B io Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 222

Coenzymes
This Factsheet summarises the role of coenzymes in photosynthesis and respiration and illustrates the types of exam questions which
feature coenzymes.
Coenzymes are small, organic, non-protein molecules that carry e.g. electrons and protons between enzymes. They are a type of cofactor
– a substance that is necessary for an enzyme-controlled reaction to take place.

They often bind to the enzyme’s active site just before, or at the same time as the substrate. By carrying essential substances between
enzymes, coenzymes are important in linking together many separate enzymatic reactions e.g. in metabolic processes such as respiration.

Coenzymes in photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages which occur in different parts of the chloroplast: the Light-Dependent Reactions (LDR) occur in the
thylakoid membranes (grana) the Light-Independent Reactions (LIR) occur in the stroma (Fig 1).

Fig 1. LDR and LIR

The LDR occurs in the grana

Products: Oxygen, ATP, reduced NADP.

CO2 diffuses in

O2 diffuses out
one grana (stack of disk-like
thylakoids)

sugars diffuse out

Light Independent Reaction occurs in the stroma

Starch stored temporarily in starch grain Products; sugar - which can be converted into fats, amino acids etc.

The coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP) links these two sets of reactions together, as follows:
In the LDR:
1. Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy. Electrons within the
chlorophyll become excited and are emitted
2. The excited electrons are passed along a series of carriers on
the thylakoid membranes and some of their energy is used to
create ATP
3. Water molecules are split using light energy (photolysis). This
releases hydrogen ions (protons) and oxygen gas
4. The hydrogen ions and some of the electrons are picked up by
the coenzyme NADP, which is thus reduced
The three products of the LDR are oxygen , ATP, and reduced NADP.
Both the ATP and the reduced NADP are crucial for the second
stage, the LIR.
In the LIR:
1. Carbon dioxide combines with the 5C sugar ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP) to form two molecules of glycerate- 3-
phosphate (GP)
2. The GP is reduced to glyceraldehyde phosphate (GALP) using
the reduced NADP and the ATP formed in the LDR
3. Some of the GALP is used to resynthesise RuBP and some is
used to synthesise sugars, fatty acids and proteins that the
plant requires

Remember: a substance is reduced if it gains hydrogen ions or Summary: The coenzyme NADP carries electrons and hydrogen
electrons or loses oxygen ions from the LDR (thylakoid membranes) to the stroma, where
the LIR creates organic compounds needed by the plant (and
the animal kingdom !)

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Coenzymes in respiration
Just as in photosynthesis, the process of respiration involves a series of reactions that occur in different places. Glycolysis occurs in the
cell cytoplasm, Krebs Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and electron transport occurs on the crista (Fig.2)

Fig 2. The structure of a mitochondrion

Cut-away view Longitudinal section

inner membrane outer O2 and pyruvic
membrane acid diffuse in inner membrane
crista
crista
granules (70S ribosomes or phosphate granules)

outer membrane

CO2 and ATP

diffuse out

matrix
Link reaction, Krebs cycle
occur in the matrix
stalked particles on the walls of the crista
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in spherical ends
of stalked particles
Electron transport chain occurs in bases of stalked
particles

Just as in photosynthesis, these spatially-separated reactions are

linked by coenzymes that transfer substrates from one region to In the Krebs cycle
another. 1. The acetate is offloaded from acetyl coenzyme A and combines
with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C)
In Glycolysis 2. In a series of reactions, both hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide
Glucose is converted into pyruvate, as follows
are removed from the citrate and other intermediates
1. Glucose is phosphorylated using ATP, which makes the glucose
more reactive 3. The hydrogen atoms are passed to the coenzymes NAD and
2. Each glucose molecule is converted into triose phosphate FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide), which are thus reduced
3. Two hydrogen atoms and two electrons are removed from each
4. ATP is produced
TP. This requires a dehydrogenase enzyme and this enzyme
requires the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide to 5. Oxaloacetate is eventually regenerated, ready to react with more
accept the hydrogen atoms. Two molecules of NAD are thus acetate from acetyl coenzyme A
reduced
4. Glycolysis has a net yield of 2ATP
Fig 3 Krebs cycle
2ATP used 2NAD 4ATP
2H+ 2PA (3C)
Glucose HB (6C) 2TP (3C) 2PA (3C) NAD+
CO2 NADH
HB = Hexose bisphophate AcCoA (2C)
TP = Triose phosphate
PA = Pyruvic acid CoA

