CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1General Introduction
The problem of disposing and managing solid waste materials in all
countries has become one of the major environmental, economical, and social
issues. A complete waste management system including source reduction,
reuse, recycling, land-filling, and incineration needs to be implemented to
control the increasing waste disposal problems. Typically a plastic is not
recycled into the same type of plastic products made from recycled plastics are
often not recyclable. The use of biodegradable plastics is increasing. If some of
these get mixed in the other plastics for recycling, the reclaimed plastic is not
recyclable because the variance in properties and melt temperatures. The
purpose of this project is to evaluate the possibility of using granulated plastic
waste materials to partially substitute for the coarse aggregate in concrete
composites. Among different waste fractions, plastic waste deserves special
attention on account non biodegradable property which is creating a lot of
problems in the environment. In India approximately 40 million tons of solid
waste is produced annually. This is increasing at a rate of 1.5 to 2% every year.
Plastics constitute 12.3% of total waste produced most of which is from
discarded water bottles. The plastic waste cannot be disposed off by dumping
or burning, as they produce uncontrolled fire or contaminate the soil and
vegetation.

Considerable researches and studies were carried out in some countries like
USA and UK on this topic. However, there have been very limited studies in
India on plastics in concrete. Hence an attempt on the utilization of waste Low
Density Polyethylene (LDPE) granules as partial replacement of coarse
aggregate is done and its mechanical behavior is investigated.

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Presently, different types of waste materials and industrial byproducts such as
recycled concrete aggregate, glass, ceramic, fly ash, slag, etc., are being used
with and without natural aggregates and ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), not
only in traditional construction but also in digital construction like 3D printing.
It has been shown that the properties of these materials are suitable to produce
new concrete up to a certain limit. Therefore, numerous studies have been
conducted to find the optimum content of these materials in concrete, which
does not negatively influence the engineering properties of concrete. Waste
materials such as plastics and glass, which present possible environmental
hazards and are often land filled, are often used in concrete for different
applications. Globally, the use of plastics had seen an astronomical increase
since 1920, when it was first developed for industrial use. The many advantages
of plastics have caused the increase in its production by plastic industries.
Compared to other materials such as glass and metal, plastics have lower cost, a
higher strength-to-weight ratio, are more durable (resistant to deterioration),
easy to work and shape, and have a low density. Some staggering statistics have
shown that in 2013, 299 million tons of plastic were produced globally,
exceeding the estimated consumption for 2015 by about 2 million tons.
However, waste plastics are generally a threat to the global environment. While the
production of plastics in its varied forms cannot be halted, recycling may be a solution to the threat
waste plastics pose to the environment.

In landfills. Again, the recycling of all sorts of waste materials is

sustainable and conserves natural resources. Millions of tons of plastic waste are
generated all around the world, and they frequently find their way into rivers,
coast, beaches, and the land. Only about 25% of plastic waste is recycled around
the world. Recovery and recycling of plastics remain insufficient, and millions
of tons end up in landfills and oceans every year. This percentage of recycled
plastic can be increased by transforming waste plastic into products
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Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 26 plastics in its varied
forms cannot be halted, recycling may be a solution to the threat waste plastics
pose to the environment.

Recycling of various types of organic and inorganic waste such as

construction, electronics, and agricultural waste, among others, has drawn
much attention due to the increasing cost of dumping the waste and decreasing
space in landfills. Again, the recycling of all sorts of waste materials is
sustainable and conserves natural resources. Millions of tons of plastic waste
are generated all around the world, and they frequently find their way into
rivers, coast, beaches, and the land. Only about 25% of plastic waste is
recycled around the world. Recovery and recycling of plastics remain
insufficient, and millions of tons end up in landfills and oceans every year.
This percentage of recycled plastic can be increased by transforming waste
plastic into products suitable for housing and construction. Figure 1 illustrates
the cumulative amount of plastic waste generation and disposal from 1950 up
to 2015 and the projected amount by 2050. Up to 2015, only about 16% of the
waste generated was recycled. It is projected that by 2050, up to 33% of the
waste generated will be recycled. Even if this projection comes true, the
amount of unrecycled waste will still leave much to be desired.
A major challenge with plastic waste is that it may consist of mixed
organic (food remains) and inorganic (attached paper level) fractions, which
makes it a complex stream to recycle. However, a possible solution would be
to use it as aggregates in concrete for various applications where
Contamination of plastic waste would not make any significant difference to
the concrete properties. With global production of more than 5.3 billion cubic
meters per year, there may be a huge potential for using recycled plastics in
concrete. Consequently, significant use of waste plastics as aggregate in
concrete may further reduce the amount of unrecycled plastic waste.

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Figure 1.1 Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal (historical data up
to 2015 and projection data up to 2050).

However, while a large variety of plastic types such as polyethylene

terephthalate (PET), polylactic acid (PLA), polypropylene (PP), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density
polyethylene/linear low-density polyethylene (LDPE/LLDPE), polystyrene
(PS), and other resins are available on the market, research has shown that not
all of them are suitable for use as aggregates in concrete. Resin-based types of
waste plastic and PET have been reported to have the highest rate of use for
concrete production. Other types have only been recycled to a small extent or
not recycled at all.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3875 3 of 26
In most cases, waste plastics have been used in concrete either as fine or
coarse aggregate. Although utilization of this type of waste in concrete is
beneficial from an environmental point of view, its engineering (e.g.,
mechanical and thermal) properties are essentially different from natural
aggregates (Table 1). It is also worth noting that the properties of recycled

4
waste plastic concrete depend on the pre-treatment given to the waste plastic.
The bond strength of plastic aggregates and the cement paste could be
significantly influenced by the treatment.

Furthermore, the intrinsic behavior of waste plastic such as low fire

resistance, surface roughness, and shape can significantly alter the properties
of concrete. Consequently, much research has been devoted to studying the
influence of waste plastics in concrete in the past three decades (Figure 2).
A list of different types of waste plastics and their influences on different
concrete properties, as examined by various researchers, is given in Table 2. It
can be seen that the number of articles has increased almost tenfold during this

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period. However, a number of issues are still not solved

Graph 1.1 Number of scientific articles published on the use of PET

plastics in cementitious materials
Utilization of recycled waste plastics in concrete as a partial aggregate
replacement has a clear effect on the properties of the material. Therefore, if
this material is to be used in concrete in large quantities, it is important to
know the relationship between the addition of recycled waste plastics and the
engineering properties. This review provides a basis for understanding this
relationship.
A thorough search of peer-reviewed literature was undertaken to find
studies in which recycled plastic has been used for the production of concrete.
Major search engines (ScienceDirect, Google Scholar) were used. The focus
was on recent literature, i.e., published
after 2010, relevant to current developments in the field. Articles from
reputable journals dealing with building materials on the one hand and
sustainable development and recycling on the other hand were extracted. Note
that the number of citations of individual articles was not used as a selection
criterion; instead, articles were selected based on their relevance to (parts of)
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this review. After collecting the relevant articles, we then categorized into
those dealing with fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of concrete.
Thereafter, each property was reviewed from the different publications, and a
position statement was arrived at by these authors. Where differences or
similarities exist, these were discussed extensively. The purpose of the paper is
to present clearly, from experimental results, the performance of concrete
containing recycled waste plastic regarding the fresh, mechanical, and
durability properties. Therefore, this paper can be used as a valuable source of
data for researchers for their future studies since it critically summarizes the
recent findings on the use of waste plastics in concrete.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

❖ To compare the compressive strength of Recycled Plastics used as Coarse

Aggregate for Constructional Concrete with the Conventional concrete.
❖To know its applications in construction industry.
❖ To reduce the pressure on naturally available materials by replacing it
with recycled plastic aggregate
❖ Compare the physical characteristics of natural aggregate with Plastic
recycled aggregate.
❖ To study the behavior of fresh and hardened concrete reinforced with
plastic waste coarse aggregate.
❖To study it‘s behaviour in construction of pavements and roads.
❖To produce lightweight polymer concrete for multi-purpose use.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

The purpose of this lesson is to have a broad understanding of using alternative

materials with the replacement of coarse aggregate using Low Density Poly
Ethylene (LDPE).

2.2 EARLIER RESEARCHES

1) M. A. Kamaruddin et al. (2000) : ―Potential use of Plastic Waste as

Construction Materials: Recent Progress and Future Prospect‖
Plastic associates products based have been considered as the world most
consumer packaging solution. However, substantial quantities of plastic
consumption have led to exponential increase of plastic derived waste.
Recycling of plastic waste as valued added product such as concrete appears as
one of promising solution for alternative use of plastic waste. This paper
summarized recent progress on the development of concrete mixture which
incorporates plastic wastes as partial aggregate replacement during concrete
manufacturing. A collection of data from previous studies that have been
researched which employed plastic waste in concrete mixtures were evaluated
and conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory results of all the mentioned
research papers studied.
2) K.S.Rebeiz and A.P.Craft (2000) : ―Plastic waste management in
construction: technological and institutional issues‖
The main objective of a solid waste management system is to effectively
safeguard the public health, safety, and welfare. The various options involved in
a waste management process are landfilling, incineration, and recycling wastes
into useful products. Plastics recycling, in particular, would not be successful

8
unless the proper infrastructure to collect the waste is being set, the technology
to economically reprocess the waste into new products is available, and the
establishment of markets for the cost-effective use of recycled products are
developed. The development of new construction materials using recycled
plastics is important to both the construction and the plastics recycling
industries. Extensive research investigated the use of resins based on recycled
poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) plastic waste for the production of a high
performance composite material, namely polyester concrete (PC). Resins using
recycled PET offer the possibility of a lower source cost of materials for
forming good quality PC. PC products also allow the long-term disposal of PET
waste, an important advantage in recycling applications.

