Eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes:

1. DNA found in nucleus as multiple chromosomes

separated from the cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane.
2. DNA associated with histones.
3. They have organelles e.g., chloroplast and
mitochondria.
4. Cell walls are chemically simple.
5. Cell division by mitosis.

When the glycocalyx helps cells in a biofilm formation

then it is called extracellular polymeric substance (EPS).
Functions for EPS: protects bacteria against dehydration
and sometimes is used as a source of nutrients (sugars) in
low energy environments.

Flagella:
A. Bacteria lacking flagella are called (atrichous)
Flagella arrangements:
B. Peritrichous (distributed over the entire cell)
C. Polar (at one or both poles):
C-1. Monotrichous (single flagellum at one pole)
C-2. Lophotrichous (tuft of flagella at one pole)
C-3. Amphitrichous (flagella at both poles of the cell)
The protein of flagella is called flagellin (globular
protein).
Flagellum has three basic parts:
1. Filament: the long outermost region (made of
flagellin which is arranged in helical structure around
a hollow core.
2. Hook: made of a different protein.
3. Basal body: anchors the flagellum to the cell wall and
plasma membrane (composed of central rod
structure inserted into series of rings).
In gram negative bacteria (two pairs of rings)
1. Outer pair of rings anchored to cell wall
(peptidoglycan and outer membrane).
2. Inner pair of rings anchored to cytoplasmic
membrane.
In gram positive bacteria (one pair of rings)
Anchored to cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane.
Prokaryotic flagellum rotation is either clockwise or
counter clockwise, while for Eukaryotes it’s a wavelike
motion
Flagella motility:
1. Run “swim” and tumbles
2. Swarm across a solid culture medium

The flagellar protein H antigen is used to distinguish

different serovars. e.g., There are 50 different H antigen
for E. coli (O157:H7)

Axial filaments (endoflagella): in spirochetes (spiral

movement
Fimbriae and pili: Mostly found in Gram -ve bacteria
Pili used for motility and DNA transfer: twitching motility
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli + gliding in
myxobacteria (used for environments with low water)
Protein making the pili is called pilin
Main differences between gram positive and gram-
negative cell walls:
For gram positive cell wall main features:
1. Thick peptidoglycan, containing two types of teichoic
acids: wall teichoic acid and lipotheichoic acid, both
are negatively charged due to their phosphoate
groups. Teichoic acids are composed of: phosphate
group + alcohol (glycerol or ribitol)
2. The periplasmic space consists of only one larger or
its absent (G+ve bacteria)

In gram negative bacteria cell wall main features:

1. Thin peptidoglycan (or murein) layer.
2. No teichoic acids
The periplasmic space maintains the murein layer inside
its structure. The periplasmic space function: contains
degradative enzymes & transport proteins.
3. Cell walls of gram negative bacteria have outer
membranes, which consists of four main structures:
a. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS): composed of Lipid A,
core polysaccharides, O-polysaccharides (O
antigen)
 b. Lipoproteins (LPP): helps in supporting the
structure of the outer membrane.
c. Phospholipids: adds to the negative charge of
cell wall in G-ve bacteria
d. Porins: allow passage of nucleotides,
disaccharides, peptide, amino acids and vitamin
B12. But will restrict passage of antibiotics e.g.,
penicillin
Cell walls and Gram stain:
Some Gram positive bacteria will stain as Gram negative
bacteria (these are called Gram variable e.g., when
cultures of Bacillus & Clostridium ages)
Damage to cell wall:
In Gram positive (complete removal of C.W) forms
protoplast
In Gram negative (incomplete removal of C.W produces
spheroplast), this is due to presence of outer membrane.
In Proteus they swell and become irregularly shape cells
(called L forms Named after Lister Institute)
Cytoplasmic membrane proteins:
1. Enzymatic reactions for energy production:
A. Cellular respiration (ATP production)
B. Photosynthesis (carbohydrate production)
2. DNA replication and cell division
Ribosomes:
In Prokaryotic cells: 70S (30S and 50S)
The 30S is target for streptomycin and gentamicin,
while the 50S is target for erythromycin and
chloramphenicol
In Eukaryotic: 80S (40S and 60S)
The size of the ribosomes in prokaryotic cells is smaller
than their counterparts in Eukaryotic cells.
Endospores: Found only in Gram’s positive bacteria
(Clostridium and Bacillus). The only few exceptions,
one Gram negative bacteria Coxiella burnetii forms
endospore-like structures.
Endospores are used in classification:
1. Terminal
2. Subterminal
3. Central
4. Lateral