The pyruvate is transported across the membranes of the citrate (6C)

mitochondria into the matrix. It then enters the Link Reaction. Oxaloacetate (4C)

In the Link Reaction

CO2
1. Both hydrogen and carbon dioxide are removed from the pyruvate ADP+iP
to form acetate (using dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes)
2. The hydrogen atoms are passed to the coenzyme NAD 2H
3. The acetate is passed to coenzyme A and forms acetyl coenzyme A ATP
NAD/FAD
The function of coenzyme A is to carry the acetate into the Krebs
cycle.

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The reduced coenzymes NAD and FAD carry electrons to the fold in the inner mitochondrial membrane (christae). This is where the
electron transport chain occurs.

Fig 4. Structure of inner membrane

Cofactor

Proton channel

matrix ATP Synthase

enzyme

inner mitochondrial
membrane

intermembrane
space

outer membrane

Fig 5 Electron transport chain

(4e- + 4H+ + O2 → 2H2O) ATP synthase

6 2H O
NAD 2 5
O2 ATP
matrix 2H from Krebs Cycle
O2
Reduced 2H - 2H+ 2H+ 2H+
2H 1 ADP + P
NAD 4e -
2e -
FAD 2e -

2e - 2e - 2e -
inner 2e - 2
mitochondrial
membrane 2e - 2e - 2e -

3 3 3 4
H+ H+ H+
intermembrane space

1. The hydrogen atoms on the reduced NAD are split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-)
2. The electrons are passed a long a series of carriers (reoxidising the coenzyme)
3. Energy is released from the electrons and is used by coenzymes to pump protons across the intermembrane space, creating a proton
gradient
4. Protons are able to diffuse back across the inner membrane via ion channels
5. These channels contain the enzyme ATP synthase which generates ATP from ADP and P
6. Finally, the electrons and hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form water
Summary
Coenzyme What it does
NAD Accepts hydrogen atoms and electrons in e.g. glycolysis, the Link reaction and Krebs cycle
FAD Carries electrons into the electron transfer chain
Coenzyme A Carries acetate into the Krebs cycle

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Practice Questions
1. Coenzymes are vital in both photosynthesis and respiration.Complete the table (6)

Process

Photosynthesis Respiration

Coenzyme NADP NAD

Stage of process in which the coenzyme is reduced Glycolysis/Link Reaction/Krebs cycle

Region of organelle in which the coenzyme is reduced

Stage of process in which the coenzyme is oxidised Light Independent Reaction

Region of organelle process in which the coenzyme is

oxidised

2. Coenzymes may link metabolic processes that occur in different parts of a cell i.e they allow cell compartmentalization. What are the
advantages of cell compartmentalization? (2)

3. Explain why oxygen is needed for the production of ATP on the cristae of the mitochondrion.

forms H2O / accepts H+ from reduced NAD/FAD / oxidises reduced NAD/FAD;

electrons cannot be passed along electron transport chain if no O2 to accept them;
oxygen is terminal electron acceptor / accepts electrons from electron transport chain;
3. ATP formed as electrons pass along transport chain;

Faster/more efficient reactions;

Allows enzymes and substrates to be concentrated;
e.g. different pH;
2. Allows different reactions to occur in optimal conditions;

oxidised
Cristae Stroma Region of organelle process in which the coenzyme is

Electron Transport Chain Light independent Reaction Stage of process in which the coenzyme is oxidised

Matrix Thylakoids Region of organelle in which the coenzyme is reduced

Glycolysis/Link Reaction/Krebs cycle Light Dependent Reaction Stage of process in which the coenzyme is reduced

NAD NADP Coenzyme

Respiration Photosynthesis

Process
1.
Answers

Acknowledgements:
This Factsheet was researched and written by Ron Pickering & Kevin Byrne
Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.
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any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136