-Gamo Basalt sequence covers the Shole Ignimbrite, being
exposed mainly in the eastern and northwestern part of the Mejo map sheet, for example
around the Bensa Hill or the town of Mejo. Dominant basalts are massive, dark-colored
rocks with columnar jointing (Figure 5‑16). Lava flows are locally intercalated with the
palaeosols, fine basaltic scoria layers and epiclastic deposits up to 2 m thick. The basalts are
massive or vesicular (vesicles or amygdales up to 1 cm). They consist of plagioclase (42–
61 vol. %) and clinopyroxene (32–51 vol. %), usually with subordinate amounts of olivine
and interstitial glass. Fine-grained groundmass is dominated by plagioclase, clinopyroxene
and volcanic glass (Figure 5‑17). Plagioclase (An31-53 Ab44-61 Or2-8) phenocrysts occur as
subhedral stubby tabular laths up to 1 mm in size. Clinopyroxene (diopside, XMg = 0.72
to 0.74 and Ca = 0.82 to 0.86 apfu) occurs as subhedral to anhedral crystals up to 0.5 mm
in size. Chlorite is partially replaced by volcanic glass or clinopyroxene. Rarely present
phonolite is a dark-gray rock, usually rather fine-grained to glassy. It usually contains small
prismatic phenocrysts of plagioclase up to 2 mm in size.

6. Shole Ignimbrite: rhyolitic ignimbrite and minor rhyolite. Densely welded to

unwelded rhyolitic ignimbrites are exposed in a  wide area between Mejo and Chebe.
This sequence has a total thickness of 5–80 m and consists of a package of 2–5 m thick
layers of ignimbrites with minor ash fall deposits and paleosol horizons (Figure 5‑18).
The ignimbrite deposits show vertical and lateral variations in welding intensity. Columnar
jointing commonly occurs in densely welded facies of ignimbrites. Fine-grained, densely
welded, yellowish, rhyolitic ignimbrites are dominating. The groundmass is fine-grained
and contains flattened glass shards up to 1 mm in length. Crystal fragments comprise
3–10 vol. % and are dominated by subhedral to euhedral quartz, sanidine and plagioclase
crystals. Flattened fiamme are usually eutaxitic (Figure 5‑19), reaching a maximum length
of 3 cm. Unwelded ignimbrite contains the dark ash matrix and pumice fragments up to
5 cm in diameter. Charred tree trunks in the bottom ignimbrite layer are rarely present.
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 39

Figure 5‑16. Basalt lava flows, road cut west of the town of Figure 5‑17. Microphotograph of the basalt (DE268), XPL image.
Mejo (DE251).

Figure 5‑18. Contact between the overlying ignimbrite Figure 5‑19. Microphotograph of the ignimbrite
and a weathered basalt, a charred tree trunk in the bottom (DE220), XPL image.
ignimbrite layer (DE293).

Post-rift volcanic deposits

Pleistocene

5. Hantate Ignimbrite: welded to unwelded rhyolitic ignimbrites are gray to

yellowish, being exposed mainly in the valleys of Gambelto, Logita and Genale rivers
(Figure 5‑20). Ignimbrite partially fills these valleys up to a  thickness of about 50 m.
The densely welded ignimbrites are locally covered by lapilli and pumice fall deposits.
Massive welded rhyolitic ignimbrite often contains feldspar phenocrysts (5–20 vol.
%), glassy fiamme or strongly flattened pumices up to 1 cm in length (5–10 vol. %),
subangular quartz and rocks fragments (0–5 vol. %). The fine-grained groundmass
has a  well-developed parallel alignment of glass shards (Figure 5‑21) caused by the
compaction.
40 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑20. Outcrop of the Hantate ignimbrite (DE222B). Figure 5‑21. Welded rhyolitic Hantate ignimbrite with feldspar
phenocrysts (DE159), planar polarized light (PPL) image.

4. Yubo Basalt crops out in the NW edge of the map sheet (near Sade Ware), being
represented by fine-grained dark gray basalts forming lava flows up to 2 m thick, which
are locally intercalated with the fine basaltic scoria layers up to 1 m thick. The basalts are
massive or vesicular (vesicles or amygdales up to 2 cm in size). They consist of plagioclase
(43–60 vol. %) and clinopyroxene (30–50 vol. %), usually with interstitial glass.

Sedimentary deposits
Pleistocene to Holocene

3. Colluvial sediments represent widespread gravitationally driven deposits by mass

wasting processes (creep, landslide, rockfall, debris flow) occurring generally at the
foothills of the fault escarpments. The deposits represent heterogeneous admixtures of
sediments with a different granular size. Most voluminous deposits represent accumulation
zones of mostly fossil, deep-seated rockslide and landslides in the eastern escarpment
of the Kinkemo River Valley. They are characterized by matrix-supported, unsorted
sediments with boulders of welded ignimbrites and basalt with several meters in diameter.
Sandy to clayey brownish to reddish soils form the matrix of deposits (Figure 5‑22).
Locally, the occurrences of the matrix- to clast-supported gravels with angular clasts of
volcanic rocks were documented as being the result of debris and grain flow deposition.
Voluminous colluvial deposits are mapped northeast of Girja in the Serecho River Valley
in the southeastern margin of the map sheet, in the prominent scarps of the Gambelto River
around Kebacho and Fehcena in the central part of the map sheet and north and northeast of
Chebe in the northern part of the map sheet. Small scale deposits of fine-grained colluvial
sediments formed by redeposited sandy to silty brownish or reddish residual soils with
angular clasts of unweathered to moderately weathered clasts of volcanic rocks with
a grain size up to 10 centimetres formed as a product of creep and shallow small-scale
slope processes were documented in the highlands of the eastern part of the sheet. Most of
these occurrences are not displayed in the map due to their limited extension. Thickness of
colluvial sediments related to deep-seated slope failure could reach several tens of meters;
the thickness of small-scale deposits is estimated up to 5 meters.
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 41

2. Alluvial sediments are associated with the occurrence of alluvial fans. The origin of
alluvial fans is related to erosion of material in the slope during rainfalls, transported
by sheet-flows or density currents. Alluvial fans are generally formed in the areas with
an abrupt decrease of gradient. The sediments accumulate due to a deceleration of flow
at lower gradients. In general, the alluvial fans are located in the mouths of the narrow
erosion valleys. The sediments are formed by clayey, silty and sandy redeposited soils,
sand and sheets of gravels representing sheet flood deposits. The occurrences of alluvial
fans are concentrated in the southern part of the sheet, where the topographic gradient
decreases and the narrow erosion valleys are becoming wider. The alluvial fans were
observed in the area south of Girja and in the mouths of tributaries in the southern part
of the Genale River Valley. The estimated thickness is several metres with the maxima in
the proximal part of alluvial fans.

Holocene

1. Fluvial sediments are preserved in the flood plains along the river channels. The
character of sediments is dependent on the topographic gradient of the area, the type
of fluvial system and the volume of transported material. Two main types of fluvial
deposits were recognised in the area of the map sheet. In the planation surface of the
highland, where the gradient is low, the meandering channels prevail. Silty and muddy
unconsolidated sediments in the flood plains and bottoms of broad valleys represent low-
energy over-bank deposits. Subordinated sandy facies are associated with the infill of the
meandering channel (Figure 5‑23). Wetlands with fine-grained sediments with a  high
portion of organic matter occur locally. The second type is associated with a braided-
river system in the southern part of the main valleys – Kinkem River, Borotu – Chichu
River and Genale River (Figure 5‑24). The deposits are characterised by coarse-grained
clast-supported gravels and coarse-grained sands forming lateral and in-channel bars and
fluvial channel fills. Thickness of fluvial sediments is estimated at several meters. The
lack of fluvial deposits in the northern part of the sheet is a result of high topographic
setting, where the high energy of water current in fluvial channels does not allow the
deposition of transported material.

Figure 5‑22. Colluvial sandy soils with an admixture Figure 5‑23. Small fluvial meandering stream with wetlands
of angular cobble of volcanic rocks, east of Gambelto. in the flood plain, north of Mejo town.
42 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑24. Braided

channel of the Genale
River with a gravel
accumulation of
a lateral bar.

5.2 Geochemistry

Mafic metamorphic rocks

Analyzed samples of amphibolites and metagabbro are basic in composition with SiO2
ranging from 47 to 51 wt.  % and low K2O (0.03–0.41 wt.  %) and Na2O (0.44–1.33
wt. %) contents (Figure 5‑25a and b). Variable content of SiO2 are typical for chloritic
and talc-tremolites (22 and 63 wt. % respectively). Mafic rocks fall in the basalt field
of total alkali-silica (TAS) as well as in the Zr/Ti versus Nb/Y diagrams (Figure 5‑25c).
In the Th–Co diagram (Figure 5‑25d), amphibolites and metagabbros are plotted as
tholeiitic basalts with the exception of hornblendite, which is classified as calc-alkaline
basalt. Magnesium contents in amphibolites and metagabbro are moderate (7–13 wt. %),
while hornblendite, chlorite and talc-tremolite schists show a high content, which ranges
from 16 to 26 wt. %. The contents of P2O5 in mafic rocks are low (up to 0.12 wt. %) with
the exception of chlorite schists with abundant apatite.
Chondrite-normalised REE patterns of the mafic rocks exhibit variable REE concentrations
and degrees of fractionation (Figure 5‑26a). Amphibolites, metagabbros and horblendite
have REE concentrations of ~9–34 ppm. The REE patterns are relatively flat (LaN/YbN
= 0.5–2.9) with an indistinct Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*= 0.95–1.53). The highest content of
REE (544 ppm) is found in the sample of chlorite schist whereREEs are incorporated
into apatite. On the other hand, talc-tremolite schists have the lowest content of REE
(2 ppm). The abundances of many trace elements in the amphibolites and metagabbros
are close to those in the primitive mantle where variable positive anomalies of Pb, U and
Sr are typical. The amphibolite and metagabbro have a low Zr/Y (0.5–2.0) ratio similar
to volcanic arc rocks (Pearce and Norry 1979).

Felsic metamorphic rocks

Orthogneisses and sericite schist have compositions typical for a granite and granodiorite
characterized by high SiO2 (68–75 wt. %) and modest K2O (1.6–2.7 wt. %) and Na2O
(2.4–3.9 wt. %) contents (Figure 5‑25a). The rocks have relatively high Zr/Ti and Nb/Y
ratios typical for subalkaline granitoids and distinct from the alkaline acid rocks. The
contents of K2O and Th are characteristic for calc-alkaline acid rocks (Figure 5‑25 b
and d). Mineral composition, geological position and chemical composition suggest that
sericite schists are the alteration products of biotite orthogneisses.
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 43

Chondrite-normalised patterns (Figure 5‑26c) of the felsic rocks are LREE enriched
(LaN/YbN = 3.0–11.2) and show weak Eu negative anomalies (Eu/Eu*= 0.63–0.97).
In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagrams, all orthogneisses display similar
patterns (Figure 5‑26d). The patterns are characterized by negative anomalies of Nb,
Ta, Pb, P, Ti and are depleted in HREE compared to LREE or LILE. High ratios of
Th/Ta (3–18) are typical for granitoids related to an active continental margin setting
(Schandl and Gorton 2002). Low contents of Rb (35–58 ppm), Y (16–17 ppm), Nb (3–6
ppm) and Ta (0.3–0.5 ppm) in orthogneisses show affinities to volcanic arc granites
(Pearce, 1982). The primitive mantle-normalised multi-element pattern in the altered
sericite schist reflects negligible depletion in Ba, Th and LREE, compared to non-altered
equivalents (orthogneisses in Figure 5‑26d).

Volcanic rocks

The TAS classification diagram (LeBas et al., 1986) of volcanic products (Figure 5‑25a)
shows that the studied ignimbrites (SiO2 65–77 wt. %) have a subalkaline rhyolite to dacite

Figure 5‑25. Chemical composition of the volcanic and metamorphic rocks from Mejo map: (a) Total alkalis (Na2O + K2O) versus SiO2
(TAS; LeBas et al. 1986); (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Peccerillo and Taylor 1976); (c) Zr/Ti versus Nb/Y diagram (Pearce 1996); c)
Th versus Co diagram (Hastie et al. 2007).
44 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑26. Chemical composition of the metamorphic (a-b) and volcanic rocks(c-d): (a-c) chondrite-normalised rare earth element
(REE) patterns (the values for normalization are based on Boynton 1984), (b-d) Primitive mantle-normalised multi-element variation
diagrams (the values for normalization are based on McDonough and Sun (1995).

composition. The samples of mafic volcanic rocks (SiO2 42–56 wt.  %) are classified
as subalkaline to alkaline basalts, basanite and phonolite. Compared to ignimbrite,
basic volcanic rocks contain high mg# (24.9–59.6 vs. 4.5–10.3). The mafic rocks are
characterized by higher contents of Na (K2O/Na2O = 0.2–0.7), whereas ignimbrites are
potassic (K2O/Na2O = 1.0–1.2). The basalts exhibit significantly higher TiO2 contents
(2.4–3.2 wt. %) when compared with the phonolite (0.8 wt.%).
The basalts show mutually comparable REE patterns (Figure 5‑26c) with a  gently
decreasing trend from LREE to HREE (LaN/YbN = 5.7–10.7) and a  weak positive
Eu anomaly or a  negative one (Eu/Eu*= 0.9–1.1). Phonolite samples (KV211) are
slightly fractionated from light to heavy REE (LaN/YbN = 15.9) and indicate a negative
Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*= 0.7). The contents of REE in basalts (157–184 ppm) are
lower than in phonolites (368 ppm). The ignimbrite REE patterns are characterized
by a  fractionation of LREE (LaN/YbN = 5.3–21.8) and a  negative Eu anomaly (Eu/
Eu*= 0.4–0.6). One ignimbrite sample exhibits a negative Ce anomaly (Figure 5‑26c).
Primitive mantle-normalised multi-element variation diagrams (Figure 5‑26d) for
basalts show intraplate volcanic patterns with an enrichment mainly in Rb, Ba, Th,
U, Nb and Ta accompanied by low values of Cs and Pb. Phonolite shows a  similar
pattern with the higher content of LILE and negative Ba, Sr, P and Ti anomalies.
Ignimbrite displays marked negative peaks of Cs, Ba, Sr, P and Ti, which are possibly
the consequences of fractionation of feldspars, apatite and Fe–Ti oxide, respectively.
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 45

5.3 Geochronology

In order to determine the age of main volcanic events 3 samples of rocks were dated by
the K-Ar method (Table 5‑1).

Table 5‑1. K-Ar cooling age of volcanic rocks (Mejo map sheet)

K 40Ar rad 40Arrad K/Ar age

No Sample Rock type Latitude Longitude
[%] [ccSTP/g] [%] [Ma]

1 DE290 ignimbrite 6.033857 37.53718 3.634 2.7815×10-7 9.4 1.97±0.29

2 KV212 basalt 6.042339 37.54079 0,573 6.5215×10-7 54,1 29,04±0.81

3 KV220 ignimbrite 6.043457 37.54179 3.49 5.2678×10-6 52,5 38,42±0.89

The newly obtained three K-Ar ages range in the interval of ~39 to 2 Ma (Eocene
to Holocene). These results are in complete accord with the stratigraphy, suggesting
overall bimodal sequence of basalt and ignimbrite eruptions in the Mejo area. The oldest
volcanic activity coincides with the initial pre-rift event, including the basaltic lava flow
and minor ignimbrite eruptions (Shole Ignimbrite) dated at 38.42 Ma (KV220). This
event was followed by ca 10 million years of quiescence resuming as a basaltic eruption
(Getra-Kele basalts) dated at 29.04 Ma (KV212). The youngest Hantate ignimbrites
exposed as the erosional relics in the valleys of Gambelto, Logita and Genale Rivers
were dated at 1.97 Ma (DE290).

5.4. Structural and tectonic patterns

The geological map of Mejo at a scale of 1 : 50,000 is situated in the eastern part of the
NNE–SSW to NE–SW trending Main Ethiopian Rift as a  part of the East African Rift
System (e. g., Hayward and Elbinger 1996; Bonini et al. 2005; Ebinger 2005). This
structure recorded a typical evolution of continental rifting, from the fault-dominated
rift morphology in the early stages of the continental extension (transtension) toward
the magma-dominated extension during the break-up due to an extension between the
Nubian and Somalian plates (e. g. Agostini et al. 2011; Accocella 2013). The high-grade
metamorphic rocks of the Neoproterozoic to lower-Palaeozoic Arabian-Nubian Shield
crop out at the lower erosion level (e. g. Tsigie and Abdelsalam 2005). Furthermore, the
volcanic rocks and volcanoclastic deposits of the Nazret Group followed by a minor
rhyolite ignimbrite and pyroclastics belonging to the Dino Formation form the upper part
of the geological sequence.
Across the mapped lithologies, a different set of high-grade metamorphic structures,
volcanic and sedimentary fabrics (magmatic layering, foliation and bedding) and brittle
rift-related structures (for example normal to strike-slip faults and extensional joints)
were identified (Figure 5‑27).

Primary structures
The primary volcanic and volcano-sedimentary fabrics are defined by planar preferred
orientation of rock-forming minerals, micro-vesicles or micro-crystals and elongated
46 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 5‑27. Structural

scheme of the Mejo map
sheet showing a regional
fabric pattern and
mapped faults.

mineral grains, lithic fragments or stretched and welded pumice fragments. The post-rift
volcanic deposits show predominantly flat-lying bedding planes (Figure 5‑28a). Their
origin is interpreted as corresponding to flow-stretching of viscous silicic lava or hot
glass fragments during the flow. In the basalt lava flows (Amaro-Gamo basalts) and
rhyolite ignimbrites (Shole ignimbrite), a  subhorizontal to NE gently dipping flow-
foliations or bedding planes defined by elongated mineral grains and lithic fragments
or stretched and welded pumice fragments were observed. The origin of these structures
was related to the flow-stretching of viscous silicic lava or hot glass fragments during the
flow (either coherent lava or a clastic ignimbrite).

Secondary structures
Ductile deformation

Neoproterozoic to Lower Palaeozoic rocks of the Arabian-Nubian Shield are composed

of amphibolites, mica-schists, paragneisses and small bodies of orthogneisses (e. g. Tsigie
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 47

and Abdelsalam 2005). The regional metamorphic foliation or compositional banding is

mostly parallel with the lithological boundaries dipping steeply to ~W (WNW) or E
(Figure 5‑28 b and c). In some places, these fabrics contain minor rootless, close to
isoclinal folds (relic fabrics) with N or S  gently plunging fold axes. These originally
steeply dipping fabrics were folded into asymmetric folds with fold axes parallel to
the lineation or pervasively reworked into a  foliation dipping shallowly to the ~W to
WNW. Well developed mineral or stretching lineations plunge gently to the ~NNW to
~ENE (Figure 5‑28 b and c, Figure 5‑29). The fold asymmetry, asymmetrically stretched
porphyroblasts and recrystallized quartz–feldspar melt predominantly indicate left-lateral
kinematics (Figure 5‑30).The quartz vein, leucogranite and pegmatite dikes are mainly
exposed in biotite orthogneisses cropping out in the southern part of the map sheet.
Their contacts are sharp, predominantly trending NNE–SSW (Figure 5‑31d) and mostly
discordant to the regional metamorphic fabrics. In some places, a  superimposition of
steeply to moderately ~S to SW dipping minor low-temperature shear zones is observed.

Figure 5‑28. Orientation diagrams of primary structures in pre- and post-rift volcanic deposits and ductile structures in metamorphic rocks
of the Arabian-Nubian Shield: (a) – Flow foliation and bedding planes; (b) – Metamorphic foliation; (c) – Metamorphic lineation. Equal
projection to the lower hemisphere.