3) Oriyomi M. Okeyinka et al. (2001) : ―A Review on Recycled Use of Solid

Wastes in Building Materials‖
Large quantities of solid wastes being generated worldwide from sources
such as household, domestic, industrial, commercial and construction
demolition activities, leads to environmental concerns. Utilization of these
wastes in making building construction materials can reduce the magnitude of
the associated problems. When these waste products are used in place of other
conventional materials, natural resources and energy are preserved and
expensive and/or potentially harmful waste disposal is avoided. Recycling
which is regarded as the third most preferred waste disposal option, with its
numerous environmental benefits, stand as a viable option to offset the
environmental impact associated with the construction industry.This paper
reviews the results of laboratory tests and important research findings, and the
potential of using these wastes in building construction materials with focus on
sustainable development. Research gaps, which includes; the need to develop
standard mix design for solid waste based building materials; the need to
develop energy efficient method of processing solid waste use in concrete; the

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need to study the actual behavior or performance of such building materials in
practical application and the limited real life application of such building
materials have also been identified. A research is being proposed to develop an
environmentally friendly, lightweight building block from recycled waste paper,
without the use of cement, and with properties suitable for use as walling unit.
This proposed research intends to incorporate, laboratory experimentation and
modeling to address the identified research gaps.

4) Ahmed Trimbakwala (2003) : ―Plastic Roads Use of Waste Plastic in Road

Construction‖
India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilo-metres (3,400,233 mi) as
on 31 March 2015, the second largest road network in the world. The plastic
wastes can be used in road construction and the field tests withstood the stress
and proved that plastic wastes used after proper processing as an additive would
enhance the life of the roads and also solve environmental problems. Plastic use
in road construction is not new. It is already in use as PVC or HDPE pipe mat
crossings built by cabling together PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or HDPE (high-
density poly-ethylene) pipes to form plastic mats. Waste plastic is ground and
made into powder; 3 to 4 % plastic is mixed with the bitumen. The durability of
the roads laid out with shredded plastic waste is much more compared with
roads with asphalt with the ordinary mix. The use of the innovative technology
not only strengthened the road construction but also increased the road life as
well as will help to improve the environment and also creating a source of
income.

5) Azmat Shaikh, Nabeel Khan, Faisal Shah, Devendra Shukla, Gaurav

Kale (2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Road Construction”
Plastic waste is one such resource, a major component of solid waste which is
abundantly available and disposed of without proper treatment. There has been

10
an exponential growth in municipal plastic waste disposal especially in urban
areas which deteriorates the beauty of the landscape. Plastic was found to be an
effective binder for bitumen mixes used in flexible pavements. This efficient
method helps the pavements to resist higher temperature by minimizing the
formation of cracks and reducing rainwater infiltration which otherwise leads to
the development of potholes. These pavements have shown improved crushing
and abrasion values and reduced water seepage. Plastic roads would be a boon
for India‘s hot and extremely humid climate, where temperatures frequently
cross 50°C and torrential rains create havoc, leaving most of the roads with big
potholes. Bituminous Concrete (BC) is a composite material mostly used in
construction projects like road surfacing, airports, parking lots etc. It consists of
asphalt or bitumen (used as a binder) and mineral aggregate which is mixed
together & laid down in layers then compacted. Now a day, the steady
increment in high traffic intensity in terms of commercial vehicles, and the
significant variation in daily and seasonal temperature put us in a demanding
situation to think of some alternatives for the improvisation of the pavement
characteristics and quality by applying some necessary modifications which
shall satisfy both the strength as well as economic aspects. Also considering the
environmental approach, due to excessive use of polythenes in the day to day
business, the pollution to the environment is enormous. Since the polythenes are
not biodegradable, the need of the current hour is to use the waste polyethene in
some beneficial purposes.
6) Mohammed Jalaluddin (2003): “Use of Plastic Waste in Civil
Constructions and Innovative Decorative Material (Eco- Friendly)”
The project elucidates about the use of plastic in civil construction. The
components used include everything from plastic screws and hangers to bigger
plastic parts that are used in decoration, electric wiring, flooring, wall covering
and waterproofing. Plastic use in road construction that have shown same hope
in terms of using plastic waste in road construction. i.e. plastic roads. Plastic

11
roads mainly use plastic carry bags, disposable cups and PET bottles that are
collected from garbage dumps as important ingredients of the construction
materials. By using plastic waste as modifier, we can reduce the quantity of
cement and sand by their weight, hence decreasing the overall cost of
construction. At 5% optimum modifier content, strength of modified concrete
we found to see the times greater than the plain cement concrete. Using plastic
poisons our food chain under the plastic affects human health. By the disposable
plastics is the main source of plastic. For these plastic pollution is not only the ocean also in
desert. Plastic will increase the melting point of the bitumen. Rain water will not seep through
because of the plastic in the tar. So, this technology will result in lesser road repairs.

7) Mojtaba et al. (2006) : “Using plastic instead of bricks in Buildings”

Concluded that reusing the plastic bottles as the building materials can
have substantial effects on saving the building embodied energy by using them
instead of bricks in walls and reducing the CO2 emission in manufacturing the
cement by reducing the percentage of cement used.
It is counted as one of the foundation‘s green project and has caught the
attention of the architecture and construction industry. Generally the bottle
houses are bioclimatic in design, which means that when it is cold outside is
warm inside and when it is warm it is cold inside. Constructing a house by
plastic bottles used for the walls, joist ceiling and concrete column offers us
45% diminution in the final cost. Separation of various components of cost
shows that the use of local manpower in making bottle panels can lead to cost
reduction up to 75% compared to building the walls using the brick and
concrete block.
8) Shilpi et al. (2006) : “Plastic PET bottles use in bottle brick technique”
Concluded that by utilizing PET bottles in construction recycled materials,
thermal comfort can be achieved in very low cost housing, benefit in residents
for those who cannot afford to buy and operate heating and cooling systems.
Plastic is non biodegradable, toxic, highly resistant to heat and electricity (best
12
insulator) and not recyclable in true sense, plastic PET bottles use in bottle brick
technique. This gives relief for the poor people of India to provide cheap and
best houses for living .

9) Puttaraj et al. (2006) : “Use of waste plastic in plastic-soil brick”

This research paper examined that efficient usage of waste plastic in
plastic-soil bricks has resulted in effective usage of plastic waste and thereby
can solve the problem of safe disposal of plastics, also avoids its widespread
littering and the utilization of quarry waste has reduced to some extent the
problem of its disposal. Plastics are produced from the oil that is considered as
non-renewable resource. Because plastic has the insolubility about 300 years in
the nature, it is considered as a sustainable waste and environmental pollutant.
So reusing or recycling of it can be effectual in mitigation of environmental
impacts relating to it. It has been proven that the use of plastic bottles as
innovative materials for building can be a proper solution for replacement of
conventional materials .

10) Pratima et al. (2008): “Solution to plastic pollution problems in

landfills”
Plastic bottles wall have been less costly as compare to bricks and also they
provide greater strength than bricks. The PET bottles that are not recycled end
up in landfills or as litter, and they take approximately 1000 years to
biodegrade. This has resulted in plastic pollution problems in landfills, water
ways and on the roadside, and this problem continues to grow along with the
plastic bottle industry.

11) Arulmalar et al. (2009) : “Use of PET bottles in construction”

This research paper studied that the initial perception on the use of PET bottles
in construction is changing day by day. A paradigm which emerged as PET

13
bottle bricks in the construction of load bearing walls with steel trusses and
prefabricated metal sheet is at present witnessing flat roofs with nylon 6
replacing steel reinforcement and intuitive vault construction . Even though
research on the effective use PET in developing new material as an option,
solutions exploring the application of PET bottles as structural members,
foundation, retaining walls and secondary elements like street furniture, road
dividers, pavements and other landscape elements is to be looked in to. The
Governing bodies shall formulate policies to propagate this eco centric approach
via appropriate practices, research investigations on the properties of the
materials and construction techniques.
12) Vikram Pakrashi et al. (2010) : “Light weight Eco-bricks for
Construction”
This research paper examined that Eco-brick is a viable resource for
construction purposes with a number of possible applications. The bricks are
relatively easily manufactured with controlled weight and packing. Eco bricks
have relatively good compressive strength, with values matching that of basic
concrete cubes. The weight of Eco-brick was observed to hold a nearly
relationship with load at failure and with specific strength. Eco-bricks have a
relatively good specific strength. They are lightweight but strong for the weight
they bear.
13) Andreas Froese et al. (2011) : “Research on PET bottle walls”
This research paper concluded that when the bottles are filled with soil or sand
they work as bricks and form a framework for walls or pillars. Different types
of walls varying in size and orientation of the bottles are built. The compression
strength and fracture behavior of each wall are measured and compared. PET
bottle walls can bear up to 4.3 N/mm² when the bottles are filled with sand
which is the weakest filling material. The bottles bear one third of the load
while the plaster bears two thirds. Plaster made of clay or a cement mixture fills
the space between all bottles while a roof made of wood or corrugated metal

14
completes the house. As only regional products are used the houses are cheap
and can be afforded even by poor families. Additionally the method has so far
proven to be earthquake resistant and allows short construction periods.

14) Seltzer et al. (2011): “Buildings made out of glass bottles”

This research paper revealed that the first example of known structures built
with bottles is the William F. Peck‘s Bottle House located in Nevada (USA). It
was built around 1902, and it required 10,000 beer bottles to be built. These
buildings were primarily made out of glass bottles used as masonry units and
they were bound using mortar made out of adobe, sand, cement, clay and
plaster.

SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Concrete is the most widely used man made construction material in the world
and its second only to water as the most utilized substance in the planet.
Seeking aggregates for concrete and to dispose of the plastic waste is the present
concern. Today sustainability has got top priority in construction industry. In
the present study the recycled plastics were used to prepare the coarse
aggregates thereby providing a sustainable option to deal with the plastic waste.
There are many recycling plants across the world, but as plastics are recycled
they lose their strength with the number of recycling. So these plastics will end
up as earth fill. In this circumstance instead of

recycling it repeatedly, if it is utilized to prepare aggregates for concrete, it will

be a boon to the construction industry.