Figure 5‑29. Stretching lineation and parallel elongation of Figure 5‑30. Aymmetrically stretched recrystallized quartz–feldspar
MME in biotite orthogneiss. melt indicating left-lateral kinematics.
48 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Brittle Structures
Faults and fault zones

Across the mapped area, different sets of brittle structures were observed (for example
regional normal faults to strike-slip faults and fault zones, and extensional joints), shown
in Figure 5‑31. Regional faults and fault zones related to the East African Rift System
significantly affect the geological framework of the area (e. g. Tesfaye et al. 2013) and
are mostly parallel with the main axis of the rift and morphological escarpments. These
faults dip steeply to ~E or ~W, bearing well-developed steeply plunging slickensides
(Figure 5‑31a). The observed slickenside asymmetry reveals a normal movement in the
direction of the lineation. A  subordinate set of normal faults has a  ~W (WNW) to E
(ESE) trend. Moreover, minor strike-slip faults with both left- and right-lateral kinematic
indicators were identified (Figure 5‑31a). At several localities across the mapped area,
the strike-slip faults appear to be relatively older than regional normal faults.

Extensional joints
Extensional joints occur in three distinct sets with a similar direction frequency. Across
all of the lithological units on the map sheet, extensional joints trending ~N–S, NNE–
SSW and E (WNW)–W (ESE) were predominant (Figure 5‑31 b and c). Their orientation
is largely consistent with regional faults.
 GEOLOGY OF THE MEJO MAP SHEET 49

Figure 5‑31. Orientation diagrams. (a) Faults / fault zones in volcanic deposits (red) and metamorphic rocks
(black); (b) – Extensional joints in volcanic deposits (red) and metamorphic rocks (black); (c) – Frequency
diagram of extensional joints in all units; (d) – Contacts of quartz vein (red) and pegmatite dykes (black). Equal
projection to the lower hemisphere.
6) SOIL ENVIRONMENT

Soils are formed through the interaction of five major factors: time, climate, parent
material, topography and organisms. The combination of all five factors determines
the kind of soil development and soil distribution in the area. The relative influence of
each factor varies from place to place, particularly in the areas with a great diversity
of the soil-forming factors. Due to the very limited data available from the area, every
effort has been made to obtain representative profiles and for the characterization of the
soil environment in the current study. A detailed description of the soil forming factors
affecting the soil development in the study area is given in the chapter describing the
environmental setting of the study area.

6.1. Methods and samples

The soil survey was carried out in the area of the Mejo map sheet. The various road
cuts and other areas, where a cross section of the soil is exposed, were used during the
field work to identify the major soil types. Soil profiles were described according to the
Guidelines for soil description (FAO 2006), photo-documented and georeferenced by
GPS at each location. A set of soil profiles was described and classified according to the
latest update of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources system (IUSS Working
Group WRB 2015). The classification of soils is based on soil properties defined in terms
of diagnostic horizons, diagnostic properties and diagnostic materials, which should be
measurable and observable in the field to the greatest extent possible. WRB describes
soils by using two categorical details: the first level includes the Reference Soil Group
(RSG) and the second level consists of the name of the RSG combined with principal
and supplementary qualifiers.
The disturbed soil samples of at least 1kg were taken from A  horizons and B
horizons (in the ABC soil profiles) or from A horizons (in the AC soil profiles) in order to
complete the field observations of soil profiles with the necessary soil analytical data. The
sampling depths differ at different locations depending on the type of soil. The samples
were submitted to the Department of Central Laboratories of the Research Institute for
Soil and Water Conservation, Prague, Czech Republic for selected laboratory physico -
chemical analyses. All samples from the profiles were dried, ground and sieved through
a  2 mm sieve. The analyses have been done on the fine-earth (≤ 2 mm) fraction. The
analytical procedures were conducted according to the standardized working procedures
in order to analyze the following parameters:

• particle size distribution (sand, silt, clay content) by the pipette method with
the particle size fractions defined according to the Guidelines for soil descriptions
FAO (2000-63-2µm system) - ISO 11277,
• pH in H2O and in 1M KCl - CSN ISO 10390
• cation exchange capacity (CEC) - ISO 13536,
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 51

• sum of base cations and base saturation (BS),

• organic carbon (OC) - ISO 14235,
• total nitrogen - CSN ISO 11261,
• available nutrients P, K, Ca, Mg extracted by the Mehlich III method,
• carbonate content - ISO 10693.

A map of the spatial extent and distribution of the major reference soil groups was
compiled based on field survey data supported with aerial photos and other environmental
data, expert opinion and laboratory analysis. The final soil map is based on the most
recent available geological map. The geological mapping was carried out together with
the soil survey.
It can be said that if certain properties of soils from different parent materials under
certain climate, vegetative and topographic conditions are known, the prediction of
expected soil characteristics is possible by looking only at the types of parent materials
(Gökbulak and Özcan, 2008). If the bedrock is identical, then the most important factor
for variability of soil is relief, particularly in an area with a diversified topographic setting.
This presumption permits a basic prediction of the soil spatial distribution and construction
of the soil map in the case of limited resources for a systematic and detailed soil survey.
The soil map based on the field survey is generalized, in that the polygons on the
soil map show only the Reference Soil Group (RSG) or soil associations - the groups of
soil types that commonly occur together in the landscape. Soil units in the map consist
of the dominant soil type only or the dominant soil type plus a co-dominant soil and/
or associated soil types. In a given area, the dominant soils represent ≥ 50% of the soil
cover and the co-dominant soils represent ≥ 25 and < 50% of the soils cover while the
associated soils represent ≥ 5 and < 25% of the soil cover or are of a high relevance in
the landscape ecology.

6.2. Reference Soil Groups in the study area

Soils are distributed over the landscape in relation to landform, parent material and
drainage. The soil cover of the map sheet can be characterized by the following major
Reference Soil Groups (RSG).

Leptosols LP are azonal soils with an incomplete solum and/or without clearly expressed
morphological features. Leptosols can be found on rocks resistant to weathering or where
the erosion has kept pace with the soil formation or removed the top of the soil profile.
The WRB definition of Leptosols refers specifically to shallow soils with a continuous
hard rock within 25 cm from the soil surface. However, the definition includes also
deeper, extremely gravelly and/or stony soils, provided that these have less than 20
percent of fine earth over a depth of at least 75 cm (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
Leptosols (Figure 6‑1) have a  resource potential for grazing and as a  forest land
or alternatively in agroforestry. The rock exposure is frequent in the environment
where Leptosols occur. Leptosols on hill slopes are generally more fertile than their
counterparts on a more level land. One or a few good crops could perhaps be grown on
such slopes, but at the price of severe erosion. Steep slopes with shallow and stony soils
can be transformed into cultivable land through terracing, the removal of stones by hand
and their use as terrace fronts.
52 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 6‑1. Leptosol from basalt lava, (KV212). Figure 6‑2. Regosol in a colluvial material (KV221).

The most common soils associated with Leptosols in the mapped area are Regosols
and Cambisolswhere both are also characterized by their limited soil profile development.

Regosols (RG) are weakly developed soils in an unconsolidated material without

diagnostic horizons. They show slight signs of soil development only - some accumulation
of organic matter producing darker topsoil is often the only evidence of soil formation
(Figure 6‑2). Soil horizon development is minimal as a  consequence of young age.
Regosols are generally associated with degrading and eroding surfaces. Colluvial material
is a heterogeneous mixture of material that has been moved down the slope by gravitational
action. It has been transported as a result of erosion wash or soil creep, and the transport
may have been accelerated by particular land use practices (deforestation). It has been
formed in relatively recent times. The colluvial material is moderately sorted in general.
It may show some gross stratification, but stratification is not a typical feature due to the
diffusion or chaotic nature of the deposition process (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
Regosols are generally associated with a wide range of other Reference Soil
Groups. However, they are particularly common alongside other young or poorly
developed soils. The associations predominantly related to Leptosols, Cambisols and
intergraded soils with Colluvic qualifiers were determined on the slopes in the mapped
area. Like Leptosols, many Regosols are used for extensive grazing.
Cambisols have at least the initial development of a cambic horizon. The cambic horizon
is a subsurface horizon showing evidence of the pedogenetic alteration that ranges from
weak to relatively strong. The cambic horizon has lost at least half of the volume of
the fine earth fraction. If the underlying layer has the same parent material, the cambic
horizon usually shows higher oxide and/or clay contents than this underlying layer. The
pedogenetic alteration of the cambic horizon can also be established by contrast with one
of the overlying mineral horizons that are generally richer in organic matter and therefore
have a darker and/or less intense colour shades. In this case, some well-developed soil
structure is needed to prove pedogenetic alteration. The cambic horizon can be considered
as the predecessor of many other diagnostic horizons, which have specific properties that
are not recognized in the cambic horizon – such as illuvial or residual accumulations or
the development of a specific soil structure (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
The processes that lead to the formation of a cambic subsurface horizon are fundamentally
the same in all climate zones, but the intensities of chemical and biological transformations
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 53

Figure 6‑3. Cambisols

from orthogneiss in
profiles JJ031 (left) and
JJ032(right).

are considerably greater in the tropics than elsewhere. Cambisols in the humid tropics can
form in a few years’ time. Generally, cambisols are not common in sub-humid and humid
tropics because of the faster rate of weathering and soil formation than in the temperate
climate. However, in the areas with active erosion, they may occur in association with nature
tropical soils and/or very young and weakly developed soils. Shallow Cambisols and very
shallow and stony Leptosols cover predominantly the slopes formed by metamorphic rocks
in the middle, NW-SE oriented part of the mapped area (Figure 6‑3).
Eutric Cambisols associated with Skeletic Regosols developed from basalt lavas
occurring on the slopes to the west of Mejo. These soils are dark and fertile, but frequently
with rock fragments on the surface. Eutric and Chromic Cambisols in an undulating
or hilly (mainly colluvial) terrain (Figure 6‑4) are planted to a  variety of annual and
perennial crops or are used as a grazing land.

Luvisols (LV) are moderately weathered soils and in the tropics, they occur
on relatively young surfaces. Luvisols (Figure 6‑5) have a  higher clay content in
the subsoil than in the topsoil as a result of pedogenetic processes (especially clay
migration) leading to an argic subsoil horizon. An argic horizon is a subsurface
horizon with distinctly higher clay content than in the overlying horizon. Luvisols
have high-activity clays throughout the argic horizon and a high base saturation at the
depth of 50–100 cm. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) equals to or more than 24 cmolc
per kg of clay throughout the argic horizon. The illuvial nature of the argic horizon
may be established using hand lens. If clay coatings occur on soil aggregate surfaces,
in fissures, in pores and in channels – illuvial argic horizons show clay coatings on at
least 5% of both horizontal and vertical aggregate faces and in the pores. The illuvial
character of an argic horizon can best be established using thin sections. Diagnostic
illuvial argic horizons show the areas with oriented clays that constitute on average
≥ 1% of the entire cross-section. Other tests involved are particle-size distribution
54 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 6‑4. Deep and

dark Eutric Cambisols
(Colluvic) and Skeletic
Colluvisols on the slopes
covered by colluvial
sediments to the west
of Mejo.

Figure 6‑5. Luvisols

along the road from
Mejo to Ford, near
Dikicha - profiles
JJ033(left) and
JJ034(right).

analysis, which is useful to determine the increase in clay content over a specified
depth and the fine clay/total clay ratio. In illuvial argic horizons, the fine clay to total
clay ratio is larger than in the overlying horizons, due to the preferential eluviation of
fine clay particles (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
With the possible exception of Leptic or Dystric soil units, Luvisols are fertile soils,
being suitable for a  wide range of agricultural uses. Luvisols on steep slopes require
erosion control measures.
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 55

Nitisols (NT) seem to be one of the most common tropical soils on a basic parent Figure 6‑6. Eutric
material. They are deep, well-drained, red tropical soils (Figure 6‑6) with diffuse horizon Nitisol near the road
from Daye-Chebe
boundaries and a clayey nitic horizon that has a typical angular blocky structure breaking and a well-developed
into polyhedral or flat-edged or nut-shaped elements with, in the moist state, shiny strong and coarse soil
aggregate faces, which cannot or can only partially be attributed to the clay illuviation. structure (JJ037).
The nitic horizon is a clay-rich subsurface horizon with at least 30 percent of clay and
silt to clay ratio < 0.4. The difference in clay content with the overlying and underlying
horizons is gradual or diffuse. Similarly, there is no abrupt colour difference with the
horizons directly above and below. The colours are of low values with hues often at
2.5YR, moist, but sometimes redder or yellower. These soils are predominantly derived
from basic parent rocks by strong weathering (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
The rapid rate of weathering in tropics is responsible for the leaching of basic
cations and a relative accumulation of Fe and Al oxides in soils. Iron oxides influence the
physical and chemical properties of the highly weathered soils that contain kaolinite as
the major clay mineral. Goethite and hematite are responsible for the yellow-brown and
red pigment, respectively. Due to their smaller crystal size and reactive surface sites, iron
oxides are involved in the retention of anions such as phosphate (Singh and Gilkes 1992).
In the sub-humid tropical climate, the alternating dry and wet seasons and the relatively
drier environment may affect the Fe-oxide and silicate clay species composition and the
formation from various parent materials.
The exact origin of the shiny faces of the polyhedral, flat-sided or nutty elements
typical for the nitic horizon is still under debate. The development of these typical nitic
properties, or the nitidization process, is assumed to be related to alternating micro-
swelling and shrinking (Driessen et al., 2001). The soil moisture regime plays an
important role, because it influences the degree of swell–shrink behaviour, which will
be the strongest in a  climate with contrasting wet and dry seasons. The contributing
factors to Nitisol development are: (i) the presence of open 2/1 clays besides the
56 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

dominant kaolinite, resulting in a relatively high water-dispersible clay content and

high swell-shrink potential, (ii) seasonal cycles of wetting and drying, contributing to
a strong blocky soil structure development, (iii) recurrent conditions of weak temporary
hydromorphism resulting in the redistribution of Fe-Mn oxides, and (iv) exceptional
Fe oxide characteristics, particularly the extremely small particle size. Together with
the presence of abundant clay coatings, these Fe oxide characteristics explain the shiny
aspect of ped faces that is characteristic for nitic horizons (De Wispelaere 2015).
Nitisols are among the most productive soils of the humid tropics. The deep and porous
solum and the stable soil structure of Nitisols permit deep rooting and make these soils quite
resistant to erosion. The good workability of Nitisols, their good internal drainage and fair
water-holding properties are complemented by chemical (fertility) properties that compare
favourably to those of most other tropical soils. Nitisols have relatively high contents of
weathering minerals and surface soils; they may contain several percent of organic matter,
in particular under forest or tree crops. Fields with Nitisols are mostly used for planting
coffee and are also widely used for food crop production on smallholdings.

Fluvisols (FL) represent genetically young soils with fluvic material without distinct
horizon differentiation; only the distinct topsoil horizon resulting from cultivation is
present. The texture of the parent material differs between river banks or lagoons and
basins. Fluvic material refers to fluviatile and lacustrine sediments that receive fresh
material or have received it in the past and still show stratification. Stratification may
be reflected in different ways: variation in texture and/or content or nature of coarse
fragments, different colours related to the source materials or alternating lighter and
darker coloured soil layers, indicating an irregular decrease in the soil organic carbon
content with depth (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015).
Great variability of Fluvisols does not permit the characterization of the nutrient status
for the group as a whole. The fertility of Fluvisols is directly related to the materials from
which they are derived. Flood hazard is a common constraint on Fluvisols, especially in
the areas with seasonal rainfall patterns (Figure 6‑7).

Figure 6‑7. Agricultural

land on Fluvisols
developed from fluvial
sediments along the
river Genale.
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 57

Color, texture and chemical properties of soils in the study area

The most identifiable properties of soils are texture, structure and color, which provide
the basis for distinguishing soil horizons and group of soils according to the soil
classification system.
Textural and selected important morphological properties of soil profiles observed
within a soil survey in the mapped area are presented in the Table 6.1.

Table 6‑1. Soil particle distribution and color of the sampled soils

Depth Clay Silt Sand

Sample Color Texture RSG
[cm] [%] [%] [%]

JJ031 0-10 10YR 2/3 12.8 17.2 70.1 sandy loam Chromic Cambisol

0-20 7.5YR 2/2 26.9 44.1 29.0 clay loam

JJ033 Chromic Luvisol
80 5YR 4/4 40.5 29.5 30.0 clay

0-20 5YR 2/4 34.7 44.4 20.9 clay loam

JJ034 Rhodic Luvisol
80-90 2.5YR 3/6 66.4 31.7 2.0 clay

0-10 5YR 2/4 72.8 24.5 2.7 clay

JJ037 Rhodic Nitisol
70-80 2.5YR 2/4 86.0 12.7 1.3 clay

10-20 2.5YR 2/4 46.2 19.7 34.1 clay Rhodic Luvisol

EE13
50-60 2.5YR 2/4 84.8 14.8 <1.0 clay (Nitic)

10-20 7.5YR 3/4 35.3 59.6 5.1 silty clay loam

EE16 Chromic Luvisol
60-80 5YR 3/4 52.6 30.7 16.7 clay

10-20 5YR 2/3 53.2 35.5 11.3 clay

EE19 Eutric Nitisol
30-60 5YR 3/4 57.3 31.4 11.3 clay

EE24 0-40 10YR 2/1 24.3 52.0 23.8 silt loam Eutric Cambisol

The color of the soil matrix in each horizon was recorded under the moist condition
using the notations for hue, value and chroma as given in the Munsell Soil Color Charts
(Munsell, 2003).
Soil texture, structure and color are intrinsical functions of the parent material of
the soil modified by organic material. Color is also the property of soil that most reflects
its pedogenic environment and history (age, temperature and moisture characteristics
of the climate). The advanced weathering of rocks in the (sub-) humid tropics produced
typical tropical soils: red or yellow in color and strongly leached. Additional features:
they are deep, finely textured, contain no more than traces of weatherable minerals, have
low-activity clays, less than 5 percent of a recognisable rock structure and gradual soil
boundaries. Differences between soils in the (sub-) humid tropics can often be attributed
to the differences in lithology and/or (past) moisture regime (Driessen et al., 2001).
Soil texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay-sized particles that make up
the mineral fraction of the soil. A ternary diagram was used to determine the soil textural
classes based on sand, silt and clay percentages (Figure 6‑8).
Textural triangle clearly shows a  higher clay content in subsoil horizons of the
sampled profiles as a consequence of the geological conditions and pedogenic processes,
58 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 6‑8. Soil

texture in topsoil
(red) and subsoil
(blue) of the sampled
soils.

which form the predominant sampled soils in the area of interest (clay illuviation and
nitidization). The two samples of Cambisols were taken only from A horizons. Textural
differentiation is the main feature for the recognition of argic horizons of Luvisols. If the
coarser textured horizon has ≥ 10 and < 50% clay in the fine earth fraction, the ratio of
clay in the argic horizon to that of the coarser textured horizon is ≥ 1.4. The difference in
clay content with the overlying and underlying horizons is gradual or diffuse in Nitisols,
but their texture is dominated by clay.
An important criterion used in the classification of tropical soils is the silt/clay ratio.
It is also used in the evaluation of clay migration, stage of weathering and age of parent
material and soils. The more highly weathered a  soil is, the lower is the silt fraction.
Therefore, soils with a silt/clay ratio of less than 0.15 are regarded as highly weathered
(Van Wambeke, 1962). The silt to clay ratio < 0.4 is an important diagnostic criterion of
nitic horizons.
Chemical soil parameters are measurable properties of soil that provide information
about how the soil can function within a natural or managed ecosystem. The following
chemical soil parameters important for the description of the soil quality were analyzed:
pH value, Calcium Carbonate content, Cation Exchange Capacity, Base Saturation,
Organic Carbon content (for an indirect determination of organic matter), Total Nitrogen
Content, C/N ratio and nutrient status (Table 6‑2). Most indicators of the soil chemical
quality measure dynamic soil properties, i.e. the properties that change over time and
with management.
Soil pH is the foundation of all soil chemistry and should be the first consideration
when evaluating a soil test. The soil reaction of the sampled soils is acid in most samples.
The pH values in H2O were ranging from strongly acid to neutral (sample EE24).
Soil pH/KCl values are less than those of pH/H2O. That parameter, called Δ pH =
pH/KCl – pH/H2O, indicates a net negative charge of the soils (Yavitt and Wright, 2002).
Low negative ΔpH are reported to indicate the presence of variable charge constituents in
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 59