Most of the failures in concrete structures occur due to the failure of concrete by
crushing of aggregates. Plastic Coarse Aggregates which have low crushing
values will not be crushed as easily as the stone aggregates. These aggregates
15
are also lighter in weight compared to stone aggregates. Since a complete
substitution for Normal Coarse Aggregate is not found feasible, a partial
substitution with various percentage of Plastic Coarse Aggregate is done.
Volumetric substitution was employed in this investigation. Hence in the
present study, it is aimed at concrete mix with partial replacement of coarse
aggregate by LDPE granules (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%).This mix in the form of
cubes and cylinders were subjected to compression and split tension to ascertain
the behavior and strength parameter.

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 CHAPTER 3
CRITIQUE
Plastic associates products based have been considered as the world most
consumer packaging solution. However, substantial quantities of plastic
consumption have led to exponential increase of plastic derived waste.
Recycling of plastic waste as valued added product such as concrete appears as
one of promising solution for alternative use of plastic waste. This paper
summarized recent progress on the development of concrete mixture which
incorporates plastic wastes as partial aggregate replacement during concrete
manufacturing. A collection of data from previous studies that have been
researched which employed plastic waste in concrete mixtures were evaluated
and conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory results of all the mentioned
research papers studied
Plastics have become an essential part of our modern lifestyle, and the
global plastic production has increased immensely during the past 50 years.
This has contributed greatly to the production of plastic-related waste. Reuse of
waste and recycled plastic materials in concrete mix as an environmental
friendly construction material has drawn attention of researchers in recent times,
and a large number of studies reporting the behavior of concrete containing
waste and recycled plastic materials have been published. This paper
summarizes the current published literature until 2015, discussing the material
properties and recycling methods of plastic and the influence of plastic materials
on the properties of concrete. To provide a comprehensive review, a total of 84
studies were considered, and they were classified into sub categories based on
whether they dealt with concrete containing plastic aggregates or plastic fibers.
Furthermore, the morphology of concrete containing plastic materials is
described in this paper to explain the influence of plastic aggregates and plastic
fibers on the properties of concrete. The properties of concretes containing

17
virgin plastic materials were also reviewed to establish their similarities and
differences with concrete containing recycled plastics

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 CHAPTER 4

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Solid waste management is the most pressing environmental challenge

faced by urban and rural areas of India. India, with population exceeding 134
crores, is one of the largest producers of solid waste. There is rapid growth in
the population and the increase in population comes with increase in waste
generation. India generates around 62 million tons of solid waste annually, out
of which only 20-30% is collected. The waste are disposed in open spaces, road
sides and within residential buildings. Sorting plastic waste and using it in
construction will reduce waste accumulation to a great extent. There are
construction stages that does not require normal concrete or heavy load and
alternatively lightweight can be used on the building or structure. The
continuous rise in solid plastics waste and cost of building materials over the
years in India and the world at large, forced researchers to look for ways of
addressing the problem.
Plastics waste which is one of the non-bio-gradable materials as stated
earlier causes a lot of environmental pollution, and there is the need to find
solution to such menace. It was reported that recycling of waste materials can be
economical and as a consequence reduces pollution and contamination. The
problem with cement concrete are in terms of low tensile strength, permeability
to liquids, corrosion of reinforcement, prone to biological or chemical attack,
poor freeze/thaw resistances. Research and Development has a new dimension
in the use of affordable local building materials in addressing the concrete
drawbacks, such as the use of waste plastics and other admixtures for improving
the performance of concretes. Research has been carried out in advanced
countries, on the use of waste plastic materials in concrete, but only few were
reported in India. The study also evaluates differences in compressive strength

19
and density based on variable addition of granulated waste plastic in the cement
based composite respectively.

20
 CHAPTER 5

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 PLASTIC

5.1.1 INTRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES

Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or

semi-synthetic organics that are malleable and can be moulded into solid objects
of diverse shapes. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular
mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most
commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are partially natural.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials that are able to irreversibly
deform without breaking, but this occurs to such a degree with this class of
moldable polymers that their name is an emphasis on this ability.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and
imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range
of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many
traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal,
glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a
third of plastic is used in packaging and another third in buildings such as
piping used in plumbing or vinyl siding. Other uses include automobiles (up to
20% plastic), furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be
different - for example, reportedly 42% of India's consumption is used in
packaging. Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, to include
polymer implants, however the field of plastic surgery is not named for use of
plastic material, but rather the more generic meaning of the word plasticity in
regards to the reshaping of flesh.

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5.1.2 CATEGORIES OF PLASTIC

 Polyester (PES) – Fibres, textiles.

 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – Carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter jars,plastic
film, microwavable packaging.

 Polyethylene (PE) – Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags,plastic

bottles.

 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – Detergent bottles, milk jugs, and moulded plastic
cases.

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window
frames, flooring.
 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) – Food packaging.

 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – Outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower

curtains, clamshell packaging.

 Polypropylene (PP) – Bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers, appliances, car
fenders (bumpers), plastic pressure pipe systems.

 Polystyrene (PS) – Packaging foam/"peanuts", food containers, plastic tableware,

disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes.

 High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food packaging, and vending cups.

 Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) – Fibres, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line, low strength
machine parts: under-the-hood car engine parts or gun frames.

 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer

monitors, printers, keyboards), drainage pipe.

 Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) – A slippery blend of PE and

ABS used in low-duty dry bearings.

22
  Polycarbonate (PC) – Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic
lights, lenses.

 Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – A blend of PC and ABS that

creates a stronger plastic. Used in car interior and exterior parts, and mobile phone
bodies.

 Polyurethanes (PU) – Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings,

printing rollers (Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance
the most commonly used plastic in cars).

5.1.3 HEALTH HAZARD

Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and
because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic
products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For
example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle
plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food
packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach
out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the
European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and
other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the use
of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys andchild care
articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds
leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with
hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Other chemicals of
potential concern include alkylphenols.
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the
manufacture ofthe parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts
of those chemicals canremain trapped in the product unless suitable processing
is employed. For example, theWorld Health Organization's International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinylchloride, the

23
precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some polymers may also decompose
into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was
reported that "almost all plastic products" sampled released chemicals with
estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not
leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the very chemical bonds that
make them so durable tend to make them resistant to most natural processes of
degradation. However, microbial species and communities capable of degrading
plastics are discovered from time to time, and some show promise as being
useful for bio remediating certain classes of plastic waste. Since the 1950s, one
billion tons of plastic have been discarded and some of that material might
persist for centuries or much longer, as is demonstrated by the persistence of
natural materials such as amber.
Serious environmental threats from plastic have been suggested in the light of
the increasing presence of micro plastics in the marine food chain along with
many highly toxic chemical pollutants that accumulate in plastics. They also
accumulate in larger fragmented pieces of plastic called nurdles. In the 1960s
the latter were observed in the guts of sea birds and since then have been found
in increasing concentration. In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of modern waste
was plastics, although estimates vary according to region. Meanwhile, 50-80%
of debris in marine areas is plastic. Before the ban on the use of CFCs in
extrusion of polystyrene (and in general use, except in life-critical fire
suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene
contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer, but current extrusion processes
use non-CFCs.

24
5.1.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made
from petroleum. If the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it
is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink although biodegradable plastics
have caused methane emissions. Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or
metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging
beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in
transportation energy.

5.1.5 RECYCLING

Thermoplastics can be re-melted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be

ground up and used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade
with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken back
down to a feedstock state.

The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating

the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labour-intensive. Typically, workers sort
the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common
containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for
PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable,
which presents additional problems to the automated sorting process. Other
recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically.
However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase
capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling.

While containers are usually made from a single type and colour of plastic,
making them relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular
phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and
colours of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the

25
plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However,
developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may
result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled.

Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example,

polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These
unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to
produce electricity at waste-toenergy plants.

5.1.6 LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (LDPE)

INTRODUCTION:

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer

ethylene. It was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in 1933 by Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI) using a high pressure process via free radical
polymerization. Its manufacture employs the same method today. The EPA
estimates 3.3.7% of LDPE (recycling number 4) is recycled. Despite
competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important
plastic grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about
US$33 billion.
PROPERTIES:

LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3.1. It is not reactive at

room temperatures, except by strong oxidizing agents, and some solvents cause
swelling. It can withstand temperatures of 80 °C continuously and 95 °C for a
short time. Made in translucent or opaque variations, it is quite flexible, and
tough but breakable.

LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its
intermolecular forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are
weaker, its tensile strength is lower, and its resilience is higher. Also, since its

26
molecules are less tightly packed and less crystalline because of the side
branches, its density is lower. LDPE contains the chemical elements carbon and
hydrogen.

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:

 ∙ Excellent resistance (no attack / no chemical reaction) to dilute and

concentrated acids, alcohols, bases and esters
 ∙ Good resistance (minor attack / very low chemical reactivity) to
aldehydes, ketones and vegetable oils
 ∙ Limited resistance (moderate attack / significant chemical reaction,
suitable for shortterm use only) to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons,
mineral oils, and oxidizing agents
 ∙ Poor resistance, and not recommended for use with halogenated
hydrocarbons.

APPLICATIONS:

 LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing

bottles, wash bottles, tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and
various moulded laboratoryequipment. Its most common use is in plastic
bags. Other products made from it include:
 Trays and general purpose containers
 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces
 Parts that need to be weldable and machinable
 Parts that require flexibility, for which it serves very well
 Very soft and pliable parts such as Snap-On lids
 Six pack rings

27
Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and LDPE
(as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer ofaluminium foil (thus
becoming aseptic packaging).

Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards, and opticaldisc drives

Playground slides

Fig 5.1 LDPE granules

28
5.2 CEMENT

5.2.1 Introduction

A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term
opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a
hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and
cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized asbeing either hydraulic or
non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to beused in the
presence of water.
Non-hydrauliccement will not set in wet conditions orunderwater, rather it sets
as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can beattacked by some
aggressive chemicals after setting.
5.2.2 Types of cements

i. Portland cement

ii. Energetically modified cement

iii. Portland cement blends

iv. Portland blast furnace cement

v. Portland fly ash cement

vi. Portland Pozzolana cement

vii. Portland silica fume cement

29
viii. Masonry cements

ix. Expansive cements

x. White blended cements

xi. Colored cements

xii. Very finely ground cements

xiii. Pozzolana-lime cements

xiv. Slag-lime cements

xv. Super-sulphated cements

xvi. Calcium sulfo aluminate cements

xvii. Natural cements

xviii. Geo polymer cements

5.2.3 CURING
Cement sets or cures when mixed with water which causes a series of hydration chemical
reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and crystallize; the interlocking of
the crystals gives cement its strength. Maintaining a high moisture content in
cement during curing increases both the speed of curing, and its final strength.
Gypsum is often added to Portland cement to prevent early hardening or "flash
setting", allowing a longer working time. The time it takes for cement to cure
varies depending on the mixture and environmental conditions; initial hardening
can occur in as little as twenty minutes, while full cure can take over a month.
Cement typically cures to the extent that it can be put into service within 24
hours to a week.

30
5.2.4 SAFETY ISSUES
Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on
them because not only is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is
exothermic. As a result, wet cement is strongly caustic and can easily cause
severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with water. Similarly, dry cement
powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe eye or respiratory
irritation. Some ingredients can be specifically allergenic and may cause allergic
dermatitis. Reducing agents are sometimes added to cement to prevent the
formation of carcinogenic chromate in cement. Cement users should wear
protective clothing.
5.2.5 CEMENT PRODUCTION IN WORLD
In 2010, the world production of hydraulic cement was 3,300 million
tonnes. The top three producers were China with 1,800, India with 220, and
USA with 63.1.5 million tonnes for a combined total of over half the world total
by the world's three most populated states. For the world capacity to produce
cement in 2010, the situation was similar with the top three states (China, India,
and USA) accounting for just under half the world total capacity. Over 2011 and
2012, global consumption continued to climb, rising to 3585 Mt in 2011 and
3736 Mt in 2012, while annual growth rates eased to 4.4.3% and 3.2.2%,
respectively. China, representing an increasing share of world cement
consumption, continued to be the main engine of global growth. By 2012,
Chinese demand was recorded at 2160 Mt, representing 58% of world
consumption. Annual growth rates, which reached 16% in 2010, appear to have
softened,
slowing to 5–6% over 2011 and 2012, as China‘s economy targets a more
sustainable growth rate.
Outside of China, worldwide consumption climbed by 3.2.4% to 1462 Mt in
2010, 5% to 1535 Mt in 2011, and finally 2.7% to 1576 Mt in 2012.Iran is now
the 3rd largest cement producer in the world and has increased its output by

31
over 10% from 2008 to 2011. Due to climbing energy costs in Pakistan and
other major cement-producing countries, Iran is a unique position as a trading
partner, utilizing its own surplus petroleum
to power clinker plants. Now a top producer in the Middle-East, Iran is further
increasing its dominant position in local markets and abroad. The performance
in the rest of the world, which includes many emerging economies in Asia,
Africa and Latin America and representing some 1020 Mt cement demand in
2010, was positive and more than offset the declines in North America and
Europe. Annual consumption growth was recorded at 4.4% in 2010, moderating
to 3.3.1% and 3.2.3% in 2011 and 2012, respectively.

5.2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process.
These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise
and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and
damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions
during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to
trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental
protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after
they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.
Carbon concentration in cement spans from ≈5% in cement structures to ≈8% in
the case of roads in cement. Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the
atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and
carbon dioxide, and also indirectly through the use of energy if its production
involves the emission of CO2. The cement industry produces about 5% of
global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process,
and 40% from burning fuel. The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry
is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. In the European
Union the specific energy consumption for the production of cement clinker has

32
been reduced by approximately 30% since the 1970s. This reduction in primary
energy requirements is equivalent to approximately 11 million tonnes of coal
per year with corresponding benefits in reduction of CO2 emissions. This
accounts for approximately 5% of anthropogenic CO2.The high proportion of
carbon dioxide produced in the chemical reaction leads to a large decrease in
mass in the conversion from limestone to cement.
So,to reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to minimize the
associated costs, it is more economical for cement plants to be closer to the
limestone quarries rather than to the consumer centres. In certain applications,
lime mortar reabsorbs the same amount of CO2 as was released in its
manufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production than
mainstream cement. Newly developed cement types from Novacem and Eco-
cement canabsorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening. Use of the
Kalina cycle during production can also increase energy efficiency.

5.2.7 GREEN CEMENT

Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional
performance capabilities of ordinary Portland cement by incorporating and
optimizing recycled materials, thereby reducing consumption of natural raw
materials, water, and energy, resulting in a more sustainable construction
material. The manufacturing process for green cement succeeds in reducing, and
even eliminating, the production and release of damaging pollutants and
greenhouse gasses, particularly CO2.Growing environmental concerns and
increasing cost of fuels of fossil origin have resulted in many countries in sharp
reduction of the resources needed to produce cement and effluents (dust and
exhaust gases).Peter Trimble, a design student at the University of Edinburgh
has proposed 'DUPE' based on sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacterium with binding
qualities which, when mixed with sand and urine produces a concrete said to be

33
70% as strong as conventional materials. The idea has been commercialized in
the USA
5.3 AGGREGATES: FINE AGGREGATES
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fine aggregate (Sand) is a naturally occurring granular material composed of
finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than
gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil
type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles (by mass).
The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and
conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental
settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2),
usually in the form of quartz. The second most common type of sand is calcium
carbonate, for example aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past
half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. It is, for
example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have
dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean
.
5.3.2 COMPOSITION

In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter

from 0.0625 mm (or 1»16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this range
size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel (with particles
ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm) and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625 mm
down to 0.004 mm). The size specification between sand and gravel has
remained constant for more than a century, but particle diameters as small as
0.02 mm were considered sand under the Albert Atterberg standard in use
during the early 20th century. A 1953 engineering standard published by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the
minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A 1938 specification of the United States

34
Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed
between the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like flour).

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to
0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided
into five sub-categories based on size: very fine sand (1»16 – 1»8 mm
diameter), fine sand (1»8 mm – 1»4 mm), medium sand (1»4 mm – 1»2 mm),
coarse sand (1»2 mm – 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm). These
sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D; D being
the particle size in mm. On this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to
+4, with the divisions between sub- categories at whole numbers.
The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-
tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form
of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is
the most common mineral resistant to weathering.
The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock
sources and conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical
coastal settings are eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments
in addition to other organic or organically derived fragmental material,
suggesting sand formation depends on living organisms, too. The gypsum sand
dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for
their bright, white colour. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable
feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby)
granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or
gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in colour, as are sands
derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands
are typically green in colour, as are sands derived from basaltic (lava) with a
high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found extensively in
Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand,

35
giving a deep yellow colour. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and
other resistant minerals, including some small gemstones.
5.3.3 Study
The study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the
origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is recently weathered
from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called Grus in
geology or sharp sand in the building trade where it is preferred for concrete,
and in gardening where it is used as a soil amendment to loosen clay soils. Sand
that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, with
characteristic abrasion patterns on the grain surface. Desert sand is typically
rounded.
5.3.4 USES

Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches
and peanuts, and their excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable
for intensive dairy farming.

Aquaria: Sand makes a low cost aquarium base material which some believe
is better than gravel for home use. It is also a necessity for saltwater reef
tanks, which emulate environments composed largely of aragonite sand
broken down from coral and shellfish.

Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new reefs.

Artificial islands in the Persian Gulf for instance.

Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms

or deliberate changes to the shoreline erode the original sand.

36
Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other
materials for manufacturing bricks.

Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.

Mortar: Sand is mixed with masonry cement or Portland cement and lime to
be used in masonry construction.

Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction

material.

Hydraulic Fracturing: A drilling technique for natural gas, which uses

rounded silica sand as a "proppant", a material to hold open cracks that are
caused by the hydraulic fracturing process.

Glass: Sand is the principal component in common glass.

Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (for example, in golf
courses).

Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and
ceilings or nonslip floor surfaces.

Railroads: Engine drivers and rail transit operators use sand to improve the
traction of wheels on the rails.

Recreation. Playing with sand is a favourite beach time activity. One of the
most beloved uses of sand is to make sometimes intricate, sometimes simple

37
structures known as sand castles. Such structures are well known for their
impermanence. Sand is also used in children's play. Special play areas
enclosing a significant area of sand, known as sandboxes, are common on
many public playgrounds, and even at some single family homes.

Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy
conditions.
Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers of
animated films use the same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or
backlit glass.
Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry
sand and then shape it into moulds into which they pour molten material.
This type of sand must be able to withstand high temperatures and pressure,
allow gases to escape, have a uniform, small grain size and be non-reactive
with metals.
Sand castles: Shaping sand into castles or other miniature buildings is a
popular beach activity.
Sandbags: These protect against floods and gunfire. The inexpensive bags
are easy to transport when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill
them with local sand in emergencies.

Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and

polishing.
Thermal Weapon: While not in widespread use anymore, sand used to be
heated and poured on invading troops in the classical and medieval time
periods.
Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water.

38
 Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians
related to corals and sea anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for
structural strength, which they need because they lack a true skeleton.