Table 6‑2. Selected chemical characteristics of the sampled profiles

Depth pH pH Δ CaCO3 CEC BS Ntot SOC SOM

Sample C/N
[cm] H2O KCl [pH] [%] [cmolc/kg] [%] [%] [%] [%]

JJ031 0-10 6.06 5.26 -0.8 < 0.1 12.87 74 0.16 1.49 2.57 9.6

0-20 6.47 5.67 -0.8 < 0.1 34.57 87 0.26 3.02 5.21 11.8
JJ033
80 6.45 5.16 -1.3 < 0.1 17.31 74 0.08 1.04 1.79 13.5

0-20 5.89 5.16 -0.7 < 0.1 36.86 78 0.27 2.82 4.86 10.3
JJ034
80-90 5.30 4.17 -1.1 < 0.1 20.21 62 0.07 0.51 0.88 7.6

0-10 5.15 3.91 -1.2 < 0.1 28.85 56 0.15 1.89 3.26 12.4
JJ037
70-80 5.17 4.02 -1.2 < 0.1 21.74 61 0.07 0.50 0.86 7.4

10-20 5.09 3.90 -1.2 < 0.1 29.91 52 0.19 2.80 4.83 15.0
EE13
50-60 5.70 4.55 -0.8 < 0.1 20.13 72 0.06 0.54 0.93 8.4

10-20 5.08 3.97 -1.4 < 0.1 25.70 49 0.15 2.72 4.69 11.7
EE16
60-80 5.68 4.60 -1.1 < 0.1 31.47 58 0.23 1.30 2.24 8.6

10-20 5.70 4.41 -1.3 < 0.1 25.48 61 0.16 1.89 3.26 11.9
EE19
30-60 5.85 4.65 -1.4 < 0.1 24.44 76 0.10 0.86 1.48 8.5

EE24 0-40 7.19 6.81 -0.4 < 0.1 49.47 94 0.44 4.40 7.59 10.0

CEC-Cation Exchange Capacity, BS-Base Saturation, SOC-Soil Organic Carbon, SOM-Soil Organic Matter

soils (Auxtero et al. 2003). The water dispersible clay contents of the soils are positively
correlated with Δ pH values. The more negative the Δ pH values, the higher the amounts
of water-dispersible clay. This indicates the association between surface charge condition
and clay dispersion in soils.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is a measure of the ability to hold positively charged
ions. Because organic matter and clay are the major sources of negative electrostatic sites,
there is a strong correlation between CEC values and the amount of clay and organic matter
present in the soil. Soils with a higher clay fraction tend to have a higher CEC as well as
the soils with a high content of organic matter. Clay has a great capacity to attract and hold
cations because of its chemical structure. However, CEC varies according to the type of
clay. It is the highest in montmorillonite clay and the lowest in heavily weathered kaolinite
clay. Low CEC values can be improved by adding organic matter, because organic matter
colloids have large quantities of negative charges. Humus has a CEC two to five times
greater than montmorillonite clay and up to 30 times greater than kaolinite clay.
The cation exchange capacity of the sampled soils mostly varies from moderate to
high values, except for a very high value in the sample EE24.
Base Saturation is the percentage of soil exchange sites (Cation Exchange Capacity)
occupied by the basic cations Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, and Na+ (Calcium, Potassium, Magnesium,
Sodium ions) in soil. The percentage base saturation is expressed as: % BS = [(Ca2+ +
Mg2+ + K++ NA+)/CEC] × 100.
The percentage base saturation is useful for soil genesis and classification purposes.
To understand soil acidification processes, exchangeable acidity is more meaningful
than % BS. Base saturation in the sampled soils varies from 49 to 94 %. Most samples are
60 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

moderately and highly saturated (BS 40-80%), the samples JJ033 and EE24 in particular
have very high saturated surface horizons.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a  measureable component of soil organic matter
(SOM). Providing that about 58 % of the mass of SOM exists as carbon, we can estimate
the percentage of soil organic matter from the SOC % using the conversion factor of
1.724. This conversion factor can vary in different soils, but 1.724 provides a reasonable
estimate of soil organic matter for most purposes.
SOM (%) = SOC (%) x 1.724

Soil organic matter (SOM) has a critical role in the physical, chemical and biological
function of soils. SOM contributes to nutrient turnover and cation exchange capacity, soil
structure, moisture retention and availability, degradation of pollutants, greenhouse gas
emissions and soil buffering. The key drivers influencing the variability of soil organic
carbon in tropics are texture, climate, topography and land use management. The clay
mineralogy and content of Al and Fe (hydro-) oxides have a significant influence on the
stability of soil organic carbon in tropical soils (Bech Bruun et al. 2010). The role of SOC
is especially important in tropical farming systems, where the soil productivity often
relies on limited external inputs, so that the maintenance of SOC reservoir plays a key
role in sustainable management of these soils.
The soil organic carbon and soil organic matter contents of the sampled soils are
mostly low in topsoil and very low in subsoil. The only exception is the sample EE24
with a higher content of SOC and consequently SOM.
Total Nitrogen together with soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a key role in pedogenic
processes and contributes to soil fertility. In the sampled soils, total Nitrogen content
varies from low to medium values.
Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio (C/N) is a sensitive indicator of soil quality. Soil C/N ratio is
often considered as a sign of soil nitrogen mineralization capacity. The high soil C/N ratio
can slow down the decomposition rate of organic matter and organic nitrogen by limiting
the soil microbial activity, whereas the low soil C/N ratio could accelerate the process
of microbial decomposition of organic matter and nitrogen, which is not conducive for
carbon sequestration (Ge, 2013). The soil organic carbon and nitrogen content are not
only affected by climate, altitude and terrain, but also by land use management.

Nutrient status in topsoil

Nutrient availability in the soil is a function of soil, climate and plant properties. The
content of available nutrients considerably affects the soil pH and soil texture. Available
calcium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus were determined in topsoil horizons of
the sampled profiles by the Mehlich III method (Table 6‑3).
It is noticeable that with the only exception (EE24), the concentrations of available
phosphorus are very low and below the limit of detection. The deficiency of P is common
in tropical soils and phosphorus is often the most limiting plant nutrient in tropics.
Phosphate retention is an inherent property of a soil and it does not change. Three main
factors have an influence on potential phosphorus retention by soils: soil mineralogy, clay
content and soil pH. The highly weathered, iron-rich tropical soils tend to be deficient in
plant-available phosphorus. The low pH together with high levels of iron and aluminium
oxides, tend to immobilize phosphorus onto soil particles, thus denying its availability to
plants (Batjes, 2011). Geographically, as rainfall, temperature and weathering increase,
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 61

Table 6‑3. Content of available nutrients (Mehlich III) in topsoil of the sampled profiles

Depth Ca Mg K P
Sample
[cm] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg]

JJ031 0-10 1041 172 230 < 2.0

JJ033 0-20 3485 578 215 < 2.0

JJ034 0-20 2935 449 206 < 2.0

JJ037 0-10 1094 438 259 < 2.0

EE13 10-20 956 261 62 < 2.0

EE16 10-20 456 80 401 < 2.0

EE19 10-20 1640 265 88 < 2.0

EE24 0-40 6563 1042 1918 87.3

the role of Ca in P adsorption reactions decreases, and that of Al and Fe increases (Fixen
and Grove 1990).
High P-sorption calls for the application of P-fertilizer, usually provided as a slow
release, low-grade `rock phosphate’ (several tons/ha with maintenance doses every few
years) in combination with smaller applications of a better soluble `super phosphate’ for
a short-term response by the crop (Leenaars et al. 2016).
The contents of Ca, Mg, and K vary on a large scale in the sampled soils. Calcium
contents are mostly low; however, two samples show high values. Magnesium contents
range from low to very high and the contents of potassium vary similarly. Considerably
high values of the available nutrients were detected in the sample EE24.

The impact of parent material on soil texture, chemistry and nutrients

The geology of the mapped area comprises acid metamorphic rocks and bimodal
volcanic rocks. Table 6‑4 and Table 6‑5 show the considerable difference between
the properties of Cambisols that have developed from two different parent materials.
The surface horizon of Chromic Cambisol from orthogneiss (JJ031) is compared with
a surface horizon of Eutric Cambisol (Colluvic) from basalt (EE24).

Table 6‑4. Cambisols from gneiss (JJ031) and basalt (EE24) - color and texture of surface horizons

Clay Silt Sand

Sample Reference Soil Group Colour [Texture]
[%] [%] [%]

JJ031 Chromic Cambisol 10YR 2/3 12.8 17.2 70.1 sandy loam

EE24 Eutric Cambisol (Colluvic) 10YR 2/1 24.3 52.0 23.8 silt loam

Table 6‑5. Cambisols from gneiss (JJ031) and basalt (EE24) – chemical properties and available nutrients

pH pH CaCO3 Ca Mg K P CEC BS SOC SOM

Sample
H2O KCl [%] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [cmolc/kg] [%] [%] [%]

JJ031 6.06 5.26 < 0.1 1041 172 230 < 2.0 12.87 74 1.49 2.57

EE24 7.19 6.81 0.1 6563 1042 1918 87.3 49.47 94 4.40 7.59
62 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Cambisol derived from an acid metamorphic rock (JJ031) is a slightly acid soil with
a medium high cation exchange capacity and high base saturation, with only moderate
content of organic carbon and organic matter and with low to good supply of available
nutrients. Cambisol that has developed from a basic basaltic rock (EE24) is a neutral soil
with a high cation exchange capacity and very high base saturation, rich in organic carbon
and organic matter and with good to very high concentrations of available nutrients.
Chemical nature of soils largely depends on the parent material properties. Soils
derived from more siliceous rocks are generally more acidic than those derived from
basalts under similar climatic conditions (Gray and Murphy, 2002). Soils with higher
clay contents have a higher cation exchange capacity and ability to retain nutrients and
accumulate (or sequester) more organic matter. For base saturation, parent material has
the greatest influence, closely followed by climate (Gray et al., 2009).
The effect of the composition of parent rock on the composition of the resulting soil
is an inverse function of time. Cambisols are soils in a transitional stage of development,
from a young soil to a mature soil. Appreciable quantities of weatherable minerals and
absence of any signs of advanced pedogenesis evidence the fact that Cambisols are in an
early stage of soil formation and the difference reflects the large influence of the parent
material on the resulting soil.

Land degradation and soil erosion

Land degradation generally signifies the temporary or permanent decline in the productive
capacity of the land (UN/FAO definition). The condition of the soil is one of the best indicators
of land degradation since the soil integrates a variety of important processes involving
vegetation growth, overland flow of water, infiltration, land use and land management.
Soil erosion by water is the most common way by which soil degradation occurs.
There is considerable linkage between erosion and other types of degradation. Soil
erosion often accompanies depletion of nutrients. The depletion of soil nutrients is less
visible, but it is a  common cause of soil fertility decline. An eroded soil will almost
always have less organic matter (biological soil degradation) and/or increased bulk
density (physical soil degradation).
Soil erosion is a major threat to the soil resource, soil fertility and productivity in
Ethiopia. Erosion by water can occur as splash, sheet, rill, stream bank and gully erosion.
Recently, a large number of processes based on soil erosion models have been used to
assess the sheet and rill erosion (Ali and Hagos 2016). The sheet, rill and inter-rill erosion
have been estimated using the widely applied Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978) modified by Hurni (1985) for Ethiopian highlands.
Despite the fact that disadvantages and uncertainties of USLE are very well known, the
USLE and its revised versions are widely used in the scientific and engineering world,
because of its relatively easy application.
Erosion rates are very sensitive to soil texture and moisture, vegetation cover,
land use, slope and climate as well as to soil conservation practices at the field level.
USLE allows the prediction of annual soil loss based on the product of six factors. It is
represented by A = R * K * L * S * C * P; where A is the computed spatial average soil
loss and temporal average soil loss per unit area, usually expressed in t ha− 1 year−1, R
is the rainfall erosivity index, K is soil erodibility. S and L are the topographical factors
(length and gradient of the slope), C is the plant cover factor and P is the factor of
specific erosion control practices.
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 63

Intensity of soil erosion is mainly influenced by three factors: i) erosivity of water,

ii) erodibility of soils, and iii) human activities. Erodibility of tropical soils (K-factor)
is highly dependent on grain size distribution, clay content and organic carbon content,
which influence the stability of soil aggregates. Infiltration rates of soils are also
influenced by the morphometric characteristics of the land surface. Soils with a  high
percentage of silt and clay particles have a greater erodibility than a sandy soil under the
same conditions. Ini­tial K-factors can be derived from the study of Hurni (1985), show­
ing a relationship between soil colour and the K factor (Table 6‑6).

Table 6‑6. Soil erodibility estimation based on color for Ethiopia (Hurni, 1985)

K value
Color Soil reference group
(t ha h)·(ha MJ mm)−1

Black Andosols, Vertisols, etc. 0.02

Cambisols, Phaeozem,
Brown 0.026
Regosols, Luvisols, etc.

Red Lixisols, Nitisols, Alisols, etc 0.033

Yellow Fluvisols, Xerosols, etc 0.040

The USLE parameters measure only sheet, rill and inter-rill erosion, therefore the
overall soil erosion rate could be much higher than predicted by the USLE, especially
in the areas where deep gullies are observed similar to the mapped area. However, it
should be noted that other similar studies have calibrated the USLE model parameter for
Ethiopian conditions (Nyssen et al., 2009; Gebremichael et al., 2005 and Haregeweyn
et al., 2013).
In Ethiopia, extensive areas of agricultural lands are eroded every year and most
of these lands (cultivated and grazing) are changed into gullies. Gully erosion produces
channels larger than rills (Figure 6‑9). As the volume of concentrated water increases and
attains more velocity on slopes, it enlarges the rills into gullies. A gully can also originate
from any depression, such as cattle trails, footpaths, cart tracks, and traditional furrows
indicating neglect of land over a long period of time. In the Ethiopian highlands, gullies
are particularly severe and widespread, covering large tracts of areas. Gully erosion
is more difficult and expensive to control than sheet and rill erosion. It is also more
spectacular than the other forms of erosion.
On steep slopes, soils are generally shallower and their nutrient and water storage
capacities are limited. Thus, the soils in these areas, when exposed to soil eroding
agents, face greater degradation consequences compared to the soils in flat areas. Since
most of the terrain is undulating and hilly, most agricultural land is situated on sloping
ground. Increasing population has resulted in an increasing demand for cultivable
land and pastures, which have increasingly moved on to steeper slopes previously
covered by forests. If the soil depth is inadequate, the water-holding capacity and
rooting anchorage of the soil may decrease below the critical levels. As the soil depth
decreases, croplands revert to grasslands and ultimately degrade to a bare rock (Figure
6‑10) (Bezuayehu et al. 2002).
The susceptibility to land degradation differs within the main agricultural soils of the
study area according to Stocking and Murnaghan (2000) (Table 6‑7).
64 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 6‑9. A deep

gully incised into the
colluvial deposits
(JJ030).

Figure 6‑10. Extensive

land degradation
as a result of
deforestation and
overgrazing.
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 65

Table 6‑7. Major reference soil groups of the map sheet and their susceptibility to land degradation

Main Properties and Susceptibility

RSG
to Land Degradation

The tropical soil most used by small farmers because of its ease
of cultivation and no great impediments. Base saturation > 50%.
However, they are greatly affected by water erosion and loss in fertility.
Luvisols
Nutrients are concentrated in topsoil and they have low levels
of organic matter. Luvisols have moderate resilience to degradation
and moderate to low sensitivity to yield decline.

One of the best and most fertile soils of the tropics. They can suffer
Nitosols from acidity and P-fixation, and when organic carbon decreases,
they become very erodible. But erosion has only a slight effect
on crops. Nitosols have moderate resilience and moderate
to low sensitivity.

They have a relatively good structure and chemical properties,

and are not therefore greatly affected by degradation processes
Cambisols until these become large. Because of increasing clay content with depth,
they tend not to be greatly impacted by degradation. Cambisols have
high resilience to degradation and moderate sensitivity
to yield decline.

Soils formed from unconsolidated water-borne materials.

Highly variable, but much prized for intensive agriculture.
Fluvisols Under most conditions, they have high resilience and low sensitivity.
The big tropical exception is represented by acid sulphate soils,
which have massive chemical degradation impacts when
drained for agriculture.

Soils characterised by extreme shallowness. Degradation serious with severe

Leptosols
limitations imposed by depth and high permeability.

6.3. Opportunities for and threats to the soils in the studied area

This section highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for each of
the main soil types found in the mapped area. The causative factors of soil threats in
the tropics are deforestation for logging and fuel wood uses, deforestation for shifting
cultivation, intensive agriculture, industrial activities, overgrazing, climatic, topographic
and edaphic factors. It is more and more important that the pressures put on soils get
attention to take steps to save for the future (Jones et al. 2013).

Leptosols
Strengths: They provide a solid foundation for constructions.

Weaknesses: Leptosols are unsuitable for growing crops. They have a  limited rooting
depth, a low water-holding capacity and their nutrient supply is confined to what is
available in the shallow top layer.

Opportunities: Farmers use Leptosol areas only for grazing of their cattle.

Threats: Erosion
66 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Regosols
Strengths: Most Regosols are well supplied with the nutrients as they occur in young
weathering material.

Weaknesses: Water-holding capacity is often low and water stress of crops is common.

Opportunities: Shrub and tree cultivation is possible where climate allows. Otherwise,
they are best left under natural vegetation.

Threats: A weakly developed soil formation makes these soils prone to erosion.

Cambisols
Strengths: Cambisols are among the higher quality agricultural soils in Africa as they are
less depleted of nutrients than other tropical soils and have a sufficiently high nutrient-
holding capacity to retain fertilisers.

Weaknesses: Strongly weathered Cambisols contain limited amounts of nutrients.

Opportunities: Depending on their depth, their water-holding capacity can be high in

deeper profiles.

Threats: In hilly or mountainous areas, where Cambisols are the most frequent, care
should be taken to prevent soil erosion when the surface is bare. Under such conditions,
these soils are better kept under forest cover or perennial crops such as tea.

Luvisols
Strengths: Luvisols are productive soils; in the northern Africa, they are planted with
winter wheat and vegetables under irrigation during summer. They have a large mineral
nutrient reserve and good aeration. The rooting depth is normally unlimited unless it
overlies a continuous hard rock or a petrified layer.

Weaknesses: Due to long and continued cultivation in the northern Africa since Roman
times, most Luvisols have lost their topsoil; therefore they are poor in organic matter and
nitrogen-deficiency is quite common.

Opportunities: Productive soils if managed appropriately.

Threats: Prone to erosion on slopes.

Nitisols
Strengths: Nitisols are suited for a wide range of crops. Many Nitisols are also used to
grow coffee.
 SOIL ENVIRONMENT 67

Weaknesses: In annual cropping, fertiliser application is necessary to make these soils

productive. Due to the high amount of active iron, Nitisols suffer from phosphate-
fixation. Retention rates of 80% or more are common.

Opportunities: Intensive liming can overcome the aluminium toxicity.

Threats: Soil erosion on steeper slopes.

Fluvisols
Strengths: Fluvisols, except for the very acid ones, are fertile because of the regular
supply of nutrients. Riverine Fluvisols are highly suitable for wetland rice because of the
close proximity to fresh water.

Weaknesses: Flood control or drainage may be needed due to the proximity of rivers.
Low-lying back swamps, if not suitable for wetland rice, are best left under the natural
vegetation; these areas may be used for extensive grazing when they are accessible.