5.3.5 RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Only some sands are suitable for the construction industry, for example for
making concrete. Because of the growth of population and of cities and the
consequent construction activity there is a huge demand for these special kinds
of sand, and natural sources are running low. In 2012 French director Denis
Delestrac made a documentary called "Sand Wars" about the impact of the lack
of construction sand. It shows the ecological and economic effects of both legal
and illegal trade in construction sand. Sand's many uses require a significant
dredging industry, raising environmental concerns over fish depletion,
landslides, and flooding. Countries such as China, Indonesia, Malaysia and
Cambodia ban sand exports, citing these issues as a major factor.
5.3.6 Hazards

While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting

require precautions. Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels
warning the user to wear respiratory protection to avoid breathing the resulting
fine silica dust. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) for silica sand state that
"excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious health concern".
In areas of high pore water pressure sand and salt water can form quicksand,
which is a colloid hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a
considerable barrier to escape for creatures caught within, who often die from
exposure (not from submersion) as a result.
5.4.1 Introduction
Construction aggregate (coarse aggregate), or simply ―aggregate‖, is a broad
category of coarse particulate material used in construction, including sand,

39
gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.
Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a
component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the
aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite
material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to
most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage applications such as
foundation and French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall drains, and road
side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and
railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail
base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential
settling under the road or building), or as a lowcost extender that binds with
more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. Preferred bituminous
aggregate sizes for road construction are given in EN 13043 as d/D (where the
range shows the smallest and largest square mesh grating that the particles can
pass). The same classification sizing is used for larger armour stone sizes in EN
13383, EN 12620 for concrete aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers of road
construction and EN 13450 for railway ballast.
The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an exhaustive listing
of specifications including ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 for various
construction aggregate products, which,

by their individual design, are suitable for specific construction purposes. These
products include specific types of coarse and fine aggregate designed for such
uses as additives to asphalt and concrete mixes, as well as other construction
uses. State transportation departments further refine aggregate material
specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and available supply
in their particular locations.

40
Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining
of mineral aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste
slag from the manufacture of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is
itself chiefly manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition, there are some
(minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay,
pumice, perlite, and vermiculite.
5.4.2 History
People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of years.
Significant refinement of the production and use of aggregate occurred during
the Roman Empire, which used aggregate to build its vast network of roads and
aqueducts. The invention of concrete, which was essential to architecture
utilizing arches, created an immediate, permanent demand for construction
aggregates.
5.4.3 Modern production
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries,
which are now used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock
deposits of aggregate quality exist. In many places, good limestone, granite,
marble or other quality stone bedrock deposits do not exist. In these areas,
natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither stone, nor
sand and gravel, are available, construction demand is usually satisfied by
shipping in aggregate by rail, barge or truck. Additionally, demand for
aggregates can be partially satisfied through the use of slag and recycled
concrete. However, the available tonnages and lesser quality of these materials
prevent them from being a viable replacement for mined aggregates on a large
scale. Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all
population centers. These are capital intensive operations, utilizing large earth-
moving equipment, belt conveyors, and machines specifically designed for
crushing and separating various sizes of aggregate, to create distinct product
stockpiles.

41
5.4.4 Recycled materials for aggregates
The largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast
furnace and steel furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled (slow
cooling in the open) or granulated (formed by quenching molten slag in water to
form sand-sized glass-like particles). If the granulated blast furnace slag
accesses free lime during hydration, it develops strong hydraulic cementitious
properties and can partly substitute for Portland cement in concrete. Steel
furnace slag is also air-cooled. In 2006, according to the USGS, air-cooled blast
furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.3 million tonnes valued at $49
million, granulated blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 3.2.2 million
tonnes valued at $318 million, and steel furnace slag sold orused in the U.S. was
4.4.7 million tonnes valued at $40 million. Air-cooled blast furnace slag sales in
2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic concrete (13%),
ready- mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses. Granulated blast
furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in cementitious materials (94%), and the
balance for other uses. Steel furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road
bases and surfaces (51%), asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill (18%), and the
balance for other uses. Glass aggregate, a mix of colours crushed to a small size,
is substituted for many construction and utility projects in place of pea gravel or
crushed rock, often saving municipalities like the City of Tumwater,
Washington Public Works, thousands of dollars (depending on the size of the
project). Glass aggregate is not sharp to handle. In many cases, the state
Department of Transportation has specifications for use, size and percentage of
quantity for use. Common applications are as pipe bedding—placed around
sewer, storm water or drinking water pipes to transfer weight from the surface
and protect the pipe. Another common use would be as fill to bring the level of
a concrete floor even with a foundation. Use of glass aggregate helps close the
loop in glass recycling in many places where glass cannot be smelted into new
glass. Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Unlike deposits of

42
sand and gravel or stone suitable for crushing into aggregate, which can be
anywhere and may require overburden removal and/or blasting, ―deposits‖ of
recyclable aggregate tend to be concentrated near urban areas, and production
from them cannot be raised or lowered to meet demand for aggregates. Supply
of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay of structures and their
demolition. The recycling plant can be fixed or mobile; the smaller
capacity mobile plant works best for asphalt-aggregate recycling. The material
being recycled is usually highly variable in quality and properties.
Many aggregate products of various types are often recycled for other industrial
purposes. In Bay City, Michigan, for example, a recycle program exists for
contractors and their own unused products. These piles are composed of unused
mixed concrete, block, brick, gravel, pea stone, and other used materials.
Composed of several alternating piles that grow to hundreds of feet in height
and diameter. These piles are then crushed to provide gravel for roads and
driveways, among other purposes. This program has huge economic and
environmental benefits to the local and surrounding area. Contractors save on
disposal costs and less aggregate is buried or piled and abandoned.
According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete
(including aggregate) worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes
of asphalt concrete (including aggregate) worth $11.8 million was recycled,
both by crushed stone operations. Much more of both materials are recycled by
construction and demolition firms not in the USGS survey. For sand and gravel,
the USGS survey for 2006 showed that 3.2.7 million tonnes of cement concrete
valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 3.4.17 million tonnes of asphalt
concrete valued at $43.3.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both materials
are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey. The
Construction Materials Recycling Association indicates that there are 325
million tonnes of recoverable construction and demolition materials produced
annually. Many geosynthetic aggregates are also made from recycled materials.

43
Being polymer based, recyclable plastics can be reused in the production of
these new age of aggregates.

5.5 M-SAND

Manufactured sand (M-Sand) is a substitute of river sand for concrete

construction . Manufactured sand is produced from hard granite stone by
crushing.

The crushed sand is of cubical shape with grounded edges, washed and
graded to as a construction material. The size of manufactured sand (M-Sand) is
less than 4.75mm.

Manufactured sand is an alternative for river sand. Due to fast growing

construction industry, the demand for sand has increased tremendously, causing
deficiency of suitable river sand in most part of the word.

Due to the depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the
use of manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand
is its availability and transportation cost.

Since manufactured sand can be crushed from hard granite rocks, it can be
readily available at the nearby place, reducing the cost of transportation from
far-off river sand bed.

Thus, the cost of construction can be controlled by the use of manufactured sand
as an alternative material for construction. The other advantage of using M-
Sand is, it can be dust free, the sizes of m-sand can be controlled easily so that it
meets the required grading for the given construction.

44
5.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF MANUFACTURED SAND (M-SAND)

 It is well graded in the required proportion.

 It does not contain organic and soluble compound that affects the setting
time and properties of cement, thus the required strength of concrete can
be maintained.
 It does not have the presence of impurities such as clay, dust and silt
coatings, increase water requirement as in the case of river sand which
impair bond between cement paste and aggregate. Thus, increased quality
and durability of concrete.
 M-Sand is obtained from specific hard rock (granite) using the state-of-
the-art International technology, thus the required property of sand is
obtained.
 M-Sand is cubical in shape and is manufactured using technology like
High Carbon steel hit rock and then ROCK ON ROCK process which is
synonymous to that of natural process undergoing in river sand
information.
 Modern and imported machines are used to produce M-Sand to ensure
required grading zone for the sand.

45
HIGHER STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The manufactured sand has required gradation of fines, physical properties such
as shape, smooth surface textures and consistency which makes it the best sand
suitable for construction. These physical properties of sand provides greater
strength to the concrete by reducing segregation, bleeding, honeycombing,
voids and capillary.

Thus required grade of sand for the given purpose helps the concrete fill voids
between coarse aggregates and makes concrete more compact and dense, thus
increasing the strength of concrete.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Since manufactured sand (M-Sand) is processed from selected quality of

granite, it has the balanced physical and chemical properties for construction of
concrete structures.

This property of M-Sand helps the concrete structures withstand extreme

environmental conditions and prevents the corrosion of reinforcement steel by
reducing permeability, moisture ingress, freeze-thaw effect increasing the
durability of concrete structures.

WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Size, shape, texture play an important role in workability of concrete. With

more surface area of sand, the demand for cement and water increases to bond
the sand with coarse aggregates.

The control over these physical properties of manufacturing sand make the
concrete require less amount of water and provide higher workable concrete.
The less use of water also helps in increasing the strength of concrete, less effort

46
for mixing and placement of concrete, and thus increases productivity of
construction activities at site.

Less Construction Defects

Construction defects during placement and post-concreting such as segregation,

bleeding, honeycombing, voids and capillarity in concrete gets reduced by the
use of M-Sand as it has optimum initial and final setting time as well as
excellent fineness.

Economy

As discussed above, since usage of M-Sand has increased durability, higher

strength, reduction in segregation, permeability, increased workability,
decreased post-concrete defects, it proves to be economical as a construction
material replacing river sand.

It can also save transportation cost of river sand in many cases.

Eco-Friendly

Usage of manufactured sand prevents dredging of river beds to get river sand
which may lead to environmental disaster like ground water depletion, water
scarcity, threat to the safety of bridges, dams etc. to make M-Sands more eco-
friendly than river sand.

47
 CHAPTER 6

TESTS AND OBSERVATIONS

6.1 TESTS ON CEMENT

6.1.1 Standard consistency of cement
Standard consistency is defined as the percentage water requirement of cement
paste at which viscosity of the paste becomes such that the plunger in a
specially designed apparatus (known as Vicat‘s apparatus) penetrates a depth 5
to 7mm, measured from the bottom of the mould. Practical importance of
Standard consistency value is to determine amount of water needed to make
paste for other tests of cement.
Apparatus: Vicat‘s Apparatus with plunger, needles, stop watch etc.