Opportunities: High agricultural potential owing to good natural fertility.

Threats: Flooding and waterlogging; prone to urbanisation and sealing.

 7) HYDROGEOLOGY

7.1 Hydrometeorology and Hydrology

The Mejo area is found within the Genale-Dawa river basin, particularly in a part of the
Genale sub-basin (Figure 7‑1). The precipitation character in the Mejo area is described
in Chapter 2, Section 2 of this Booklet. The precipitation value for further calculations
was adopted to be at 1,300 mm for the Mejo sheet. The precipitation pattern at the Hagere
Salam meteo station is shown in Figure 2‑2.

Figure 7‑1.
Hydrological scheme
with location of the
Mejo area.

River flow regime and runoff

There is only one river gauging station in the Mejo sheet on the Gambelto / Gonjobe River.
The Genale River (Figure 7‑2) originates by the confluence of Gambelto / Gonjobe (Figure
7‑3) and Bonora Rivers in the SE part of the Mejo map sheet. Other river gauging stations are
located within the neighbouring areas and data from these stations were used in the calculation
for the assessment of surface as well as baseflow values of the Mejo area (see Table 7‑1).
 HYDROGEOLOGY 69

Figure 7‑2. Genale

River near Girja in the
southern part of the
Mejo map sheet.

Figure 7‑3. Gonjobe

River in the northern
part of the Mejo map
sheet.

Table 7‑1. Data at the river gauging stations of the Genale sub-basin

River Station name POINT X POINT Y Elevation Area km2

Logita Bensa 471810 718651 1,912 729

Bonora Daye 481271 719996 1,864 343

Aroresa (bridge),
Gambelto / Gonjobe 486754 703726 1,539 270
in the study area

Upper Genale Girja 494472 685417 1,402 3,177

The records from all stations reflect the fact that the river discharge is directly
proportional to the intensity of rainfall within the basin. There is a high discharge fluctuation
between the wet and dry seasons of the year. The first high flow period is usually from
April to May, the highest flow period is from June to October and the peak flow for the
majority of rivers is usually recorded in August. The period from December to March is
characterized by low flow when most of the smaller rivers are completely without water.
70 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

The measured discharge of the Logita River at the Bensa river gauge in the period
from 1997 to 2006 is shown in Figure 7‑4. The figure shows that the flow is relatively
regular; however, the total value of annual flow and particularly the maximal monthly
flow can vary substantially from year to year. The calculated mean annual flow of
4.5 m3/s (see Figure 7‑5) for the Bensa river gauge represents the flow generated in the
eastern highlands.
The measured discharge of the Bonora River at the Daye river gauge in the period
from 1997 to 2006 is shown in Figure 7‑6. The figure shows that the flow is relatively
regular; however, the total value of annual flow and particularly the maximal monthly
flow can vary substantially from year to year. The calculated mean annual flow of
8.0 m3/s for the Daye river gauge represents the flow generated in the eastern highlands.
The measured discharge of the Upper Genale River at the Girja river gauge in the
period from 2003 to 2006 is shown in Figure 7‑7. The figure shows that the flow is relatively
regular; however, the total value of annual flow and particularly the maximal monthly flow

Figure 7‑4. Flow

diagram of the Logita
River at the Bensa river
gauge.

Figure 7‑5. Annual

fluctuation of mean flow
for the Logita River at
the Bensa river gauge.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 71

Figure 7‑6. Flow

diagram of the
Bonora River at the
Daye river gauge.

Figure 7‑7. Flow

diagram of the
Upper Genale River
at the Girja river
gauge.

can vary substantially from year to year. The calculated mean annual flow of 74.1 m3/s for
the Girja river gauge represents the flow generated in the eastern highlands.
The measured discharge of the Gambelto / Gonjobe River at the Aroresa (bridge)
river gauge in the period from 1990 to 2005 is shown in Figure 7‑8. The figure shows
that the flow is relatively regular; however, the total value of annual flow and particularly
maximal monthly flow can vary substantially from year to year. The calculated mean
annual flow of 4.9 m3/s for the Aroresa river gauge represents the flow generated in the
eastern highlands.
Runoff data are summarized in Table 7‑2. The data of Bonora and Gambelto/Gonjobe
gauging stations are unrealistically high and the data from rivers in the surrounding area
were used for an assessment of average runoff for the Mejo sheet.
The specific runoff assessed for the Mejo sheet is 18.0 l/s.km2.

Baseflow
Baseflow represents one of the most important types of information on groundwater
resources in the basin. Bogena et al. (2005) analyzed the methods and it was found by
means of a correlation analysis that the appropriate baseflow values can be determined
on the basis of daily river discharge data.
72 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 7‑8. Flow

diagram of the
Gambelto / Gonjobe
River at the Aroresa
river gauge.

Table 7‑2. Runoff data for the Mejo area

Annual Specific
Mean flow Area Dominant
River Station flow runoff
[m3/s] [km2] Aquifer
[mm] [l/s.km2]

Logita Bensa 4.5 688.3 729.4 6.17 Volcanics

Bonora Daye 8.0 736.5 342,8 23.32 Volcanics

Gambelto / Gonjobe Aroresa 4.9 572.1 270.3 18.15 Volcanics

Volcanics /
Upper Genale Girja 74.1 736.0 3,177.4 23.32
basement

The Kille method for calculation of baseflow was used in the study together with the
separation of hydrographs, where the baseflow data is deduced from the discharge record
of a stream by separating the baseflow component from the total discharge separation
method. Separation of the hydrograph is another method that was used for an assessment
of baseflow. Baseflow separation techniques use the time-series record of stream flow
to derive the baseflow signature. The common separation methods are either graphical,
which tend to focus on defining the points where baseflow intersects the rising and
falling limbs of the quickflow response, or involve filtering where data processing of the
entire stream hydrograph derives a baseflow hydrograph. Data on baseflow assessed by
the Kille method are shown in Figure 7‑9 and in Table 7‑3 together with baseflow data
assessed by the hydrograph. A comparison of the assessment of baseflow using the Kille
method and hydrograph separation shows very small differences in the assessment of
baseflow between these two methods.
The graphical method for the separation of baseflow was used for the rivers of
the area. The daily flow data were used to plot the baseflow component of a  flood
hydrograph event, including the point where the baseflow intersects the falling limb.
Stream flow subsequent to this point was assumed to be entirely baseflow until
the start of the hydrographic response to the next significant rainfall event. These
graphical approaches of partitioning baseflow vary in complexity (Linsley, 1958). The
separation of hydrograph and the results of the separation are shown in Figure 7‑10
and Figure 7‑11.
The specific baseflow is assessed to be 7.0 l/s.km2 for the Mejo map sheet.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 73

Table 7‑3. Baseflow data for the Mejo area

Specific Kille Hydrograph Specific

Area
River runoff method separation baseflow Aquifer
[km2]
[l/s.km2] [m3/s] [m3/s] [l/s.km2]

Logita 729.4 6.17 4.28 6.25 5.9/8.6 Volcanic

Bonora 342.8 23.32 2.95 4.12 8.6/12.01 Volcanic

Gambelto / Gonjobe 270.3 18.15 1.25 1.62 5.6/6.0 Volcanic

Volcanic
Upper Genale 3,177.4 23.32 24.64 39.34 7.7/12.4
/ basement

Figure 7‑9. Kille baseflow separation for Bonora, Logita, Gambelto and Upper Genale rivers.
74 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 7‑10.
Hydrograph of
baseflow separation
for the Gambelto
River.

Figure 7‑11.
Hydrograph of
baseflow separation
for the Upper Genale
River.

7.2 Hydrogeological surveys

Hydrogeology of the Mejo map sheet is prepared based on the assessment of data
collected from existing reports and maps as well as primary data collected during several
phases of field-work.
The hydrogeological map of Ethiopia at a scale of 1 : 2,000,000 was published by
Tesfaye Chernet (1993). He classified volcanic rocks of the highlands with fissured
porosity as moderately productive aquifers. The specific yield of wells was estimated to be
in the interval 0.05–1.1 l/s.m and the total yield of wells within 20 m of drawdown varies
within the interval of 0.45–9.9 l/s. Basement rocks are described as localized aquifers
with fracture and intergranular porosity, being characterized as a regional low productive
aquiclude. Recharge characteristics were derived at 150–250 mm for the highlands.
There is no previous hydrogeological work at a scale of 1 : 50,000 and full data sets
required for geometrical aquifer configuration are scarce; however, the Dila sheet at
a scale of 1 : 250,000 has been published by the GSE (Jiri Sima editor, 2014).
The hydrogeological system of the Mejo sheet is similar to the surrounding areas
of the eastern highlands. The hydrogeological system has been described in several
regional hydrogeological reports. Lahmayer International (2005) did the latest regional
assessment of groundwater resources in the Genale-Dawa river basin as an integrated
resource development master plan study, published by the Ministry of Water Resources.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 75

A comprehensive assessment of hydrogeological data, including water point inventory,

hydrological and climatic characterization by Lahmeyer (2005) is shown in Table 7‑4.

Table 7‑4. Aquifer classification based on well yield for the Genale-Dawa basin (Lahmayer, 2005)

Formation Yield [l/s] Specific capacity [l/s.m] Number

[symbol] of wells

Alluvium 0.5–3.75 2.01 1.74 0.02–8.92 1.657 0.23 7

Basalt (Q) 1.7 2.39 2.00 0.05–0.38 0.160 0.12 7

Basalt (T) 1.5–4.4 3.15 3.15 0.01–1.12 0.3339 0.12 10

Ju + Jh 0.83–7.0 2.58 1.50 0.01–35.00 ND 0.04 7

Gt + Qa 0.13–6.5 2.18 1.76 0.02–0.87 0.286 0.10 6

Hm + Qa 0.2–4.67 1.56 0.93 0.02–1.33 0.232 0.08 9

Lm + Qa 1.4–5.0 2.80 2.00 0.11–36.00 0.253 0.29 3

Remark: Gt – granite, Hm – gneiss, migmatite, Ju – Urandab Formation, Jh – Hamnlei Formation,

Qa – Quaternary alluvium, Lm – Limestone, Q – Quaternary, T – Tertiary

7.3 Hydrogeological Classification/Characterization

The qualitative division of lithological units is based on the hydrogeological characteristics

of various rock types using water point inventory data and by an analogy with the
surrounding area. The lithological units were divided into groups with dominant porous,
fissured and combined permeability. This division served for the definition of the map
sheet aquifer system. Since the quantitative data such as transmissivity, aquifer thickness
and yield are not adequate or evenly distributed enough to make a detailed quantitative
potential classification of aquifers, an analogy from the surrounding areas was used for
the characterization of rocks without the adequate number of water points. Hence, the
hydrogeological characterization of the study area reveals the following aquifer systems:

• Units with porous permeability, where groundwater is accumulated in and flows

through pores of an unconsolidated or semi-consolidated material. Porous materials
of Quaternary age are represented either by alluvial, fluvial and colluvial deposits
developed in valleys of the highlands.
• Units with fissured permeability, where groundwater is accumulating in and flows
through the weathered and fractured part of volcanic rocks. The porosity of lava flows
may be high, but the permeability is largely a function of a combination of the primary
and secondary structures (joints and fissures) within the rock. The pyroclastic rocks
between lava flows are generally porous, but usually less permeable due to poor sorting.
Hence, extensive volcanic ash beds may form semi-horizontal barriers to water movement
(infiltration) resulting in lower productivity of basaltic units located at greater depth. Also,
the layers of paleosoil of various thicknesses in between lava flows are less permeable and
usually consist of clay material on the one hand, whereas the layers of fluvial and lake
sediments and pumiceous pyroclastic materials between various lava flows can enhance
the yield on the other hand. Tertiary volcanic formations represented by basalts, rhyolite,
trachyte and ignimbrite form aquifers with good fissured permeability.
76 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

• Basement rocks represent fissured aquifers of low potential. The groundwater in

the hard rock is practically stored entirely in the fractured zones and the weathered
mantle (regolith). Generally, the depth of fractured zones is not more than 50–70 m
below the surface as the fractures will tend to close at depth. The faults and joints in
igneous rocks are nearly vertical, except for narrow fractures, which are more or less
parallel with the rock surface, sheeting and exfoliation. The greatest permeability is
found in the sub-soil zone within the partly decomposed rock. Wells tapping this zone
have yields roughly an order of magnitude greater than in the fresh rock.
• Units with shallow groundwater and porous permeability are represented by large
and small plain areas in the eastern highlands. Groundwater accumulates in regolith
(elluvium) derived from the underlying volcanic and basement rocks, whose thickness
can exceed 30 m. Regolith represents a relatively uniform hydrogeological environment
and its thickness depends on local conditions (weathering and erosion). Groundwater
levels are also closely related to the thickness of the regolith, because the saturated
thickness varies from 5 to 15 m and the bottom of the saturated thickness is given by
a depth of the bedrock. Shallow groundwater resources are recharged directly from
rainfall. Sustainability of groundwater resources is proven by the existence of perennial
rivers and numerous private as well as public dug wells. The resistance of groundwater
resources against depletion is higher on large plains than on small plains. The aquifers
with shallow groundwater represented by regolith are shown on the hydrogeological
map in yellow oblique stripes.

7.4 Elements of Hydrogeological System of the Mejo area

Geological description and qualitative division of various geological units together with
their topographic position in the surveyed area lead to a definition of elements of the
hydrogeological system and its conceptual hydrogeological model. The hydrogeological
map shows aquifers and aquicludes defined based on the character of the groundwater
flow (pores, fissures), the yield of springs and the hydraulic characteristics of wells. The
following aquifers and aquicludes were defined:

• Fragmented (74 km2) porous aquifers with moderate or locally high productivity
(T = 1.1–10 m2/d, q = 0.01–0.1 l/s.m, with spring and well yield Q = 0.51–5 l/s). The
aquifers consist of Quaternary fluvial, alluvial and colluvial sediments (aQh, fQh,
cQh). The aquifers are shown in light blue.
• Extensive (554 km2) and low productive (with dug wells yield Q = 0.25–0.6 l/s)
aquifers with shallow groundwater for local use. The aquifers are developed in
regolith, covering volcanic and basement rocks and forming plains in the eastern
highlands. The aquifers are shown on the map in transparent yellow oblique stripes.
• Extensive (456 km2) and moderately productive fissured aquifers (T = 1.1–10 m2/d, q
= 0.011–0.1 l/s.m, with Q = 0.51–5 l/s). The aquifers consist of mainly basaltic rocks
and ignimbrite of the eastern highlands (βG, igNp, igQp, ρGN, τGN, βNp, igGN). The
aquifers are shown in light green.
• Extensive (235 km2) and low productive fissured aquifers (T = 0.11–1 m2/d, q =
0.0011–0.01 l/s.m, with spring and well yield Q = 0.051–0.5 l/s), where groundwater
occurs in the weathered mantle and fissures of crystalline rocks. The aquifers consist
of various basement rocks and are shown in brown red.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 77

The following detailed hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifers and regional

hydrogeological characteristics of the individual lithological units are described based
on archive data, analogy from the surrounding areas and data collected during the field
seasons of 2012, 2013, 2016 and 2017. During field investigations, 11 water points were
inventoried and sampled.

Locally Developed and Moderately Productive Porous Aquifers (aQh, fQh, cQh)
The porous aquifers make up 74 km2 alltogether accounting for about 10 % of the Mejo
area and consist of alluvial, fluvial and colluvial sediments of Quaternary age. Porous
aquifers in the Mejo map sheet area are characterized by a variable thickness and texture.
The texture of sediments ranges from clay to sand and gravel. The variability of yield
is high, starting from 0.05 to 19.6 l/s for the springs and wells inventoried in the area of
the Mejo sheet and its surroundings. The highest yield was registered for wells, but there
is a chance that a significant volume of groundwater is inflowing to the wells from the
underlying volcanic aquifers. An average yield of porous aquifers is 3.4 and the median
is 0.25 l/s. Porous aquifers are shown in Figure 7‑12 in light blue.

Extensive and Low Productive Porous Aquifers with Shallow Groundwater

Developed in Regolith
Extensive and low productive aquifers developed in regolith covering volcanic and
basement rocks make up 554  km2, accounting for 72 % of the Mejo area (see Figure
7‑12; transparent yellow oblique stripes). Regolith forms large and small plains in the
eastern highlands. The yield of dug wells is 0.25 – 0.5 l/s. Shallow groundwater levels
vary from 10 to 30 m. The thickness of the saturated part of the aquifer is about 5 to

Figure 7‑12.
Porous aquifers and
aquifers with shallow
groundwater in the
Mejo map sheet.
78 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

15 m when fully saturated after the rainy season. Groundwater can be developed by
hand digging (common practice) and manual drilling. Casing and lining of wells is not
required, because groundwater is under water table conditions. Groundwater is of an
excellent quality for irrigation; however, it is not safe for drinking purposes. It can be
contaminated by bacteria and human and animal waste. Dynamic shallow groundwater
resources of aquifers can be assessed based on an average recharge of 220 mm and
an aquifer area of 554 km2. The porosity of the aquifers is approximately 15 %. The
sustainability of the shallow groundwater resources has to be carefully balanced and
monitored to prevent over pumping.

Extensive and Moderately Productive Fissured Aquifers

(βG, igNp, igQp, ρGN, τGN, βNp, igGN)
Fissured aquifers of moderate productivity make up 456 km2, accounting for 60 % of the
area and consist of mainly basaltic rocks and ignimbrites. These aquifers mostly occur
on the rift floor, but they are situated also in the eastern escarpment and the adjacent
eastern highlands. Their age, tectonic and geomorphological settings dictate their
hydrogeological characteristics. Fissure flow is dominant. Open faults and fault systems
may provide significant groundwater flow paths, which may allow regional transfer of
groundwater in places where they are extensive. The variability of yield is high, starting
from 0.03 to 12.5 l/s for springs and wells inventoried in the area of the Mejo sheet and
its surroundings.
Basalts usually form less viscous, thin lava flows and may be significantly affected
by weathering, brecciation and frequent alternating stratification with lacustrine or
fluviatile deposits. The continuity of joints and fractures in both horizontal and vertical
planes provides the aquifers their hydraulic continuity with adjacent aquifers.
Small outcrops of ignimbrite located in the valley of the Genale River are in
a hydraulic connection with surface water in the river and groundwater of the alluvial
aquifers. The mixed porous and fissured aquifers consisting of volcanoclastic and
pyroclastic rocks are not present in the area, but are typical for the Dino Formation and
Nazret Group. These aquifers cover the area along the water divide between the Rift
Valley, Lake Basin, the Genale River basin and the Logita sub-basin.
The highest yield was registered in wells drilled in the Hantate ignimbrite (3.79–10.0
l/s) and various basalts (6–12.5 l/s). A relative low yield is shown by water pints from the
Shole Ignimbrite (0.04–2.5 l/s), which can be caused by pyroclastic materials between
lava flows. Fissured aquifers are shown in Figure 7‑13 in light green.

Extensive and low productive fissured aquifers in basement rocks

The basement rocks are classified as a low productive fissured aquifer, where
groundwater is found in fissures, fractured zones and the weathered mantle of various
crystalline (metamorphosed and igneous) rocks of Precambrian age. The basement
rocks occupy large areas in the central part of the sheet. The extent and location of the
low productive fissured aquifer developed in basement rocks are shown in Figure 7‑13
in brown red.
The discharge of springs varies from 0.018 l/s to 4 l/s during the dry period, when they
were measured in the field in the area of the Mejo sheet and its surroundings (including
the Wora Kora hot spring in Dodola and Negele map sheets). The basement rocks of the
 HYDROGEOLOGY 79

Figure 7‑13.
Aquifers with fissured
permeability and
aquifers in fissures and
the weathered mantle
of basement in the Mejo
map sheet.

sheet are classified as a low productive fissured aquifer, considering their position at the
bottom of valleys along stream channels and in flat lands. These aquifers are convenient
for groundwater storage and their groundwater resources can be developed by wells.
The well sites can be located using simple geophysical measurements, e.g. VES. The
measurement is important in fissured aquifers developed in crystalline rocks for the
location of zones with a higher frequency and openness of fissures in addition to the
estimation of the depth of the groundwater level.

7.5 Hydrogeological Conceptual Model

The general concept of infiltration and groundwater circulation in the Mejo map sheet is
defined based on experience from the Eastern Plateau (eastern highlands) with emphasis
for groundwater in basement rocks.
The highlands of the Eastern Plateau area are covered mainly with various volcanic
rocks. Outcrops form a gently undulating plain that is dissected by deep valleys of Logita,
Bonora and Genale rivers. The plateau receives adequate rainfall and has moderate runoff,
resulting in good infiltration and formation of extensive and moderately productive or
locally developed and highly productive fissured and porous aquifers. The highlands
are characterized by numerous streams and perennial wetlands (e. g. Figure 7‑14 and
Figure 7‑15). The area in the central part of the Mejo map sheet consists of basement
rocks with shallow local groundwater circulation and development of groundwater
resources. In general, infiltration is good in areas where the plateau is covered by thick
elluvia (regolith) (shallow aquifers are developed in regolith). Aquifers outcropping in
the plateau area also feed deeper fissured aquifers developed in the underlying volcanic
and basement rocks.
80 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Most of the springs emerging from the volcanic and basement rocks of the plateau
are topographically controlled and others emerge along the structures indicating that
the groundwater flow is controlled by both factors. Springs are relatively small in
mountainous areas and represent shallow local groundwater flow. Springs with greater
discharge represent deep local groundwater flow and the existence of the Wora Kora hot
spring in the basement of the Dodola sheet indicates the possibility for a development of
deep regional groundwater flow. The general conceptual model of the eastern highlands
is shown in Figure 7‑16.

Figure 7‑14. Waterfall

on the Gonjobe River
tributary in the northern
part of the Mejo map
sheet.

Figure 7‑15. Small

wetland near Kersa Bere
in the northern part of
the Mejo map sheet.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 81

Figure 7‑16.
Conceptual
hydrogeological
model of the Eastern
Plateau.

The principles of the general conceptual model of the Mejo sheet based on the main
mechanisms of recharge and discharge are as follows:

• direct recharge to outcropping aquifers

• vertical recharge from the overlying aquifers into underlying aquifers
• horizontal recharge from the neighboring aquifers and rivers during high waters
• direct discharge by springs from outcropping aquifers (springs in the valleys of the
eastern highlands)
• direct discharge to rivers
• indirect discharge from one aquifer to another (vertical as well as horizontal)

In general, the groundwater flow is parallel with the surface water flow system. The
flow system follows the general direction of the rivers in the area, which start from the
eastern highlands water divide and flow to the center of the Genale river basin in the
southeast. Groundwater is under water table conditions; however, artesian conditions are
also known from the mixed aquifers of the plateau. Groundwater (boreholes and springs)
remains the main source of water supply for towns and villages within the Mejo map
sheet.
The conceptual model of groundwater occurrence and groundwater resources
development in basement rocks is based on a study of large areas covered by basement
rocks in the southern Ethiopia. In this type of hard formation, groundwater can be
economically used only in the case when the weathered and decomposed material over
the basement (eluvia or regolith) is sufficiently thick and saturated by water to provide
enough groundwater for water supply. This is not a common situation and the discharge
of springs or wells is very small, because the shallow local groundwater regime is not
able to maintain groundwater flow and accumulation during dry periods.

Annual recharge in the area surveyed

There is a large volume of information from different reports about the assessment of
recharge; however, the data vary significantly. The regional mechanism of recharge
of aquifers in the area has been described above. The groundwater is recharged from
rainfall, depending on its intensity and annual distribution, topographical gradient of
82 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

the area as well as the lithological composition (particularly in the vertical profile) of
outcropping rocks and their tectonic disturbance. A substantial part of the groundwater is
recharged from rainfall. There is also a seasonal but less significant amount of recharge
to localized aquifers from most of the permanent as well as intermittent streams after
rains when the water levels in rivers are above the groundwater level in the surrounding
aquifers. This type of recharge is important in the areas where evapotranspiration is
much higher and rainfall is lower.
Tesfaye (1993) characterized the recharge to be between 150 and 250 mm in the
highlands on the Mejo sheet.
The recharge calculated from the mean values of baseflow of rivers from the eastern
highlands shows the recharge variability from 51 mm/year to 201 mm/year depending
on the type of groundwater circulation. The variation of shallow groundwater circulation
shows the recharge between 51 and 79 mm/year and deep local circulation recharge
between 153 and 201 mm/year. The assessment of groundwater resources revealed an
annual recharge of 17 % of rainfall resulting in 221 mm.
Compared to the adopted average depth of precipitation of 1,300 mm, the calculated
infiltration (recharge) can be assessed as being 7 or 20 % of the precipitation depth.

7.6 Hydrogeochemistry

One of the important tasks of the water point inventory and data collection was to survey
the groundwater chemistry and to assess the groundwater quality for its use within the
mapped area. Therefore, a study of the groundwater quality was carried out on different
aquifers (geological formations) of the area as well as various parts of the water circulation
system (surface water, groundwater, precipitation). The results of the hydrochemical
study can help to understand the groundwater circulation within the aquifers in addition
to comparing the water quality with various standards.

Sampling and Analysis

A  total of 11 water samples were collected from boreholes (4), springs (5), dug well
(1) and the Genale River (1) in the Mejo map area. Data of other water analyses from
adjacent areas were used for an assessment of hydrochemical characteristics of water in
the map area. Field measurements of pH, temperature and electrical conductivity were
made at the time of sampling. Reliability of the analyses was assessed using the cation-
anion balance (see Table 7‑5 and Figure 7‑17). The analytical results were presented
graphically on the inserted hydrochemical map to facilitate visualization of the water
type and their relationships using relevant colors and colored hatching (for transitional
and mixed types). Suitability of groundwater for drinking, industrial and agricultural
purposes is assessed based on the pertinent quality standards.

Table 7‑5. Cation anion balance

Level of balance [%] Frequency Cumulative frequency [%]

10 9 81.8

>15 2 100.0
 HYDROGEOLOGY 83

Figure 7‑17. Cation

anion balance.

Classification of natural waters

Classification of natural waters was used to express the groundwater chemistry
in the hydrochemical map. Hydrochemical types are classified based on the Meq%
representation of the main cations and anions by implementing the following scheme:

• Basic hydrochemical type, where the content of the main cation and anion is higher
than 50 Meq%. This chemical type is expressed in the hydrochemical map by a solid
color.
• Transitional hydrochemical type, where the content of the main cation and anion
ranges between 35 and 50 Meq%, or exceeds 50 % for one ion only. The dominant
ion combination is expressed in the hydrogeological map by the relevant colored
horizontal hatching. The secondary ion within the type is expressed by an index
(e.g. Mg2+).
• Mixed hydrochemical type, where the content of cations and anions is not above 50
Meq% and only one ion has a concentration over 35 Meq%. This type is expressed in
the hydrogeological map by the relevant colored vertical hatching.

The chemistry of groundwater in the Mejo area reflects the hydrological (aquifer)
system and system of groundwater circulation and its variability in the geology and
hydrogeology of the area consisting of different sedimentary and volcanic rocks and
geothermal areas. The dominant hydrochemical types of groundwater in the study area
are calcium-bicarbonate types.
The low TDS and the dominant calcium-bicarbonate type of groundwater indicate
the fast hydrogeological regime of the area receiving a relatively high volume of rainfall,
where groundwater flows in the fractured volcanic and basement rocks of plateau areas.
Also, there are occurrences of magnesium and sodium bicarbonate types. Transitional
hydrochemical types contain magnesium as the second cation within the type. The
summary of chemical types is listed in Table 7‑6.
The basic statistical data for the values of electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved
solids (TDS) and concentration of chloride (Cl) are shown in Table 7‑7.
84 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Table 7‑6. Hydrochemical types of the Mejo area

Hydrochemistry Type Number of cases

CaHCO3 Basic 3
CaMgHCO3 Basic 1
MgHCO3 Basic 1
CaHCO3 Trans 4
NaCaHCO3 Trans 1
CaCl Trans 1

Table 7‑7. Groundwater descriptive statistics of TDS, EC and Cl values

TDS [mg/l] EC [µS/cm] Cl [mg/l]

Average 248 272 6.5
Median 263 262 2.41
Minimum 26 25 0.00
Maximum 511 499 24.24
Count 11 11 11

Groundwater residence time along with flow paths, length of water-rock interaction,
lithology, ionic exchange, and evaporation as well as human activity may play
a significant role in the increment of groundwater composition by various components.
Major changes in the chemical composition of groundwater firstly occur in the soil zone
during the concentration of salts by evaporation and evapotranspiration.
The gradual development in TDS from surface water divides (100 mg/l) to the east as
well as to the west (200 mg/l), the relatively uniform hydrochemistry and the dominant
calcium-bicarbonate type of groundwater indicates the dynamic hydrogeological regime
in the eastern highlands. This trend in TDS is shown by idealized isosalinity lines in
the inserted hydrochemical map. Groundwater mainly infiltrates into aquifers in the
highlands with a cold climate receiving a high volume of precipitation and flows to the
east and west to the drainage areas formed by the Rivers of the highlands and through the
escarpment to the Rift Valley.

Groundwater from the aquifers hosted in volcanic rocks is of the calcium-bicarbonate

type. The basic type is dominating in the northern part of the map sheet, which is mainly
composed of volcanic rocks and the transient type is developed in the south, consisting
mainly of basement rocks.

Surface water of the Genale River drains both aquifers hosted in volcanic and basement
rocks. The type and composition of surface water is the same as for groundwater. This
fact confirms that both aquifers contribute to the formation of baseflow of the river
during the dry period.

Water quality
The water quality in the mapped area was assessed from the point of view of drinking,
agriculture and industrial use.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 85

Domestic Use
To assess the suitability of water for drinking purposes, the results of the chemical
analyses were compared with the Ethiopian standards for drinking water (see Table 7‑8)
published in the Negarit Gazeta No. 12/1990 and The Guidelines of Ministry of Water
Resources (MoWR, 2002). Table 7‑8 shows that groundwater in the mapped area is
potable.

A particular interest was paid to the content of nitrates in groundwater. The content
of nitrates is not related to the rock composition (type), but it reflects the pollution of
groundwater by human and/or animal waste. The background content of nitrates in
groundwater is about 5 to 10 mg/l, depending on the relevant land cover. In forest areas,
it can be even higher because of the decomposition of various plants and other organic
material. The nitrate content in the Mejo area varies from 0.05 mg/l to 27.02 mg/l (see
Figure 7‑18).

Table 7‑8. Groundwater chemistry compared to drinking water standards and guidelines

Ethiopian standards (1) and MoWR

Number of exceeding values
Range Guidelines (2)[mg/l]
Property
[min–max] Highest desirable Maximum Highest desirable Maximum
level permissible level level permissible level

Na (2) 1.58–25.35 – 358 – 0

Ca (1) 1.83–49.85 75 200 0 0

Cl (1) 0.28–24.24 200 600 0 0

Cl (2) 0.28–24.24 – 533 – 0

HBO2 – – 0.3 – –

(free) ammonia – 0.05 0.1 – –

Fe (1) – 0.1 1 – –

Fe (2) – 0.4 – – –

Mg (1) 0.27–43.1 50 150 0 0

Mn (1) – 0.05 0.5 – –

Mn (2) – – 0.5 – –

SO4 (1) 0.05–24.06 200 400 0 0

SO4 (2) 0.05–24.06 – 483 – 0

TDS (1) 26.24–511 500 1500 1 0

pH (1) 5.42–7.64 7.0 – 8.5 6.5 – 9.2 7 2

pH (2) 5.42–7.64 – 6.5 – 8.5 – 2

NO3 (1) 1.33–27.02 10 45 2 0

NO3 (2) 1.33–27.02 – 50 – 0

F (1) 0.05–1.3 1 1.5 1 0

F (2) 0.05–1.3 – 3 – 0
86 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 7‑18.
Nitrate content in
water samples in
the study area.

Water samples from two springs (2 out of 11 or 18 %) with the nitrate content above
10 mg/l show that some parts of (shallow) aquifers are polluted by human activity. The
value of 10 mg/l is considered as the natural content of nitrates in the groundwater. The
highest value of nitrates at 27 mg/l was found in the spring EE022. Such pollution is an
important factor particularly for vulnerable groundwater resources, where groundwater
circulation is fast and short. This fact has to be considered as well during planning for the
future development and protection of groundwater resources in the area. Proper location
of water points and suitable protective measures should be applied to boreholes, springs
and dug wells used for human water supply.

Irrigation and Livestock Watering Use

Agricultural standards for the quality of groundwater used for irrigation purposes
are determined based on the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), total dissolved solids
and the United States Salinity Criteria (USSC). The Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
is used to study the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes. It is defined
by SAR = Na/[(Ca+Mg)/2], where all concentrations are expressed in mg/l (see
Table 7‑9).

Table 7‑9. Suitability of water for irrigation

Value of SAR Water class Number of samples in the range

< 10 Excellent 11

10–18 Good 0

18–26 Fair –

> 26 Poor –
 HYDROGEOLOGY 87

All water samples from the study area were found to be suitable for irrigation since they
show the SAR value within the water quality class of excellent for agricultural purposes.
Implementation of the United States Salinity Criteria (USSC) revealed that groundwater
in the Mejo area is fit for irrigation, as illustrated in Table 7‑10.

Table 7‑10. Salinity criteria for irrigation

EC values Number
Class Remarks
[µS/cm] of cases

Low
< 250 Good 5
salinity

Good for soils of medium permeability

250–750 Moderate 6
for most plants

Satisfactory for plants having moderate

Medium
750–2,250 salt tolerance, on soils of moderate 0
high
permeability with leaching

Satisfactory for salt tolerant crops on soils

2,250–4,000 High of good permeability with 0
special leaching

> 4,000 Excessive Not fit for irrigation 0

The criteria for livestock watering are mainly based on the value of total dissolved solids
(TDS). Table 7‑11 shows the criteria for the suitability of groundwater for livestock
watering after Raghunath (1987). All water resources in the Mejo area can be used for
livestock watering.

Table 7‑11. Suitability of groundwater for livestock watering

Upper limit of TDS Number of samples

Animals
[mg/l] exceeding the limit

Poultry 2,860 0

Pigs 4,290 0

Horses 6,435 0

Cattle (dairy) 7,150 0

Cattle (beef) 10,000 0

Adult sheep 12,900 0

Industrial Use
Industrial water criteria establish requirements of water quality to be used for different
industrial processes that vary widely. Thus, the composition of water for high-pressure
boilers must meet extremely strict criteria, whereas low quality water can be used
for cooling of condensers. The suitability of water for use in industry is shown in
Table 7-12.
88 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Table 7‑12. Suitability of water for use in industry

solids Chlorides Sulfates Number

Industry or use (TDS) pH as Cl as SO4 of samples
[mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] in the range

Brewing 500–1,500 6.5–7.0 60–100 – 0

Carbonated beverages < 850 – < 250 < 250 10

Confectionary 50–100 > 7.0 – – 0

Dairy < 500 – < 30 < 60 9

Food canning & freezing < 850 > 7.0 – – 3

Food equipment. washing < 850 – < 250 – 10

Food processing. general < 850 – – – 10

Ice manufacture 170–1,300 – – – 6

Laundering – 6.0–6.5 – – 1

Paper and pulp. fine < 200 – – – 4

Paper. groundwood < 500 – < 75 – 9

Paper. bleached
< 300 – < 200 – 6
cardboard

Paper. unbleached
< 500 – < 200 – 9
cardboard

Paper. soda
< 250 – < 75 – 4
and sulfate pulps

Rayon
and acetate fiber pulp < 100 – – – 2
production

Rayon manufacture – 7.8–8.3 – – 0

Sugar < 100 – < 20 < 20 2

Tanning – 6.0–8.0 – – 9

Textile – – < 100 < 100 10

As a result, an adequate groundwater quality often becomes a primary consideration

in selecting a new industrial plant location. Groundwater from the mapped area can be
used for industry in general, but some specific technologies require water treatment
before the water is used in the technology (particularly pH adjustment for brewing).
Incrustation hazard is important for the design of various pipes as well as
technological processes. Incrustation occurs if concentrations exceed the limits shown
in Table 7‑13. Corrosion hazard occurs if concentrations exceed the limits shown in
Table 7‑14.
Water quality assessment revealed that water in the Mejo area is suitable for drinking,
irrigation, livestock watering as well as for industrial use.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 89

Table 7‑13. Concentration limits for incrustation

Concentration Number of samples

Component
[mg/l] in the range

Bicarbonates (HCO3–) > 400 11

Sulfates (SO42–) > 100 11

Silicon (Si) > 40 11

Iron (total) >2 Nd

Manganese (total) >1 Nd

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) >1 Nd

Total hardness (TH as CaCO3) > 200 11

Table 7‑14. Concentration limits for corrosion

Concentration Number of samples

Component
and / or value in the range

pH <7 3

EC > 1,500 µS/cm 11

Chloride (Cl–) > 500 mg/l 11

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) > 1 mg/l Not analyzed

CO2 > 50 mg/l Not analyzed

Dissolved oxygen (O2) > 2 mg/l Not analyzed

Total hardness (TH as CaCO3) < 100 mg/l Not calculated

7.7 Water resources

Water resources in the area depend mainly on rainfall and other climatic characteristics
as well as on the hydrogeological, hydrological, geological, topographical settings and
land use of the study area. As a part of the integrated water resource and development
program, the use of surface and groundwater must be dealt with keen interest in
addressing the acute problems of adequate and safe water supply schemes for potable
and irrigation water in the study area. There are many meteorological stations operated
by the Meteorological Institute in the mapped area. Selected meteo stations with long-
term measurements were used to assess precipitation depth. The long-term mean annual
rainfall of the area has been assessed to be about 1,300 mm/year.
The total area of the map was calculated from the total area of aquifers from
the hydrogeological map, resulting in an area of 764 km2, which is used for further
calculation.
The areas of active aquifers that have the ability to store and transmit water were
calculated based on the hydrogeological map. The active aquifers (see Table 7‑15) of
porous, mixed and fissured permeability cover an area of 764 km2.
90 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Table 7‑15. Aquifers of the area

Aquifers Area [km2]

Porous aquifers 74

Fissured aquifers in volcanic and basement rocks 691 (456 and 235)

Total of the area 764

The runoff characteristics vary widely because of the variability in climatic

conditions, topography and hydrogeological characteristics between different gauging
stations. Surface river flow measurements are performed at a  one gauging station in
the Mejo area, but river flow measurements from the Mejo and adjacent areas were
considered in the assessment of surface and baseflow values. The surface flow-baseflow
assessment is highly affected by the quality of flow measurements, the effect of bank
groundwater storage, difficulties in flow measurements of the wide and unstable river
channels and the unknown groundwater flow beneath the gauging stations. For further
calculations, the values of specific surface runoff of 18.0 l/s.km2 and specific baseflow
of 7 l/s.km2 were used for the areas consisting of active aquifers on the Mejo sheet. The
assessed water resources in the Mejo area are shown in Table 7‑16.