48
Procedure:

(1) Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (approx. 400 gms) with
weighed quantity of water (start from 20%-25%) taking care that mixing
(gauging) remains between 3 to 5 minutes and mixing shall be completed before
any signs of setting becomes visible.

(2) Fill the Vicat‘s mould with the paste, mould should rest on non-porous base.

(3) Place the mould under Vicat‘s apparatus. The plunger attached to a movable
rod is gently lowered on the paste.

(4) Settlement of plunger is noted, penetration from bottom is equal to the

difference of mould height and settlement of plunger. If penetration of the
plunger is within 5-7mm from bottom, then water added is correct. Otherwise,
water is added and process is repeated.

49
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gms

Table 6.1 Normal Consistency of cement

S. No % water Initial Final Height not
reading reading penetrated(
mm)
1. 20 40 38 2
2. 24 40 37 3
3 28 40 10 30
4. 30 40 5 35

6.1.2 Setting time of cement

Two stiffening states of cements are (i) initial and (ii) final setting time. Initial
setting time is defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to an extent such
that the Vicat needle is not permitted to move down through the paste within 5 ±
0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Time is measured from the
instant water is added to the paste.
Final setting time is the time when the paste becomes so hard that the annular
attachment to the needle under standard weight only makes an impression on
the hardened cement paste
Initial Setting Time:

(1) Take approx. 400 gms of dry cement and add 0.85 P where P is the weight
of water for standard consistency to make paste.

(2) Fill the mould with paste, attach square needle to moving rod of apparatus.

(3) The needle is quickly released and is allowed to penetrate cement paste.

50
(4) Note down the time and penetration from bottom.

(5) Plot a curve between time (min) and penetration (mm).

(6) Find initial setting time (minutes) when penetration of needle (from bottom)
is within 5

±0.5mm.
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gm
(Size of cement particle passing 850μ size) Needle dimension = 1 mm2 area of
50mm long Gauging time = 2-3 min
Qty. of water = (0.85P × 400) gm =0.85×30100×400 = 102 ml

Table 6.2 Setting time of cement

S. No Time Initial Final Height
(minutes reading reading not
) penetrate
d(mm)
1. 0 40 0 40
2. 5 40 0 40
3 10 40 2 38
4. 15 40 2 38
5. 20 40 2 38
6. 25 40 3 37
7. 30 40 3 37
8. 35 40 3 37
9. 40 40 3 37

51
 10. 45 40 3 37
11. 50 40 4 36
12. 55 40 4 36
13. 60 40 5 35
14. 65 40 5 35

Final Setting Time:

(1) Attach needle with annular collar to the movable rod.

(2) Release the needle gently.

(3) The time when needle makes an impression only on the hardened cement
paste is recorded.

Initial setting time = 30 mins Final setting time = 580 mins

6.1.3 Specific gravity of cement
Specific gravity is determined by use of a Le Chatelier‘s flask. In the
determination of specific gravity of cement, kerosene is used as a medium
instead of water, because water undergoes hydration reaction with cement,
while kerosene does not react. The specific gravity of OPC is generally around
3.1.13.3.
Procedure:

1. Weigh the specific gravity bottle dry. Let the mass of empty bottle be W1.

2. Fill the bottle with distilled water and weigh the bottle filled with water. Let
the mass of bottle with distilled water be W2

52
3. Wipe and dry the bottle and fill it with kerosene and weigh. Let this mass be
W3.1.

4. Weigh the dry cement sample. Let this mass be W3.2.

5. Pour some quantity of kerosene out and introduce a weighed quantity of

cement (about 50gm) into the bottle. Roll the bottle gently in inclined position
until no further air bubble rises to surface. Fill the bottle to the top with
kerosene and weigh it. Let this mass be W3.3.

6. The specific gravity of OPC is given by S=W4

(W3−W1)/(W4+W3−W5)(W2−W1)

Table 6.3 Specific gravity of cement

Description Trial 1 Trial 2
1.Mass of empty 67 67
bottle W1 gm.
2.Mass of bottle 161 164
+water W2 gm.
3.Mass of bottle 144 137
+kerosene W3
gm.
4.Mass of 50 50
cement W4 gm.
5.Mass of bottle 181 175
+ cement +
kerosene W5

53
 gm.
6.Specific 3.15 3.00
gravity of
cement
S= W4
(W3−W1)
(W4+W3−W5)(
W2−W1)

S. No. Properties Values Standard

obtained values
1. Specific 3.15 3.15
gravity
2. Normal 30% 30%
consistency
3. Initial and 30 min and Not less than
Final setting 580 min 30 mins Not
time greater than 10
hrs

6.2 Tests on fine aggregates

6.2.1 Specific gravity of sand
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of a material
to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water. Specific gravity of
river sand is around 2.5 and manufactured sand is around 2.7
Apparatus: Pycnometer bottle, Tray, Weighing balance
Procedure:

54
(1) Take a clean, dry pycnometer, and find its weight with its cap and washer
(W1)

(2) Put about 200 g to 400 g of sand in the pycnometer and find its weight (W2)

(3) Fill the pycnometer a n d filled in sand as in step2, wi t h distilled water and
measure its weight (W3)

(4) Empty the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly, and fill it with clean water only
to the hole of the conical cap, and find its weight (W4)

(5) Repeat the same procedure at least for three different samples

Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled

plastic granules
Table 6.5 Specific gravity of sand
S. Weight of Weight of Weight of Weight of Specific
No Empty Pycn+dry Pycn.+ Pycn.+ gravity of
Pycn. sand (W2) dry sand water sand
(W1) (g) (g) +water (W4) (g) W2− W1
(W3) (g) (W2 −
W1 ) −
(W3 −
W4 )
1 415 900 1750 1449 2.63
2 415 830 1715 1447 2.66
3 415 885 1745 1450 2.62

55
6.2.2 Water absorption test
Absorption is a measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb
into its pore structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to as ―water
permeable voids‖.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lit), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray.
Procedure:

1) Take 500 gms of saturated surface dry sand in the air. Note down the weight
as W1.

2) Dry the sample in oven at 100 C-110 C for 24 hrs. Note this weight as W2.

3) Note down empty weight as W3.1.

4) Calculate water absorption value as the percentage of oven dry weight.

Percentage of water absorption=(1−2)*100/2−3

Table 6.6 Water absorption of sand

Water Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Absorption
Wt. of tray + 953 948 940
saturated
surface dry
fine agg (W1)
Wt. of tray + 947 943 936
oven dry fine
aggregate
(W2)

56
 Wt. of empty 452 449 444
tray (W3)
Percentage of 1.21 1.01 1.01
water
absorption

Procedure:

1) The sample shall be brought to an air-dried condition before weighing and

sieving.

2) Measure 500 gram of the sand.

3) Arrange sieve in descending order of size from the top.

4) Put the sand in sieve 3.2.75mm, and shake for 10 minutes. Material shall not
be forced through the sieve by hand pressure.

5) After 10 minutes stop the shaker and separate the sieve 3.2.75mm from the
apparatus. Then with the help of balance measure the weight of retained
particles,

note this weight in the table.

6) Measure the weight of the particles retained in each sieve and notes them in
the table.

7) Calculate the percentage of weight retained on each sieve.

57
8) Find the percentage of the weight which has passed through each sieve.

Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled

plastic granules

9) Plot particle size (log scale) and % passing and find out D10, D30, and D60.

Table 6.7 Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate

IS Sieve (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Size Weight Percentag Cumulati Cumulati Percentag
(mm) retained e Weight ve weight ve e finer
(gm.) retained retained percentag 100-
(gm.) e weight Col(4)
retained
3.2.75mm - - - - 100
2.36mm 11 1.1 11 1.1 94.4.9
1.18mm 190 19 201 20.1 74.5.9
600μ 328 32.8 529 52.9 44.1
300μ 436 43.1.6 965 93.4.5 3.1.5
150μ 28 2.8 993 94.5.3 0.7
Pan 7 0.7 1000 100 0
Result: Fineness Modulus = Σ Col. (4)/100 =264.5.9/100 =2.699
Table 6.8 Properties of fine aggregates:
Properties Values obtained
Specific gravity 2.65
Water absorption 1.01
Fineness Modulus 2.699

58
6.3 TESTS ON COARSE AGGREGATES (20MM DOWN SIZE
AGGREGATE)
6.3.1 Specific gravity and water absorption test
Specific gravity of an aggregate is a measure of strength or quality of the
material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those
with higher specific gravity. Water absorption indicates strength of rocks.
Stones having more water absorption are more porous in nature and are
unsuitable unless they are found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and
hardness tests.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lt), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray
Procedure:

(1) Take about 2kg of coarse aggregate sample, wash thoroughly to remove
finer particles and dust and immerse in water for 24 hours at a temperature
between 22°C and 32°C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the top of
the basket. Lift the basket 25 mm above the base of tank and allowing it to drop
25 times at the rate of more than one drop per second. The weight is noted while
suspending in water=W1.

(2) Remove the aggregate from basket and allow it to drain for few minutes.
Weight of empty basket in water is measured as W2.

(3) Take out the immersed aggregate and place in a dry cloth. It shall then be
spread out not more than one stone deep, and best exposed to the atmosphere
away from direct sunlight or any other source of heat for not less than 10
minutes, or until it appears to be completely surface dry. Measure weight of the
aggregate (W3)

59
(4) The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a
temperature of 100 to 110°C and maintained at this temperature for 24 hours.
After 24 hours, It shall then be removed from the oven, cooled in the airtight
container and weighed
Table 6.9 Specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
Description Trial 1 Trial 2
Wt. of saturated 2806 2796
aggregate
suspended in
water
with basket=W1
gm
Wt. of basket 1537 1532
suspended in
water=W2 gm
Wt. of saturated 1269 1264
aggregate in
water=W1-
W2=Ws
gm

Wt. of saturated 2010 2005

surface dry
aggregate in
air=W3 gm
Wt. of water 905 741
equal to the
volume of

60
 aggregate=W3-
Ws gm
Dry weight after 1998 1984
24 hours W4 gm
Specific gravity = 2.69 2.67
4
3−

Water 0.6% 1.05%

absorption=3−4
×100
4

6.4 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

6.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their
relative amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required,
strength, durability, and workability as economically as possible, is termed the
concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by
the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the
hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly
placed and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital
importance. The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally
considered to be an index of its other properties, depends upon many factors,
e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and aggregates; batching and mixing;
placing, compaction and curing.The cost of concrete is made up of the cost of
materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the
fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to

61
produce as lean a mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes
may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the structural concrete, and to
evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for
producing a minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is
specified by the designer of the structure. This depends on the quality control
measures, but there is no doubt that the quality control adds to the cost of
concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic compromise, and
depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labour depends on the
workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability may
Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled
plastic granules result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction
with available
equipment.
6.4.2 Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix
ingredients are:

a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration

b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting
equipment available.

c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give

adequate durability for the particular site condition to meet the site condition
and meet strength.

d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature

cycle in mass concrete.

62
63
6.4.3 Types of Mixes
Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which
ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and
under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified.
However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a
given workability varies widely in strength.

Standard Mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the
minimum compressive strength has been included in many specifications. These
mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete
mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40.
In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified
28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2
. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to
the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but
the mix proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the
minimum cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to
the selection of mix proportions with specific materials in mind possessing
more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the production of
concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with
undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the codes

64
by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only
for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30
N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of
the ingredients.
6.4.4 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength
required at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-
cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting the strength of concrete at a
given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of compaction.
According to Abraham‘s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is
inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size
of the section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of
compaction to be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous
corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability so that
full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This also
applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the
compacting equipment available at the site.
Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental
conditions. High strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength
concrete. In the situations when thehigh strength is not necessary but the
conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital, the durability
requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
Maximum nominal size of aggregate

65
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement
requirement for a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of
concrete increases with increase in maximum size of the aggregate. However,
the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in size of
aggregate. IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of
the aggregate should be as large as possible.
Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified
workability and water- cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix
which can be used. Very lean mix is not desirable since it does not contain
enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the
desired workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a
satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by
mixing different size fractions
.
Quality control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test
results. The variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of
the mix ingredients and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing,
curing and testing. The lower the difference between the mean and minimum
strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The factor
controlling this difference is termed as quality control.
6.4.5 Mix Proportion Designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete
mix is in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For
e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse
aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts

66
of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either
by volume or by mass. The water-cement
ratio is usually expressed in mass.
Factors to be considered for mix design

• The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of

concrete.

• The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength

of concrete.

• Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large

as possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.

• The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.

• The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related

to size and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and
technique used for transportation, placing and compaction.

A-1 Design stipulations for proportioning

i. Grade designation

ii. Type of cement: M20: OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112: 20 mm

iii. Minimum cement content : 3 2 0 k g / m3

67
iv. Maximum water cement ratio : 0.55

v. Workability : 75 mm (slump)

vi. Exposure condition : Mild

vii. Degree of supervision : Good

viii. Type of aggregate

ix. Maximum cement content

: Crushed angular aggregate
: 450 kg/m3
: 450 kg/m3

x. Chemical admixture : Not recommended ( used)

A-2 Test data for materials

a) Cement used : OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112

b) Specific gravity of cement : 3.15

c) Specific gravity of Coarse aggregate : 2.68 Fine aggregate : 2.65

d) Water absorption

Coarse aggregate : 0.6 percent Fine aggregate : 1.0 percent

e) Free (surface) moisture

68
Coarse aggregate : Nil (absorbed moisture full)
Fine aggregate : Nil

f) Sieve analysis

Coarse aggregate : Conforming to Table 2 of IS: 383 Fine aggregate :

Conforming to Zone I of IS: 383

A-3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f‘ck= fck + 1.65 s Where

f‘ck = Target average compressive strength at 28 days,
fck = Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days= Standard deviation From
Table 1 standard deviation, s = 4 N/mm2
Therefore target strength = 20 + 1.65 x 4 = 26.60 N/mm2

A-4 SELECTION OF WATER CEMENT RATIO

From Table 5 of IS: 456-2000, maximum water cement ratio = 0.55 (Mild
exposure) Based on experience adopt water cement ratio as 0.50
0.5 < 0.55, hence ok

A-5 SELECTION OF WATER CONTENT

From Table-2, maximum water content = 186 litres (for 25mm – 50mm slump
range) For 20 mm aggregates

Estimated water content for 75 mm slump = 186 + 3/100 x186 = 191.6 litres

69
A-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT

Water cement ratio = 0.50

Cement content = 191.6/0.5 = 383 kg/m3 >320 kg/m3 (given)
From Table 5 of IS: 456, minimum cement content for mild exposure condition
= 300 kg/m3 Hence OK

A-7 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE

AGGREGATE CONTENT

From Table 3, volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size

aggregate and fine aggregate (Zone I) for water-cement ratio of 0.50 =0.60.
In the present case w/c ratio is 0.3.3.Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate is
required to be increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the w/c ratio
is lowered by 0.10, the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by
0.02(at the rate of +/- 0.01 for every +/-
0.05 change in w/c ratio).Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse
aggregate for the w/c ratio of 0.5 = 0.62.
Volume of fine aggregate =1-0.62=0.38

A-8 MIX CALCULATIONS

The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows: Volume of
concrete (a): 1m3
Volume of cement (b) = (mass of cement/specific gravity of cement) *1/1000
= [383.1.16/3.1.15] x [1/1000] = 0.122 m3
Volume of water(c) = (mass of water/specific gravity of water) *1/1000
= [192/1] x [1/1000] = 0.192 m3

70
Volume of all in aggregates (e) = a-(b+c)= 1 – (0.122 + 0.192) =0.686
Mass of coarse aggregates = e * volume of coarse aggregates* specific gravity
of CA= 0.686 x 0.6 x 2.68 x 1000= 1103 kg
Volume of fine aggregates = e * volume of fine aggregates* specific gravity of
FA= 0.686 x 0.4 x 2.65 x 1000= 727 kg

A-9 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1

Cement = 383 kg/m3 Water = 192 kg/m3

Fine aggregate = 727 kg/m3 Coarse aggregates = 1103 kg/m3 Water cement
ratio = 0.50
Yield =2404.6 kg

A-10 MIX CALCULATION FOR REQUIRED VOLUME OF CONCRETE

Volume of concrete = (0.15^3+π*0.15^2/4*30)*24=0.208m3 Volume of

cement = (383*0.208)*1/ (3.1.15*1000) = 0.025m3 Volume of water =
(191.6*0.208)/ (1*1000) =0.04m3
Volume of all in aggregate = 0.208-(.025+.04) =0.143m3

Mass of coarse aggregate =0.143*0.62*2.68*1000=234.6kg Mass of fine

aggregate = 0.143* 0.38*2.68*1000 = 145.63kg
Table 6.12 Calculation of plastic granules weight for the mix:
% replacement (by Weight of plastic Weight of coarse
volume) granules used (kg) aggregate after
replacement
10 2.71 79.2-2.37=76.83
20 5.43 79.2-5.43=73.76
30 8.13 79.2-8.13=71.07

71
MIX MATERIALS

Fig. shows mix material of M-sand, Cement and Waste water bottle

72
 CHAPTER-7
TESTING METHODS AND RESULTS

7.1 TESTING METHODS

 WATER TEST

PH

TURBIDITY

HARDNESS

 M SAND TEST

 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

 SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST

PH value = 6.58

Turbidity value = 3.0

7.1.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

The specific gravity is the ratio between the density of an object, and a
reference substance. The specific gravity can tell us, based on its value, if the
object will sink or float in our reference substance. Usually our reference
substance is water which always has a density of 1 gram per milliliter or 1 gram
per cubic centimeter.

CALCULATIONS

SAMPLE 1

Empty container wt (w1) = 0.602

73
 Container + dry M sand (w2) = 0.802
Container + M sand + water (w3) = 1.538
Container +Water (w4) = 1.432
w1 = 0.602 w2 = 0.802
w3 = 1.538 w4 = 1.432
Gs = (w2 - w1)/(w4 - w1) - (w3 - w2)
= (0.802 - 0.602)/ (1.432 - 0.602) - (1.538 - 0.802)

= ( 0.2) / (0.01)
S1 = 2.938

SAMPLE 2
w1 = 0.606 w2 = 0.802
w3 = 1.578 w4 = 1.402

Gs = (w2 - w1) / (w4 - w1) - (w3 - w2)

=(0.802) - (0.606)/(1.402 - 0.606) - (1.518 - 0.802)
= 0.196/0.08

S2 = 2.456

Average = S1 + S2 / 2

= (2.938) + (2.456) / 2

Average=2.697

74
 FIG 7.1 AVERAGE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MIXTURE

7.2 HARDNESS TEST

The application of hardness testing enables you to evaluate a material‘s

properties, such as strength, ductility and wear resistance, and so helps you
determine whether a material or material treatment is suitable for the purpose

The definition of hardness testing is ‗a test to determine the resistance a material

exhibits to permanent deformation by penetration of another harder material.‘
However, hardness is not a fundamental property of a material. Therefore, when
drawing conclusions of a hardness test, you should always evaluate the
quantitative value in relation to:

 The given load on the indenter

 A specific loading time profile and a specific load duration
 A specific indenter geometry

75
 The hardness test you choose should be determined by the microstructure –
e.g. the homogeneity – of the material you are testing, as well as the type of
material, the size of the part and its condition.