Table 7‑16. Assessment of water resources in the Mejo area

Input Area [km2] Resources total Remark

Precipitation 1,300 mm 764 995 Mm3/year

Total water resources – map 18.0 l/s.km2 764 434 Mm3/year 44 % rainfall

Renewable groundwater
7 l/s.km2 764 169 Mm3/year 17 % rainfall
resources in active aquifers

Static groundwater resources 5% porosity

456 2,280 Mm3 Not proved
in fissured aquifers 100 m thickness

Static groundwater resources 15% porosity

74 111 Mm3 Not proved
in porous aquifers 10 m thickness

Water resources in the area are huge; groundwater resources in the eastern highlands,
which represent the open hydrogeological system, are relatively flexible in use.
Despite the fact that river gauge measurements show the relatively moderate
evapotranspiration when about 44 % of precipitation is drained as total runoff from the
area, there are good water resources to be used for irrigation as well as for the drinking
water supply for the people living within the area. The total water resources of the area
have been assessed to be 434 Mm3/year.
The river gauge measurements show that about 17 % of precipitation infiltrates and
appears as baseflow. There are good groundwater resources to be used for the supply of
drinking water to people living within the area. The total volume of renewable groundwater
resources of active aquifers in the area has been assessed to be 169 Mm3/year.
Groundwater resources in aquifers (regolith) with shallow groundwater represent about
122 Mm3/year. These enormous dynamic groundwater resources can be used particularly
for household irrigation to improve the economic situation of individual farmers.
 HYDROGEOLOGY 91

Conclusions and Recommendations

Groundwater accumulates in porous aquifers developed in alluvial, fluvial and colluvial
sediments and in aquifers with fissures developed in volcanic and basement rocks.
Shallow groundwater is accumulated in elluvium (regolith) of volcanic and basement
rocks. It is necessary to consider that the groundwater level in aquifers can fall to
greater depths during the periods with inadequate precipitation and the river flow fed by
groundwater will disappear during the periods of drought in most of the small rivers of
the area.
There is a good potential for the development of surface water for small-scale
irrigation and electricity generation in the area; however, water balance should be
carefully considered in development plans.
Groundwater is of a good quality and most of the groundwater resources can be
directly used for drinking, industrial as well as agricultural purposes. Groundwater
should be primarily used for a drinking water supply; it could also be used for irrigation,
but there should be clear evidence that pumping for irrigation does not lead to over
pumping of the groundwater resources, causing degradation of the aquifer. Should the
aquifer be used for irrigation, monitoring wells are required to be drilled together with
the production wells for a systematic observation of changes in groundwater levels,
quality of pumped water and optimization of the pumping system.
The water types in the study area are basic and transitional Ca–HCO3 in the highlands
with low TDS varying between 100 and 200 mg/l.
Local pollution of groundwater by nitrates occurs in rural as well as urban areas due
to a lack of protection of water sources.
Due to the hydrogeological properties of the study area, water supply programs
should consider the exploitation of water supply resources through springs, drilled
and hand-dug wells, depending on the position of development site. The reasons for
exploitation of water supply resources through springs, drilled and hand-dug wells are:

• Simple implementation
• Cost effectiveness
• Easy to maintain by local communities
• The aquifer is shallow and recharged by river water, which is relatively fresh after
rainfall episodes

In the case of developed springs, their surroundings should be protected against

pollution, because most of the springs have shallow groundwater circulation and human
as well as animal waste (problem of watering animals directly from the spring) can
easily and quickly penetrate the groundwater resources. Springs should be developed
by a solid concrete box and it is preferable that the water will flow from the spring by
a tube (pipe) and distributed to people 10–20 m from the spring (lower position of the
water distribution point). The area of the protection box should be protected against the
entry of people and animals; in particular animals should be completely prevented entry.
The water distribution systems (bono) should preferably be equipped with a system
minimizing the discharge of water when it is filled into containers. In the case when
water is used for animal watering, it should be transported by a tube and distributed to
the animals about 20–30 m from the well (lower position of the water distribution point –
cattle bin). The area of the well head should be protected against accumulation of surface
92 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

water by drainage ditches and the entrance of animals to the well’s surroundings should
be completely eliminated.
Drilling of boreholes should be concentrated to the aquifers developed in volcanic
rocks and thick sediments with porous permeability along the main rivers. It is advisable
to use geophysical investigation to select the locations for siting of wells where the
regolith is thick and volcanic rocks are deeply weathered and soft. Groundwater can be
totally missing when the regional groundwater table in the aquifer is not reached and/or
in cases, where the drilled part of the basalt is massive without joints and fissures.
Any type of development of the area should take into consideration the protection and
conservation of the area’s natural resources. A particular interest should be paid to soil
conservation and groundwater protection using the appropriate agricultural methods to
decrease soil erosion and to the implementation of water resource protection to protect
groundwater against pollution and over pumping. Groundwater resources protection
should be applied particularly in rural and urban settlements with an increased pollution
by nitrates. The monitoring of environmental components, particularly the surface water
flow and sediment load, should be enhanced at gauging stations in the lower reaches of
the river. The recent inappropriate wastewater and solid waste management has to be
considerably improved.
Despite some local and regional environmental problems, the Mejo area provides
the potential for feasible and environmentally sound natural and human resource
development.
8) ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

8.1 Engineering geological characterization

The basic geotechnical characteristics of individual units in the Mejo area are given in
this chapter. The major rock types on the map sheet are used as a basis for characterizing
each of the lithological units and establishing a qualitative classification with regard
to their occurrence in the terrain, their geomorphic features and physical properties.
This is because the engineering properties of soils and rocks influence the formation of
large-scale morphological features, apart from other external factors or endogenous and
exogenous processes. A few examples of such relations exist and are worth mentioning.
The Schmidt hammer rebound values were used in the surveyed area to reveal a strong
correlation between weathered and less weathered or even fresh rocks and various
elements of the relief (Day 1981; Aydin and Bsu et al. 2005; Placek and Migon 2007).
This may indicate that either frequent physical testing of rocks or general morphological
features can be derived from one another, so that some engineering geological units can
be identified and classified based on the morphology of the terrain or observations in
the field and the interpretation of landforms. The latter method was used in the current
study, because frequent testing of physical properties of rocks in the field was difficult
due to the rugged terrain and very limited accessibility and also due to a relatively short
time for the testing of engineering properties of various units. Nevertheless, the data
obtained using these methods are believed to be not much different from those acquired
by frequent testing of rock properties in the field.
The mechanical and physical characteristics of the bedrock making up the Mejo
sub sheet are described in this section, while an attempt has been made to comprehend
the nature and genesis of soft recent superficial deposits as well. The rocks of volcanic
and metamorphic origin are extensively found on the map sheet with a variable degree
of alteration and competence. The deeper and wider coalescent incision by the Genale
River exposes the otherwise continuous volcanic sequence into slopes with variable
physico-mechanical properties and susceptibility to weathering and slope processes.
The volcanic rocks are mainly basaltic aphanitic ones with a variable degree of
weathering, but having a higher intact strength, although being much more affected by
tectonically induced and cooling-related fracturing. On the other hand, a very variable
mechanical strength is characteristic of the pyroclastic deposits in the area. Some of
these rocks are poorly welded and hence found in a completely weathered state, while
other forms of the pyroclasts including welded tuffs and rhyolitic ignimbrites, have
sound strengths. Nevertheless, the ignimbrites also display well-developed polygonal
planes of cooling joints. The metamorphic rocks are confined to deeper levels of valleys
and are characteristically greenschist- to amphibolite facies rocks with occasional lenses
of quartzite and retrograde chlorite schist. While the medium-grade rocks are harder
and tend to be massive, the low grade rocks are soft, highly to moderately weathered
and with foliation planes usually parting easily if not supported when adversely oriented
and exposed.
94 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Recent (Pleistocene to Holocene) superficial deposits occupy the deeply weathered

plateau region, which is mostly comprised of basaltic rocks and partly of rhyolitic
ignimbrite and poorly welded rhyolitic tuff. These rocks are characterized by thick
lateritic weathered profile with remnants of horizontal layers of thin (4-5 cm) quartz
veins noted in the profile. The second type of important Quaternary superficial deposits is
derived from the gravity driven colluvium on terraces similar to many other mountainous
areas of Ethiopia. The superficial deposits at such locations are already consolidated
in most cases, but are often aggravated upon excessive modification of the slopes and
diversion of running water to the top of the slopes.

8.2 Engineering geological classification

Based on the overall characteristics, a broad classification of the lithological units into
logical rock mass classes typical of the terrain forms can be made. Hence, high rock
mass units of welded pumiceous rhyolitic ignimbrites, moderately hard amphibolites,
basalts and weak talc-tremolite schist can be distinguished, although the properties are
inhomogeneous. The characteristic features of the classes are given in the section below
along with the accounts of a few field and laboratory tests of the classes.

Genetic classification of soils

Regolith (deep weathered profiles)
Deeply weathered rocks are generally lateritic and characteristically covered by humic
soil. They are mostly found associated with the basaltic bedrock, but also occur on
rhyolitic ignimbrites, reaching thicknesses of 1.7m. Soils have a clayey silt composition
with elevated stiffness especially during dry seasons. Also, they often have a prismatic
structure in dry horizons as a result of shrinking due to moisture reduction.
They occupy most of the farmed areas in the north-eastern part of the Mejo
map sheet. While they tend to be suitable for farmland, a number of occasions have
been recorded with slope cuts rapidly progressing up the gentle slope cuts made
for even low volume motorable local roads. They are also prone to erosion and
are highly prone to collapse with a tendency to disperse more easily from the field
conservation.

Colluvial sediments
Colluvial sediments with usual spring issuing occur in the area. The matrix is often silty
to clay, composed of boulder- to gravel-sized blocks of basalts and rhyolitic ignimbrite.
The thickness of the colluvium is highly variable in excess of 10’s of meters. On the
map sheet, colluvial sediments occur under the foot of the cliffs commonly in the
central and northeastern area of the Mejo map sheet, where condusive climate and
conditions for their formation prevail. On the connecting road between the towns of
Mejo and Bensa, the road traverses these colluvia for a considerable part along a steep
slope and it has suffered from a severe instability at many locations. Especially near
the beginning of the steep ascent of the new road that connects the town of Mejo with
the Bensa-Girja existing road, the continuous long slope developed numerous mass-
movement hazards. This has been reported to be a recurrent problem, where casualties
have been cited by locals.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 95

Alluvial sediment
These are mostly sandy and silty clayey soils with thicknesses reaching several meters,
especially near the lower courses of the Genale River and the town of Girja. They are
also sought after for farming, being usually fertile and moist. No significant adverse
problems have been observed in these groups of genetic soil classes. They form an
undulating smooth topography and are extensively found in the southeastern and central
part of the map sheet.

Engineering geological rock mass classification

The areas comprised of volcanic plateaus including their escarpments and basement
rocks in the central area of the map sheet in river valleys are classified into the groups of
high, moderate and weak rock mass strength. The test values of the in-situ field Schmidt
hammer are shown in Figure 8‑1. The sampled rocks tested in the laboratory for porosity,
water absorption capacity (Figure 8‑3) and point load strength (Figure 8‑2) are also
shown.

Figure 8‑1. Schmidt

hammer (N-Type)
in situ test of
rock hardness on
outcrops in the Mejo
sheet.

Figure 8‑2.Point
load strength test
for irregular rock
samples from the
Mejo sheet.

Figure 8‑3.
Laboratory physical
test for water
absorption, porosity
and bulk density of
rock samples from
major lithologies
in the Mejo sheet
(multiple tests
conducted for
each sample).
96 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

High rock mass strength class

In terms of intact strength, the ignimbrites have a range of values varying from very strong
to moderately strong (up to ca 60 MPa from the Schmidt hammer test). The discontinuity
and intensity of weathering is also lower, resulting in the higher rock mass strength. The
ignimbrites occur at two distinct stratigraphic positions, as shown on the geological map.
The lower-most ignimbrite occupies the lower reaches of the valley, directly resting on
metamorphic basement rocks, for example along the banks of the Genale River. The
upper ignimbrite units occur at higher elevations, forming a layer in the extensive basaltic
plateau. The lower ignimbrites mostly exhibit higher intact strength (about 35 MPa from
the Schmidt hammer test) and are mostly massive. The upper ignimbrites, which mainly
crop out in the western part of the map, have a reduced intact strength where abundant
pumice fragments are a part of the lithic component and often have developed cooling
joints. Where the amphibolites are just slightly weathered, they also have higher intact
and rock mass strength in the area. Hence they can be considered as high rock mass
strength units in such cases.

Moderate rock mass strength class

Basaltic units are extensively found, forming a  wider plateau province and the cliffs
thereof on the map sheet. The basalts grossly attain high intact strength, but have alower
overall rock mass strength, which might be attributed to the effect of intense weathering
and jointing often found associated with basalts. The basalts are mostly aphanitic,
moderately to highly weathered with a moderately higher intact strength and are noted
to have closely spaced cooling joints. Their strength reaches over 50 MPa from field
measurements by the Schmidt hammer. In most cases, the basalts are highly weathered,
attaining the intact strength as low as ~10 Mpa by the Schmidt hammer in-situ tests,
being often altered to whitish and yellowish colored regolith. Most of the basaltic cliffs
are noted to be frequently prone to mass movement (rock slide). In fact, the plateau top
basalts are altered to regolith of a considerable depth, which often fails on low slope cuts,
~5 meters high.
The amphibolites occurring in the valley of the Genale tributaries in the central
part of the map display variable intact strength characteristics as a result of a variably
combined weathering and foliation intensity. For instance, on relatively higher grounds,
the amphibolites are foliated but have higher intact strength because of the lower degree
of weathering. Moreover, though less frequently, rock falls are noted in amphibolite
outcrops along a part of the lower river valley slopes. Shallow regolith with ca ~10 cm
in thickness is often developed on the amphibolites. In some cases, it occurs as a sandy
weathering product usually exfoliated due to unloading.

Low rock mass strength class

The talc-tremolite schists are categorized in this class, where they are noted to portray
moderately to slightly weathered state with a lower intact strength (~10 MPa from the
Schmidt hammer test). These rocks have a greenish grey and reddish yellow colour,
more or less foliated. At the site of a  gold mine, the talc-tremolite schists occur as
continuously collapsing and sliding blocks along the foliation, where the weathering
is also observed to have partially degraded the rock into a residual soil. As the talc-
tremolite schist often hosts the quartz vein mineralization, which attracts many artisanal
prospectors, the unsafe practice of mining is posing the greatest risk from a collapse
of unstable steeper slopes.
9) GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

The specific geological and climatic conditions in the southern Ethiopia significantly
affect the economic and socio-demographic development of this region. The
geomorphological and geological character of the area creates favourable conditions
for triggering geological processes that may negatively influence human activities
and the local environment. Surface erosion strongly affects soil quality and causes an
overall degradation of farmland. Flooding and slope failures threaten the arable land,
infrastructural construction and settlements. Hazardous phenomena were derived
and identified from the synthesis and interpretation of the acquired geological,
geomorphological, and remote-sensing data, and they are also based on the field surveys
focused on geological and geomorphological phenomena. A range of factors such as
geomorphological features (landform origin, slope deformations, impact of head-ward
erosion) as well as geological setting (lithology, degree and character of weathering,
geotechnical and hydrogeological properties of rocks, data of historical earthquakes),
and the age of volcanic rocks were taken into account and interpreted in order to identify
geological or natural hazards in general. The land use and climate conditions were also
considered.
The landforms in the southern section of the rift were modelled by or resulted from
exogenous processes that also had an impact on local population living in the area. These
processes are connected with the recent evolution of the rift, mostly in a time span of 3 Ma
(Bonini et al., 2005), during which the formation of fault scarps, followed by the origin
of depressions along the foot of escarpments took place, and also led to the deposition
of material as a result of exogenous processes, erosion in particular. In the scarps of deep
valleys, there was an increasing threat of reactivation of mass wasting processes in the
form of landslides, debris avalanche and rock falls. Due to expansive agriculture and
deforestations, the problem of surface erosion and land degradation has been aggravated.

Structural landforms consist of fault scarps and structural surfaces/slopes (Fig. 2-1).
Fault scarps are characterized by relatively steep and straight slopes with downthrown
blocks and slopes that are predisposed by the original trend of a denuded fault plane; they
occur in the main valleys of the area. The majority of fault scarps in the area are running
from north-south or northeast to southwest. These landforms are frequently affected by
large and deep-seated fossil slope failures.

Denudation landforms are represented by erosional slopes, valleys and planation

surfaces (Fig. 2-1). Erosional slopes and valleys result from the prolonged effect of
erosion processes on exposed fresh or weathered rocks. Erosion slopes are widespread
landforms with a different gradient formed by alluvial erosion. Erosion slopes gave rise
to scarps and V-shaped valleys, which do not usually follow the geological structures.
Palaeosurfaces related to the high land plateau are characterized by gently undulating
to flat landforms as a result of long-term denudation and planation processes that are
affected by exogenous processes of low intensity.
98 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Landforms of accumulation consist of alluvial plains and alluvial fans. Alluvial plains
and fans are formed only in the parts where fluvial systems show a lower gradient and
represent landforms that are susceptible to floods, including the deposition of large
volumes of material that may be later exposed to erosional processes.

9.1 Endogenous hazards

Seismic hazards in the study area do not represent a prominent geological hazard. The
study area is located 100 km east of the Main Ethiopian Rift, where the seismic swarms
associated with rift extension consist of many thousands of weak to moderate earthquakes
with magnitudes less than 5 are documented. The earthquakes accompanied by direct
volcanic eruptions were observed and reported repeatedly in the past (Gouin 1979) in
the southern part of Ethiopia. In the study area, the young volcanic features have not
been observed; the probability of earthquakes related to volcanic eruptions is very low.
The strong tectonic earthquakes are recorded as being related to the displacements along
active faults parallel with the rift valley. Historical earthquakes are scarcely documented
and hence are difficult to be assigned to particular faults; their hypocentral depths and
distribution remain unclear. The nearest documented earthquake epicenter was located
56 km far northwest of Mejo town which took place in 2011 with a magnitude of 5.3.
Various events have been reported from the Hawassa area 100 km northwest of Mejo.
In 1960, the earthquake with a magnitude of 6.3 was felt 200 km away and produced
28 aftershocks (Gouin 1979). In January 2016 (N 7.04°, E 38.34°), the earthquake with a
magnitude of 4.68 was detected at a depth of 4.55 km in this area (Wilks et al. 2016). The
event was felt up to 100 km away and caused damage and public anxiety in the Hawassa
town.
Intense urban development has taken place in the southern Ethiopia with evidently
little attention given to the earthquake hazard in the region endangering the population
and infrastructure. The last strong earthquake occurred in 1906, when the population
in the region was much sparser and the distribution of urban housing was sporadic.
Anti-seismic measures have not been satisfactorily applied since. Only recently has
probabilistic seismic hazard analysis for the Horn of Africa region at a general scale
been compiled by Ayele (2017). Anti-earthquake construction have not been adequately
enforced and the public was not made aware of the potential danger. Neither have Hazard
maps been made in order to implement an adequate emergency response strategy to
withstand strong earthquakes. A model or prototype of the local seismic network is being
set up in cooperation with the Institute of Rock Structure and Mechanics of the Academy
of Sciences of the Czech Republic in the southern part of Main Ethiopian Rift to monitor
nearby earthquake events by short period seismometers. The continued installation of
monitoring facilities, including specific analyses of seismic hazards in individual zones
are believed to increase the awareness of local population and to upgrade appropriate
measures to reduce seismic hazards in the region.

Volcanic hazard refers to any potentially dangerous volcanic process (e.g. lava flows,
pyroclastic flows, lahars and occurrence of post–volcanic features). The sub-recent volcanic
fields were not identified in the mapped area. The nearest recent volcanic fields are located
north of the Abaya Lake and the Corbetti Caldera near Hawassa. Both volcanic features are
approximately 110 km further away away to the southwest and to northwest respectively
 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 99

and don’t represent a significant risk for the study area. However, Jones et al. (2017)
identified the products of Corbetti Caldera eruptions, dated at 1.5–1.3 ka and 8.7–8.3 in
the deposits of Chamo Lake located 170 km south of the volcano; thus the potential impact
of eruptions in the future across the relatively wider area, including the area of the Mejo
map can not be excluded. The lack of monitoring facilities in any of the volcanic systems in
the southern Ethiopia, and also poor historical and geochronological data and records don´t
allow an accurate determination of potential volcanic hazards and better understanding of
the evolution of these volcanoes and the frequency of their eruptions since the last volcanic
event. Systematic monitoring of volcanoes in the region is highly recommended to estimate
the potential for an early warning prior to a major eruption.