In all hardness tests, the material under the indent should be representative of
the whole microstructure (unless you attempting to ascertain the different
constituents in the microstructure). Therefore, if a microstructure is very coarse
and heterogeneous, you need a larger impression than for a homogeneous
material.

There are four main hardness tests, each with their own set of benefits and
requirements. There are different standards for these tests, which explain the
procedures and application of the hardness test in detail.

When selecting a hardness test method, important considerations include:

 The type of material to be hardness tested

 Whether compliance with a standard is required
 The approximate hardness of the material
 The homogeneity/heterogeneity of the material
 The size of the part
 Whether mounting is necessary
 The number of samples to be tested
 The required accuracy of the result

76
77
CALCULATION

Volume of EDTA (v1) = 9 ml

Normality of EDTA (n1) = 0.01 N

Volume of sample (v2) = 20 ml

Normality of sample n2 = V1 X N1 / V2= 9 X 0,01/ 20

= 4.5 X 10-3

= 0.0045 N

{Total hardness of hard water sample}= strength x Eq wt of

caco3 x 1000 mg / l

= 0.0045 x 50 x 1000

= 225 ppm

TITRATION 2

Estimation of permanent hardness

78
 CALCULATION
Vol of EDTA (v1) =8ml
Nor. of EDTA (N) = 0.01N
Vol. of boiled water (v2) = 20 ml
Nor. of boiled water ( N2) = V1 X N1/V2
= 8 X 0.01 /20
= 4.0X10-3
=0.004N

Permanant hardness = 0,004 x 50 x 1000

Temporary hardness = Total hardness - permanent hardness

= 225 - 200
= 25 ppm
Results:

79
 Fig6.showw testing of hardness

7.3. SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used in civil

engineering[1] and chemical engineering[2] to assess the particle size distribution
(also called gradation) of a granular material by allowing the material to pass
through a series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the
amount of material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass.

The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material
performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic
or organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite,
feldspars, coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds,
down to a minimum size depending on the exact method. Being such a simple
technique of particle sizing, it is probably the most common.

80
CALCULATION

(1) 5mm

Total wt of sample = 1000g

percentage of wt retained = wt retained on size/Total

of sample x 100

=23.2/1000x100

=2.32

(2) 2.36mm

=116.6 / 1000

=11.66

(3) 1.18mm

= 51.9 / 1000 x 100

= 5.19

(4) 600 micron

=113.3 / 1000 x 100

=11.33

(5) 300 micron

81
 = 588.9 / 1000 x 100

= 58.89

(6) 150 micron

= 85.6 / 1000 x 100

= 8.56

(7) 75 micron

= 20.5 / 1000 x 100

= 2.05

Uniformity coefficient = D60 / D10

= 0.7 / 0.52

=4.32

Coefficient curveture = ( D - 30 )2 / ( D60X D10)

= 900 / 0.7 X 0.52

= 900 / 0.364

= 1.34

82
83
 Fig. shows that sieve analysis test procedure

IS Sieve size wt retained percentage wt Cumulative percentage

finer
on sieve retained range
10mm 0 0 - -

5mm 23.2 2,32 2.32 97.68

2.36mm 116.6 11.66 13.98 86.02

1.18mm 51.9 5.19 19.17 80.03

600micron 113.3 11.33 30.5 69.5

300micron 588.9 58.89 89.39 10.61

150micron 85.6 8.56 97.95 2.05

84
 CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION

The experimental results have shown the use of waste plastic material in making
concrete/mortar can provide an alternative solution to minimize the
environmental impact due to unscientific disposal of waste plastic.
The following conclusions were drawn:
• The properties of concrete containing various percentage of plastic (0%, 10%,
20%, and 30%) were tested for its physical properties and compressive strength.
• The waste plastic used for experiments is of LDPE (Low Density Poly
Ethylene), 5-7mm size and specific gravity of waste plastic is found to be 0.92.

• The compressive strength of test concrete is compared with plain concrete (fig
1.1) and it is found that the compressive strength up to 80% is achieved for a
mix of waste plastic up to 30% (as a replacement for coarse aggregate) in
concrete. Hence it is recommended for light weight concrete structures.

• The mechanical properties of the test concrete did not display any notable
differences depending on the color of the plastic waste.

• This research also has potential application for the production of lightweight
concrete, for minimizing the amount of polymer wastes in landfills, and the
creation of decorative, attractive landscaping products.

8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages:

• A better workability is achieved for plastic reinforced concrete in comparison

to the conventional one.
85
• Considerable reduction in the weight results in the formation of light weight
concrete. Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with
recycled plastic granules Dept. of Civil Engineering, TOCE, BANGALORE .

• Recycled plastic in the construction purpose can set a benchmark by utilizing

the non-bio- degradable waste and eventually minimizing the environmental
pollution.

Disadvantages:

Strength achieved for the plastic replaced concrete is slightly less than the
conventional concrete but can be improved by the use of admixtures.

Cost of plastic is high in the place where we need to buy from the dealers and
hence the cost of construction also increases.

There is no proper bonding of plastic materials in the matrix unless admixtures

are Used.

Plastics may be degraded under the action of direct sunlight which reduces their
mechanical strength.

Many plastics are flammable unless treated.

High embodied energy content

Low modulus of elasticity: makes them unsuitable for load-bearing applications.

86
Thermoplastics are subject to creep and soften at moderate temperatures.

Thermal expansion for most plastics is high: adequate thermal movement has to
be allowed in detailing.

Plastics are having low bonding properties so that the strength of concrete gets
reduced such as compressive,tensile and flexural strength.

Its melting point is low so that it cannot be used in furnaces because it gets melt
as its comes in contact with the heat at high temperature.

87
 REFERENCES

1. Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas Paul - Recycled Plastics as Coarse

Aggregate for Structural Concrete, IJIRSET, March 2013

2. Lakshmi, Nagan.S, Studies on Concrete containing E plastic waste,

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, 2010

3. IS 10262 (2009): Guidelines for concrete mix design.

4. MS Shetty, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, Revised Edition,

2010

5. V. Kasselouri - Rigopoulou, S. Gavela, S. Kolias ―Use Of Polymeric Wastes

in The Concrete Production‖ Polymers in concrete: a vision for the 21st century,
Cement & Concrete Composites

6. Comprehensive literature review on use of waste product in concrete

B.V.Bahoria, Research Scholar, Civil Engg. Dept., YCCE, Nagpur, India Dr.
D.K. Parbat, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, Government Polytechnic,
Sakoli,Bhandara, India Dr.P.B.Naganaik, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, GHRCE,
Nagpur, India Dr.U.P.Waghe, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, Y.C.C.E , Nagpur,
India

7. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering

(IJITEE), ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2013 Utilization of
Recycled Wastes as Ingredients in concrete Mix, Nitish Puri, Brijesh Kumar,
Himanshu Tyagi

. Nabajyoti Saikia and Jorge de Brito,‖Use of plastic aggregate in cement

mortor and concrete preparation‖, Construction and Building materials, Vol:34,
2012,page no:385-401.

88
9. K.Balakrishna, C Sukesh, P.S.Teja, M.T.Meher,‖ Partial replacement of fine
Aggregates with waste plastic in concrete‖, International Journal of Civil
Engineering Research, Vol.3, No:2,2012, page no:105-113.1.Behaviour of
concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled plastic
granules Dept. of Civil Engineering, TOCE, BANGALORE Page 68

10. Mechanical Study on Concrete with Waste Plastic J.N.S. Suryanarayana

Raju, M. Senthil Pandian, Department of civil Engineering, VIT University,
Chennai, India International Journal of Research in Civil Engineering,
Architecture & Design Volume 1, Issue 1, July-September, 2013

11. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012)
Experimental Investigation on the Properties of Concrete With Plastic PET
(Bottle) Fibers and aggregates.

12. M. A. Kamaruddin et al. (2000) : ―Potential use of Plastic Waste as

Construction Materials: Recent Progress and Future Prospect‖

13. K.S.Rebeiz and A.P.Craft (2000) : ―Plastic waste management in

construction: technological and institutional issues‖

14. Oriyomi M. Okeyinka et al. (2001) : ―A Review on Recycled Use of Solid

Wastes in Building Materials‖

15. Ahmed Trimbakwala (2003) : ―Plastic Roads Use of Waste Plastic in Road
Construction‖

16. Azmat Shaikh, Nabeel Khan, Faisal Shah, Devendra Shukla, Gaurav Kale
(2003): ―Use of Plastic Waste in Road Construction‖

17. Mohammed Jalaluddin (2003): ―Use of Plastic Waste in Civil Constructions

and Innovative Decorative Material (Eco- Friendly)‖

89
18. Mojtaba et al. (2006) : ―Using plastic instead of bricks in Buildings‖

19. Shilpi et al. (2006) : ―Plastic PET bottles use in bottle brick technique‖
Puttaraj et al. (2006)

: ―Use of waste plastic in plastic-soil brick‖

20. Pratima et al. (2008): ―Solution to plastic pollution problems in landfills‖

21. Arulmalar et al. (2009) : ―Use of PET bottles in construction‖

22. Vikram Pakrashi et al. (2010) : ―Light weight Eco-bricks for Construction‖

23. Andreas Froese et al. (2011) : ―Research on PET bottle walls‖

24. Seltzer et al. (2011): ―Buildings made out of glass bottles‖

25. Job Bwire & Arithea Nakiwala et al. (2012) : ―Water bottle housing‖

26. S. Rajasekaran et al. (2014) : ―Reuse of waste plastic coated aggregate‖

27. Sasane Neha et al. (2015) : ―Application of waste plastic as an effective

construction material in flexible pavement‖

28.Mercy Joseph Poweth, Solly George and Jessy Paul (2018) : ―Study on use
of plastic waste in road construction‖

29.Huda Shafiq and Anzar Hamid (2018) : ―Plastic Roads: A Recent

Advancement in Waste Management‖.

90