9.2 Exogenous hazards

Alluvial hazards
Alluvial hazards include dangerous exogenous processes associated with surface water
streams; they are generally related and triggered by heavy rains and consequent flood
events. During the rainy season, river banks are overflown by big discharge river
otherwise, these are dry except in the rainy season. They often destroy farm-lands and
houses when they occur and also damage major roads, temporarily blocking traffic.
No noticeable concrete and sustainable counter measures are in place concerning these
hazards, despite their strong impact on the activity of the livelihood in the area.

Alluvial erosion is one of the most common alluvial processes in the area as a natural
exogenous process of the landscape (Figure 9‑1). Tectonic processes creating high
gradient relief, climatic characteristics with stormy rains producing rapid runoff and
lithological setting with strongly weathered volcanic and metamorphic rocks promote
favourable conditions for surface erosion. Intensive deforestation leads to a decrease
in infiltration capacity of the surface and to an increase in runoff and acceleration of
erosional processes with prominent rill and gully erosion. The most affected areas
represent a steep erosional scarp formed by strongly weathered metamorphic rocks

Figure 9‑1. Surface erosion in the erosional landscape formed Figure 9‑2. Land degradation in highly weathered metamorphic
by metamorphic rocks, Gambelto River Valley. rocks, west of Bule.
100 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

with scarce vegetation in the valley of River Gambelto (Figure 9‑2). Gulling and land
degradation was documented in several places (e.g. north of Girja or close to Mogonisa).

Inundation
The areas associated with fluvial processes, such as floodplains along the rivers and
surface of alluvial fans are endangered by floods; besides these, also the areas close
to small ephemeral streams are regarded as an inundation risk. The drainage system of
the highland is formed by small streams with predominantly meandering channels of
low energy and transport capacity. In this setting, the floods do not represent a serious
problem. Adjacent floodplains could be subjected to inundation during higher discharges;
moreover, since wetlands develop in such areas construction should be avoided in the
vicinity of floodplains. Genale and Gambelto rivers form a braided system with a high
sediment load of gravel material. Formation migration and deposition of channel bars
lead to a decrease in channel capacity. High discharges are accompanied by intensive
lateral erosion of banks endangering farmlands and infrastructure, including a bridge on
the main road to Girja.
Accumulation of sediments is usually connected with floods as well as with mass
movement processes. The mass of silt and clay-sized particles to sand and gravel
size is often transported down the narrow canyons and gullies from the upper parts of
escarpments. The greatest risk of high accumulation occurs in the areas with an abrupt
decrease in slope gradient. The loss of transporting medium power and carrying capacity
result in rapid sedimentation of the material eroded and transported from the upper parts,
leading to the creation of alluvial fans in the foothill of slopes, mouths of gullies as well
as erosional and stream valleys where a thick accumulation could be deposited in short
time. An example is shown in Figure 9‑3 where the accumulation of sediments can be
observed in the mouth of an erosion valley south of Gambelto.
Human intervention in the nature system could amplify the negative impacts of
alluvial processes and increase damage to property. Reforestation is necessary to decrease
the negative impact of erosion. Planting of trees and diversified agriculture production

Figure 9‑3.
Accumulation of
sediments in the mouth
of an erosion valley of
the Gambelto river.
 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 101

can help to slow down erosion rates. To decelerate the runoff of water and sediment load,
it is recommended to plant rows of trees as well as to construct small check-dams and
polders in the drainage system. Trees and deep-rooted bushes should also be planted on
the boundaries of land plots to prevent soil erosion. Alluvial erosion threatens farmlands
as well as infrastructure that are not designed for intensive surface runoff. Often Bridges
and Culverts in such areas are noted to be constructed with inadequate flow capacity,
leading to an accumulation of material above a culvert. The channel capacity decreases
with time and scouring of the Bridge structure and an increased discharge from flooding
events all follow to aggravate the problem. The planning and constructions of new
infrastructures must be carried out respecting the alluvial processes that are active in the
particular site and landscape of the area.

Slope deformation hazards

Several types of slope deformations – landslides, earth-debris flows and rock falls
represent one of the most prominent geological hazards in the high topographic setting of
the map sheet area. Most of the slope processes and sites susceptible to slope deformations
are concentrated in scarps related to the NW to SE trending fault system, separating the
bottom of the Genale and Gambelto River Valley (1,400 to 1,700 m a.s.l.) and a highland
in the eastern and northeastern part ot the study area plateau (approximately 2,400 m
a.s.l.). The slope failures have a character of complex deformation with the combination
of various slope processes such as rockfall, rockslide, landslide and debris flows.
Falls and toppling are abrupt movements of material, such as rocks and boulders that
become detached from steep slopes or cliffs. Their separation occurs along discontinuities
such as fractures and movements include free fall, bouncing, rolling and sliding. Falls
are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering and by the presence of
interstitial water. The rocks prone to rock-fall are affected by a high density of columnar
jointing, which results from the cooling contraction that promotes rock disintegration
and subsequent rock falls.
Rock-fall areas have been observed in the steep scarp formed by competent welded
ignimbrites around Kara Kulubi in the southwestern part of the area. Also, the main
scarps of the fossil, large and complex slope failure exposes wide outcrops of jointed
weathered basalt; the rock-falls occur along the main scarps of large fossil landslides
in the Genale and Gambelto River Valley. The recent rock-fall collapses observed at
roadcuts crossing the main landslide scarp endanger the old and new road to Mejo.

Landslides
The morphological setting of more than 700 meters deep erosional valleys of Genale,
Gambelto and Bonora rivers with intensive head-ward erosional processes and occurrence
of highly weathered rocks create favourable conditions for slope deformation. The
deep-seated complex landslide area occurs on the banks of the valleys (Figure 9‑4).
The landslide areas are characterised by large dimensions of length varing from several
hundred meters to 4 kilometers, width of up to 2 kilometers, amphitheatre-shaped edges
of the main scarps reaching 200 meters in height. Commonly, tilted blocks, water filled
depressions and a number of spring issues are also noted in the landslide zone. The
landslide appears to be fossil and inactive; where the depressed domain and the arched
accumulation area of the landslide are covered by boulders and blocks, being also
modified by subsequent exogenous processes of erosion and denudation. However, the
102 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 9‑4. Main scarp

of a large fossil slope
deformation, east of
Gambelto River Valley.

Figure 9‑5. Jointed

basalts prone to rockfall
outcropped in the road
between Gambelto River
Valley and Mejo town.

reactivation of slope processes near the edges of terraces of the large fossil landslide was
observed during fieldworks.
These reactivations were triggerred by inappropriate aligning of the road from Gambelto
river crossing to Mejo town. Deep roadcuts in the main landslide scarp exposed the
weathered and jointed basalts, which are subsequently subjected to rock falls and debris
slides (Figure 9‑5). Below the embankment of the road, the landslide with a combined
(rotational and lateral) shear zone reaches an depth of ca. 5–10 m, width of ca. 120 m and
length of ca. 150 m as documented in 2013 (Rapprich et al. 2013). The indications of
such cracks or curved tree tunks of the slope movement are still visible. Frequent debris
flows generated in the scarp below the road construction endanger adjacent buildings.
The subsidence of surface, formation of cracks and occurrence of debris flows
indicate the shallow-seated reactivation of a landslide approximately 500 meters below
the main scarp (N 6o 21´ 41.8´´; E 38o 55´ 37.7´´). The processes mentioned above caused
the destruction of the old road from Gambelto river crossing to Mejo town and forced
authorities to realign on an alternative route.
 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 103

Figure 9‑6. Reactivation of a landslide close to the ancient Figure 9‑7. Debris flows from the embankment of the older road
road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo. from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town.

Figure 9‑8. Destruction of the old road from Gambelto River Figure 9‑9. Shallow landslide in the weathered basalts, north of
Valley to Mejo by a shallow landslide. Mejo.

The alternative road also crosses the landslide area with a high vulnerability to slope
processes. The selection of the road alignment does not respect nature conditions, traced
without any consideration of detailed geomorphological and geological variation. Deep
roadcuts and the lack of drainage system of the road all increase the probability slope
instability that lead to road destruction and threating the safety of local the community.
During the field works, the reactivation of rock falls, debris flows and landslides were
noted along the road (Figure 9‑6).
Several small shallow landslides were also observed in the highland area, particularly in
places where highly weathered rocks, residual soils and colluvial deposits occur. These
small-scale slope failures around the road are usually triggered by deep excavations
during road constructions along the slopes that are prone to deformations due to their
low cohesion and saturation of weathered rocks with water, particularly during the
rainy seasons (Figure 9‑6, Figure 9‑7, Figure 9‑8 and Figure 9‑9).
10) LOCAL PREVENTION AND MITIGATION
MEASURES OF GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Geological hazards are the result of geodynamic processes taking place throughout
the history of the Earth, so that the application of measures to prevent or mitigate
geological dangers should take this fact into consideration. Two measures or strategies
should be adopted in the Mejo area to cope with these issues. The first is to reduce
the impact of geological hazards putting the local population and infrastructure
such as roads, farmlands and nearby settlements at risk. This requires appropriate
planning whenever possible to avoid locating the infrastructure (roads or settlements)
in risky areas or even relocation of existing infrastructure and settlement to safer
place.
The second strategy is to note that apart from the preventive and mitigation strategies,
it is vital to maintain an emergency preparedness and a response plan based on the
vulnerability of the area. This will ensure safeguarding the endangered population from
imminent hazards in case the phenomena occurs. The Mejo area, which is situated in the
highland east to the active East African Rift, surely needs such preparedness (including
emergency response systems).
Some aspects of the encountered common problems caused by slope deformations
and hydrological processes and remedial measures taken thereof are discussed in the
following paragraphs. They are followed by the recommended long-term preventive and
rehabilitation strategies and also by suggestions for the monitoring and preparedness
(including emergency response systems) for various potential disasters anticipated from
the geological setting of the area.

10.1 Manageable geomorphic hazards

The infrastructure is commonly affected by a range of dangerous superficial processes

mentioned in chapter 9. There is a formidable quantity of material involved in the mass
wasting process. On the other hand the design of constructions commonly does not
respect the local geological and geomorphological conditions. An assessment of the
typical field conditions together with recommended counter measures are described in
this section.
The road between the towns of Gambelto and Girja crosses various ephemeral streams
that are active during the rainy season. The bridges and culverts are inappropriately
designed; the capacities of the culverts are lower than the maximum discharges of the
streams during rainy seasons (Figure 10‑1 and Figure 10‑2). The culverts are filled by
sediments and create obstacles for the water stream. It leads to the accumulation of
sediment above the construction, overflow of water across the road, and erosion of the
base of the culverts and their destruction. Also, suffosion has been observed around some
culverts.
The recommendations for the contribution to a longer lifetime of the road are as
follows:
 LO C A L P R E V E N T I O N A N D M I T I G AT I O N
MEASURES OF GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 105

Figure 10‑1. Deep erosion of the existing road embankment Figure 10‑2. Backward erosion close to the road embankment,
with a deep gully, north of Girja. north of Girja.

• The fluvial channels above the culverts and bridges should be cleaned and the
accumulated material should be removed to restore the flow capacity and to allow
water flow.
• The culverts should be fortified by a concrete base and large stones to eliminate
the erosion effect of the water current.
• Alternative constructions such as low maintenance fords or bridges with a much
higher capacity for water flow should be erected.

Gully erosion threatens the road from Gambelto for example at 4 km northwest of
Girja. The gully has 6 meters in depth and 2 meters width in highly weathered gneisses.
The actual embankment of the road is eroded and partially destroyed. The construction of
the road creates an obstruction element for the surface runoff of water from the adjacent
area. The water cannot flow in the natural direction and has been diverted to the road.
In a wider area, it is necessary to construct a properly directed ditch to divert
water to the nearby natural stream. The bottom of the stream close to the road must be
strengthened by large stones to eliminate erosion.
The alternative new road from Gambelto river crossing to Mejo town crosses a large
landslide area. During the field observation, the slope processes threatening the road
construction as well as the houses of the local community were documented. In the
upper part of the scarps corresponding with the main scarp of a large fossil landslide,
inappropriate steep roadcuts have been made (Figure 10‑3). The highly weathered
volcanic bedrock is found covered by a colluvium of at least 2 m in thickness. There is
a movement of debris and small-scale rockfalls (an example shown in Figure 10‑4 and
Figure 10‑5) from the upper part and considerable slope instability may follow in the
long term.
The road embankment is made of an inappropriate material (Figure 10‑6). A mix of
large blocks of rock and fine-grained material is observed which cannot
be adequately compacted. In the long term, the settlement of the road will
occur which can lead to internal erosion. The opposite side of the road is also
endangered by rock-fall. Also, a landslide of uncompacted material of the road
embankment (Figure 10‑7 and Figure 10‑8) which reduced the side force of the
106 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Figure 10‑3. Inappropriate slope in the road cut from Gambelto Figure 10‑4. Small debris in the unstable cutting in the upper part
River Valley to Mejo town. of the slope of the road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town.

Figure 10‑5. Rock fall

in the road cut from
Gambelto River Valley
to Mejo town.

embankment that is located on the crown of the landslide is noted. The landslide
is approximately 300 m long and 100 m wide and also affects houses located in the toe
area.
The following recommendations are suggested to contain the adverse impact of the
landslide in the area.
• Before construction, detailed engineering geological, geotechnical and
geomorphological studies should be made in order to select appropriate
alignment and use sustainable technology.
• Improve the drainage system of the road for the stabilization
of the area embankment should be constructed using layers of well compacted
material.
 LO C A L P R E V E N T I O N A N D M I T I G AT I O N
MEASURES OF GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 107

Figure 10‑6. Inappropriate material (boulder blocks) for the road Figure 10‑7. Shallow landslide of the road embankment of the
embankment of the road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town. road from Gambelto River Valley to Mejo town.

Figure 10‑8.
Accumulation part of
the landslide of the road
from Gambelto River
Valley to Mejo town.

• Execute the roadcut at a low angle of slope and with terraces to reduce the slope
heights.

10.2 Preventive and mitigation measures for rehabilitation

of natural environment

• Dangers that strongly affect the infrastructure development and land use in the studied
area are represented by tectonic, slope failures and alluvial processes. The greatest
impact on land use is undoubtedly caused by exogenous processes associated with
high precipitation during the rainy season.
108 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

• The main prerequisite for eliminating the negative impact of natural hazards is to
obey the natural processes that cause these dangers. It is important to note that any
intervention in any natural system will induce a negative feedback often with adverse
effects. Prior to each technical intervention into the development of the area, it is
therefore important to carry out a study of potential impacts on both the planned
project and the further decentralization of the concerned natural flow system.
• All structures closely associated with fluvial channels (buildings, bridges, culverts)
should be designed to resist 100% of the maximum discharges. Simple reduction of
the flow capacity with regard to its natural rate is only a short-term solution of the
problem. Linear constructions (roads, power lines, etc.), culverts and bridges should
obey the topography of the area so that they will not be a barrier to the natural runoff
during high discharges and rainy seasons.
• It is necessary to permanently maintain the same stream channel capacity by cleaning
and removing the deposited material, particularly in the vicinity of bridges or other
constructions where the reduction of the channel capacity may cause damage to or
even the destruction of the whole structure.
• Reforestation is the primary choice of a natural way to tackle the issue of areas
susceptible to erosion. Planting rows of trees, construction of small dams and polders
across the stream network and gullies are recommended to decelerate the runoff and
to reduce the transport of sediment.
• The sites affected by active and fossil slope failures represent areas unsuitable for
urban development. Also, it is advisable to avoid these places for road construction. In
case of any construction, it is suggested to carry out an engineering geological survey
to check the slope stability and to ensure drawing the design and implementation of
useful drainage.
• When a construction is damaged by any natural processes, it is necessary to analyse
the causes of the damage before starting the mitigation, to make a detailed survey
of the affected sites and investigate what were the natural mechanisms and human
interventions that had caused the damage. This knowledge should be taken into
account when executing the reconstruction project to prevent the recurrence of the
catastrophic event.

10.3 Suggested hazard monitoring and emergency

response systems

The majority of natural hazards are related to the landforms or geomorphology of the
area, so that detailed and high-resolution topographic data are necessary to further
identify the distribution of natural hazards. The use of modern remote sensing methods
(e.g. interferometry to measure small displacements) allow identifying changes in the
topography or morphology of the terrain that may indicate movements in fault zones
and consequently even detect seismic related hazards such as mass movements. High
resolution topography using new remote sensing techniques can increase information on
the terrain in order to better understand the processes taking place on the earth surface
and to delineate areas susceptible to geological hazards such as alluvial plains or flat
areas in general prone to severe floods.
The elaboration of quantitative models of fluvial processes associated with rivers
and streams, runoff models of basins and the optimization of water management should
 LO C A L P R E V E N T I O N A N D M I T I G AT I O N
MEASURES OF GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 109

be a part of the long-term strategy. The installation of gauging stations with remote data
transmission and the design of flood hazards early warning systems are vital steps for the
management and protection from potential risks in the low-lying plains at the foothill of
the mountain area.
To eliminate the risks from seismic and volcanic hazards, which are also eminent
in the area, it is recommended to reinforce and strengthen the already installed seismic
monitoring station network to precisely locate earthquake epicentres, mitigate the risks
and plan for any emergency.
For the assessment of volcanic hazards, it is necessary to have comprehensive
information on the wider volcanic, geological and tectonic context of the area, including
the characteristics of individual volcanoes. The approach followed in the current study
on geo-hazards phenomena and mapping of critical factors should be expanded to other
areas. Age determinations provide fundamental information for the initial scoping
assessment. Such age determinations may include historical information, stratigraphic
relationships, radiometric dating and morphological considerations. In addition to the
monitoring of seismic data, it is advisable to carry out a continuous monitoring campaign
of accompanying volcanic phenomena, such as fumaroles activity and the monitoring
of changes in the physical and chemical properties of fumaroles and thermal waters.
To eliminate the impact of volcano-seismic hazards, it is important to set up standards
and strongly implement them in the construction of a wide range of civil infrastructure
projects. In the zones with a potential impact of natural hazards, evacuation plans and
evacuation paths should be identified in consultation with a multi-professional team
composed of at least a law specialist, a medical team and geo-scientists to minimize
the loss of human lives. Furthermore, extensive campaigns should be regularly held
to increase the awareness of the wider public of the mechanisms and consequences of
natural disasters to increase resilience in all aspects.
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 ANNEXES

Annex 1.
Tab. 1. Whole-rock compositions of volcanic rocks (oxide wt. % for major elements and ppm for trace elements).

Sample DE182 DE276 KV221 KV275B DE229 DE283 DE242B

Rock amphibolite amphibolite amphibolite hornblendite metagabbro metagabbro Tc-Tr schist

wt. %              

SiO2 48.16 50.7 46.74 51.15 50.03 46.99 62.75

Al2O3 15.77 11.81 19.05 4.82 10.3 17.21 0.61

Fe2O3 9.45 6.37 10.62 9.12 9.68 9.23 4.31

MgO 10.43 13.09 6.69 16.19 13.29 10.67 26.42

CaO 13.44 14.99 13.5 15.01 13.73 12.33 0.56

Na2O 0.91 0.5 0.75 0.69 0.44 1.33 0.02

K2O 0.15 0.03 0.41 0.15 0.08 0.16 < 0.01

TiO2 0.14 0.13 0.37 0.23 0.3 0.44 0.01

P2O5 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.12 0.02 0.04 0.02 < 0.01

MnO 0.18 0.14 0.31 0.18 0.12 0.14 0.05

Cr2O3 0.004 0.107 0.002 0.176 0.402 0.076 0.254

LOI 1.1 1.9 1.2 1.9 1.2 1.1 4.4

Sum 99.78 99.74 99.77 99.66 99.71 99.76 99.57

Ppm              

Mo < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.2 < 0.1

Cu 19.1 107.9 71.8 117.5 29.1 35.1 0.8

Pb 0.6 0.2 6.7 0.4 15.3 2.2 < 0.1

Zn 3 1 11 3 3 5 1

Ni 4.3 3.3 18.0 57.5 24.1 32.0 37.9

As < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 4.6 < 0.5 < 0.5

Cd < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Sb < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Bi < 0.1 < 0.1 0.2 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.5

Hg < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01

Tl < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Se < 0.5 < 0.5 1.2 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
 ANNEXES 123

Sample DE244 KV215A KV217 DE291 DE261 DE268 DE260

Rock Chl schist orthogneiss orthogneiss orthogneiss Ms schist basalt basalt

wt. %              

SiO2 22.04 74.73 68.42 70.37 70.14 46.58 47.21

Al2O3 10.97 13.42 16.25 14.79 18.03 13.11 15.88

Fe2O3 28.21 2.34 3.61 3.5 1.74 14.14 13.26

MgO 19.74 0.35 0.88 0.98 0.17 5.28 5.53

CaO 3.94 2.1 4.34 3.87 2.38 9.27 9.1

Na2O < 0.01 3.71 3.85 3.32 2.35 2.76 3.41

K2O < 0.01 2.65 1.58 1.98 2.43 0.75 1.17

TiO2 3.97 0.17 0.23 0.25 0.3 3.14 3.06

P2O5 2.91 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.44 0.54

MnO 0.22 0.05 0.09 0.08 < 0.01 0.17 0.2

Cr2O3 0.139 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 0.013 0.003

LOI 7.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 2.2 4 0.3

Sum 99.42 99.94 99.9 99.91 99.92 99.71 99.69

Ppm              

Mo < 0.1 0.3 < 0.1 < 0.1 1.0 0.7 0.9

Cu 0.2 1.8 7.6 3.4 0.4 69.7 36.2

Pb 3.4 1.0 0.7 0.5 1.1 3.5 0.8

Zn 20 28 56 42 3 89 87

Ni 332.2 1.1 1.4 1.5 0.2 34.5 30.4

As 2.8 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 15.2 < 0.5 < 0.5

Cd < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Sb < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Bi 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Hg < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01

Tl < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Se < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
124 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Sample DE251 KV212 KV211 KV220 DE259 DE290 KV222

Rock basalt basalt phonolite ignimbrite ignimbrite ignimbrite ignimbrite

wt. %

SiO2 48.74 42.26 55.97 77.02 65.32 71.98 72.68

Al2O3 13.71 14 19.23 9.69 14.54 9.59 10.51

Fe2O3 15.33 12.8 4.97 2.78 6.23 5.07 5.51

MgO 4.21 9.53 0.83 0.07 0.36 0.12 0.18

CaO 8.44 10.91 1.57 0.09 0.38 0.24 0.22

Na2O 3.47 3.03 7.11 3.49 3.54 4.24 4.08

K2O 1.12 0.73 4.98 4.33 3.51 4.57 4.31

TiO2 2.94 2.4 0.76 0.38 0.7 0.33 0.37

P2O5 0.39 0.4 0.16 0.04 0.09 < 0.01 0.01

MnO 0.24 0.19 0.25 0.03 0.13 0.21 0.19

Cr2O3 < 0.002 0.05 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002

LOI 1.1 3.3 3.9 1.8 4.9 3.4 1.7

Sum 99.73 99.66 99.83 99.7 99.72 99.74 99.79

Ppm

Mo 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.3

Cu 35.4 71.8 1.1 0.6 1.4 0.5 1.4

Pb 2.1 2.6 13.4 8.7 10.3 0.7 13.7

Zn 108 62 101 33 82 19 54

Ni 4.4 133.4 0.5 0.9 5.0 1.1 1.4

As < 0.5 0.6 0.9 < 0.5 0.9 < 0.5 < 0.5

Cd 0.2 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Sb < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Bi 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Hg < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.02 < 0.01 < 0.01

Tl < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Se < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
 ANNEXES 125

Tab. 2. Trace element analyses of volcanic rocks (ppm)

Sample DE182 DE276 KV221 KV275B DE229 DE283 DE242B

Ba 19 21 49 66 38 45 2

Sc 45 44 38 72 30 30 2

Be <1 <1 2 2 <1 1 <1

Co 46.4 40.0 34.8 59.7 95.2 48.3 70.8

Cs < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 0.3 < 0.1

Ga 9.1 5.6 17.7 3.5 7.9 10.8 < 0.5

Hf < 0.1 < 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 < 0.1

Nb < 0.1 0.3 1.1 0.3 1.7 0.7 0.5

Rb 0.4 0.3 8.5 0.8 1.5 2.5 0.3

Sn <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1

Sr 113.4 66.3 306.9 71.6 142.6 125.0 1.0

Ta < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1

Th < 0.2 < 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.3 < 0.2 < 0.2

U < 0.1 < 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 < 0.1 < 0.1

V 162 134 261 226 169 198 11

W 24.2 13.7 17.4 5.0 11.8 11.0 < 0.5

Zr 2.4 4.1 22.7 11.2 18.2 13.2 1.0

Y 4.5 5.1 13.8 5.7 11.6 10.0 1.3

La 0.5 1.7 5.9 2.5 2.7 1.9 0.3

Ce 0.7 0.1 10.0 3.3 1.8 4.2 0.4

Pr 0.09 0.52 1.29 0.76 0.75 0.57 0.08

Nd 0.6 2.0 6.0 3.7 3.4 2.8 0.6

Sm 0.19 0.57 1.31 0.80 0.91 0.80 0.12

Eu 0.15 0.22 0.75 0.29 0.38 0.40 0.02

Gd 0.47 0.87 1.92 1.08 1.42 1.34 0.22

Tb 0.09 0.15 0.32 0.17 0.25 0.28 0.03

Dy 0.67 0.98 2.20 1.10 1.73 1.77 0.15

Ho 0.18 0.23 0.48 0.24 0.39 0.38 0.04

Er 0.53 0.67 1.57 0.71 1.21 1.27 0.08

Tm 0.08 0.10 0.23 0.09 0.17 0.18 0.02

Yb 0.63 0.72 1.45 0.59 1.04 1.24 0.08

Lu 0.08 0.12 0.22 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.02

126 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Sample DE244 KV215A KV217 DE291 DE261 DE268 DE260

Ba 10 964 721 719 865 342 385

Sc 36 6 10 10 18 29 22

Be 1 <1 <1 3 2 3 2

Co 115.7 10.0 11.7 10.0 3.9 43.2 48.7

Cs < 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.1 < 0.1

Ga 3.8 11.1 12.7 12.7 13.9 19.4 18.5

Hf 13.6 4.0 3.0 3.5 2.5 6.2 5.6

Nb 41.6 5.8 2.9 4.4 7.5 35.2 27.0

Rb < 0.1 57.8 34.9 43.8 39.8 10.4 16.8

Sn <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 2 2

Sr 496.7 219.2 440.2 363.2 457.4 464.8 710.6

Ta 2.0 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.2 2.0

Th 17.3 8.2 5.3 4.3 1.6 3.3 2.6

U 1.7 1.1 1.8 1.3 0.6 0.9 0.9

V 123 17 40 50 20 336 319

W < 0.5 49.8 46.5 28.3 14.8 1.7 20.7

Zr 559.6 128.6 95.3 122.6 93.3 237.2 213.1

Y 58.2 16.2 16.6 16.4 16.8 30.2 23.9

La 106.8 33.0 21.9 19.5 9.0 34.3 28.0

Ce 222.5 57.0 43.0 33.0 18.2 71.5 60.3

Pr 28.13 6.47 4.38 4.03 2.54 8.80 7.67

Nd 114.9 22.8 16.0 15.9 10.8 37.2 33.1

Sm 20.60 3.70 3.05 3.23 2.34 7.66 6.96

Eu 5.83 0.71 0.84 0.89 0.75 2.43 2.35

Gd 16.72 3.20 2.79 3.07 2.40 7.43 6.60

Tb 2.25 0.46 0.44 0.46 0.39 1.10 0.94

Dy 11.70 2.80 2.67 2.64 2.51 6.05 5.02

Ho 2.15 0.57 0.62 0.56 0.63 1.11 0.94

Er 5.50 1.82 1.74 1.66 1.88 3.26 2.60

Tm 0.72 0.29 0.31 0.28 0.30 0.42 0.36

Yb 4.26 1.98 2.16 2.08 2.04 2.73 2.12

Lu 0.63 0.32 0.37 0.30 0.33 0.39 0.32

 ANNEXES 127

Sample DE251 KV212 KV211 KV220 DE259 DE290 KV222

Ba 336 530 532 43 413 131 159

Sc 32 30 1 1 14 4 4

Be 3 <1 6 14 3 5 5

Co 40.4 51.6 2.7 3.8 3.2 5.2 2.4

Cs 0.2 0.8 1.9 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.2

Ga 21.3 13.8 18.7 27.3 30.0 26.4 29.4

Hf 6.2 3.7 10.5 28.2 20.2 23.4 24.6

Nb 32.3 43.3 150.6 91.4 110.5 102.8 109.8

Rb 16.2 40.5 119.2 125.9 69.1 88.2 86.5

Sn 2 1 3 8 5 6 7

Sr 401.6 519.1 155.1 10.4 21.2 9.4 7.4

Ta 2.0 2.7 9.1 5.7 6.7 6.5 7.1

Th 3.3 4.0 16.9 20.6 13.9 11.8 13.4

U 0.9 0.8 3.9 3.8 2.8 3.2 1.3

V 356 309 <8 <8 9 <8 9

W 3.9 7.7 5.9 16.7 2.2 21.9 2.9

Zr 246.5 145.8 449.5 1102.9 798.9 905.8 970.4

Y 38.0 24.8 36.5 113.2 165.9 128.9 47.7

La 30.3 35.0 95.8 189.9 365.3 125.2 58.3

Ce 65.5 71.1 170.6 359.6 145.4 210.2 137.9

Pr 8.13 7.60 15.98 42.96 63.96 29.42 16.37

Nd 36.4 29.9 51.3 160.8 234.5 113.9 62.5

Sm 7.76 5.82 7.88 31.03 37.90 22.40 12.66

Eu 2.45 1.90 1.66 3.35 6.69 3.98 2.14

Gd 8.14 5.83 6.63 26.73 36.68 22.07 9.77

Tb 1.29 0.89 1.09 3.94 5.32 3.75 1.68

Dy 7.08 4.94 6.67 22.92 28.33 22.12 10.07

Ho 1.46 0.93 1.39 4.29 5.49 4.75 2.04

Er 4.35 2.56 4.14 12.72 15.12 13.87 6.32

Tm 0.55 0.35 0.64 1.89 2.00 1.97 1.01

Yb 3.61 2.20 4.07 12.18 11.30 12.70 7.37

Lu 0.55 0.34 0.60 1.76 1.75 1.84 1.17

128 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Annex 2. Representative chemical composition of rock-forming minerals

Tab. 1. Representative chemical composition of amphiboles

sample KV275B KV275B DE283 DE283 KV 214 KV 214 KV216

rock hornblendite metagabbro amphibolite
SiO2 51.20 51.68 45.14 52.36 41.21 40.72 42.69
TiO2 0.17 0.20 0.41 0.18 0.48 0.45 0.59
Al2O3 5.22 5.34 13.55 6.11 14.49 14.59 15.96
Cr2O3 0.40 0.37 0.06 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.03
FeOcalc 5.93 5.51 6.47 3.08 12.40 12.54 12.08
Fe2O3calc 2.50 2.82 5.79 6.45 6.73 7.12 5.57
MnO 0.18 0.17 0.23 0.25 0.35 0.37 0.32
MgO 17.92 18.26 13.07 17.45 7.94 7.70 8.27
CaO 13.30 13.12 12.14 12.14 11.49 11.55 11.50
Na2O 0.67 0.94 1.29 0.44 1.33 1.25 1.26
K2O 0.17 0.25 0.23 0.04 0.41 0.40 0.47
H2O* 2.13 2.15 2.11 2.17 2.00 2.00 2.06
Cl 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
F 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.08
O=F.Cl -0.04 -0.04 -0.03 -0.03 -0.05 -0.03 -0.03
Total 99.84 100.86 100.55 100.92 98.90 98.74 100.84
Si 7.274 7.263 6.455 7.279 6.214 6.163 6.246
IVAl 0.726 0.737 1.545 0.721 1.786 1.837 1.754
VIAl 0.148 0.148 0.738 0.279 0.789 0.766 0.998
Ti 0.018 0.021 0.045 0.019 0.054 0.051 0.065
Fe3+ 0.268 0.298 0.623 0.674 0.763 0.811 0.613
Cr 0.044 0.041 0.007 0.022 0.001 0.000 0.003
Mg - C 3.796 3.826 2.786 3.617 1.785 1.738 1.804
Fe2+ - C 0.704 0.648 0.773 0.359 1.563 1.587 1.478
Mn - C 0.021 0.020 0.028 0.030 0.045 0.047 0.040
Mg - B 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Fe2+ - B 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Mn - B 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ca 2.025 1.976 1.860 1.807 1.856 1.873 1.802
Na - B 0.000 0.024 0.140 0.117 0.144 0.127 0.198
Na - A 0.186 0.232 0.218 0.000 0.245 0.241 0.159
K 0.030 0.044 0.041 0.007 0.078 0.077 0.087
Cl 0.000 0.003 0.005 0.004 0.002 0.002 0.000
F 0.037 0.044 0.031 0.031 0.055 0.033 0.038
O Cat. 15.278 15.320 15.291 14.963 15.378 15.351 15.285
 ANNEXES 129

Tab. 2. Representative chemical composition of feldspars

Sample DE261 KV 214 KV216 KV 215 DE291 KV221A DE249 DE260

Rock Ms schist amphibolite orthogneiss paragneiss basalt

SiO2 59.49 51.04 55.78 63.16 60.89 56.96 63.14 55.14

P2O5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01

Al2O3 25.99 30.15 28.55 22.59 24.24 27.24 23.23 27.58

FeO 0.00 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.85

CaO 7.60 13.98 10.37 4.40 6.11 9.52 4.52 10.65

Na2O 7.25 3.53 5.61 8.73 8.23 6.21 8.94 5.33

K2O 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.19 0.20 0.05 0.08 0.51

BaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

SrO 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03

Total 100.39 98.81 100.50 99.14 99.70 100.06 99.97 100.07

Si 2.64 2.35 2.50 2.81 2.72 2.55 2.79 2.48

Al 1.36 1.64 1.51 1.19 1.27 1.44 1.21 1.46

Fe3+ 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

T-site 4.00 3.99 4.01 4.00 3.99 4.00 4.00 3.98

K 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03

Na 0.62 0.32 0.49 0.75 0.71 0.54 0.77 0.47

Ca 0.36 0.68 0.49 0.21 0.29 0.45 0.21 0.51

Ba 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Sr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

O Cat. 0.99 1.00 0.98 0.97 1.01 1.00 0.98 1.00

An
36.2 68.3 50.0 21 29 45 22 51
(mol. %)

Ab 63.4 31.6 49.6 78 70 54 78 46

Or 0.4 0.1 0.4 1 1 0 0 3

130 M ap S heet 0 6 3 8 - D 2 M ejo

Rock basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt

Sample DE044 DE055 DE055 DE055 DE057 DE077 DE077 DE077

SiO2 61.74 65.37 64.82 68.48 65.92 47.46 47.91 52.44

P2O5 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.03

Al2O3 24.21 18.38 18.02 18.95 19.46 33.25 33.01 29.62

FeO 0.79 0.25 0.29 0.35 0.63 0.61 0.55 0.67

CaO 5.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.11 16.65 16.17 12.58

Na2O 6.87 0.99 1.10 11.56 6.03 1.95 2.27 4.05

K2O 1.68 15.44 15.23 0.33 6.69 0.09 0.13 0.40

BaO 0.10 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.03

SrO 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.12 0.09

Total 100.74 100.44 99.50 99.67 99.87 100.01 100.05 99.78

Si 2.721 2.996 2.999 3.000 2.948 2.175 2.193 2.381

Al 1.257 0.993 0.982 0.979 1.026 1.795 1.781 1.585

Fe3+ 0.029 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.023 0.023 0.021 0.025

T-site 4.007 3.998 3.992 3.992 3.998 3.994 3.995 3.991

K 0.094 0.903 0.899 0.018 0.382 0.005 0.008 0.023

Na 0.587 0.088 0.099 0.982 0.523 0.173 0.202 0.356

Ca 0.251 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.053 0.807 0.783 0.604

Ba 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Sr 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.003 0.002

O Cat. 4.945 4.990 4.990 4.992 4.956 4.982 4.991 4.977

An
27 0 0 0 5 82 79 61
(mol. %)

Ab 63 9 10 98 55 18 20 36

Or 10 91 90 2 40 1 1 2
Annex 3. Soil textural and chemical data.

Depth Clay Silt Sand pH pH CaCO3 Mg K P Ca CEC BS Ntot SOC SOM

Sample C/N
[cm] [%] [%] [%] H2O KCl [%] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [cmolc/kg] [%] [%] [%] [%]

JJ031A 0-10 12.8 17.2 70.1 6.06 5.26 < 0.1 172 230 < 2.0 1041 12.87 74 0.155 1.49 2.57 9.6

JJ033A 20 26.9 44.1 29.0 6.47 5.67 < 0.1 578 215 < 2.0 3485 34.57 87 0.257 3.02 5.21 11.8

JJ033B 80 40.5 29.5 30.0 6.45 5.16 < 0.1         17.31 74 0.077 1.04 1.79 13.5

JJ034A 20 34.7 44.4 20.9 5.89 5.16 < 0.1 449 206 < 2.0 2935 36.86 78 0.273 2.82 4.86 10.3

JJ034B 80-90 66.4 31.7 2.0 5.30 4.17 < 0.1         20.21 62 0.067 0.51 0.88 7.6

JJ037A 10 72.8 24.5 2.7 5.15 3.91 < 0.1 438 259 < 2.0 1094 28.85 56 0.152 1.89 3.26 12.4

JJ037B 70-80 86.0 12.7 1.3 5.17 4.02 < 0.1         21.74 61 0.068 0.50 0.86 7.4

EE13A 10-20 46.2 19.7 34.1 5.09 3.90 < 0.1 261 62 < 2.0 956 29.91 52 0.187 2.80 4.83 15.0

EE13B 50-60 84.8 14.8 <1.0 5.70 4.55 < 0.1         20.13 72 0.064 0.54 0.93 8.4

EE16A 10-20 35.3 59.6 5.1 5.68 4.60 < 0.1 80 401 < 2.0 456 31.47 58 0.232 2.72 4.69 11.7

EE16B 60-80 52.6 30.7 16.7 5.08 3.97 < 0.1         25.70 49 0.152 1.30 2.24 8.6

EE19A 10-20 53.2 35.5 11.3 5.70 4.41 < 0.1 265 88 < 2.0 1640 25.48 61 0.159 1.89 3.26 11.9

EE19A/B 30-60 57.3 31.4 11.3 5.85 4.65 < 0.1         24.44 76 0.101 0.86 1.48 8.5

EE24 0-50 24.3 52.0 23.8 7.19 6.81 0.1 1042 1918 87.3 6563 49.47 94 0.439 4.40 7.59 10.0

CEC - cation exchange capacity. BS – base saturation. SOC – soil organic carbon. SOM – soil organic matter
Laboratory data: Department of Central Laboratories of the Research Institute for Soil and Water Conservation, Prague (Czech Republic)
ANNEXES
131