STATES OF MATTER Particles (Atoms, molectes ieni) Everything 0 made of patiles. Thee particles are ‘not (cee to move 0 solid (oun Wut move fverly moliquid or gas forms As they move they Collide with each other and boone of fim all diections They show « Fandom motion Diffusion Net movement of prticles: [high conceaty Pract soe) —Jlow encerhatioa) Look ot diffusion experiment = Atoms: Atom is the smallest particle of a sbstence thet cannot brent aheerrt Further by chemical reactions. — Meleccles: Holeales gre the pactiles thet consist of tuo or more atoms joined Yogethe — Lens: tons are the particles that consst of atoms or giops of otams that Carry ao charge Properties of stetes of meter Solids Liguids Gases Va Fixed shop € = Dees not have find [1 Doo net hava o fired hope bY take the [Shape shepe of the containe” ~~ rT 2-Fined volume, 2- Fined volume 2-Doel not have « fixed Vol-me becowe it spreads ont fo fill tt Con bainn See pee eeEee Seeed 3- Particles do net — [3- Partita move aond Move avovad oad or [and side past ecch othe Sireaged in a freed [The Fettein ctled lat tice aaa 3- Parties nove acoudd and aie not close to ech Jother, They collide with, 7% exh ether ond bovnce of f in a direction: eee cee + There's no fore holding then together. PeWcles ae clo bet nat tka in “Lattice Ue-Pordites ave strongl asechngly held. togethe: Weld together Pee ee Be | log be Particles ave weeklyHelting Boiling Leaa] Deposition H State of matter con be changed by heebing ov cooling matter Hel tin eee 5 ys oidantng (log Boilin yea, Freeing deci S.Mination esting De pettan Lely Evaperating Some particles in a liquid have more energy than ethers Fren vell below the boiling point, some have enough energy to eeaye and form a gas This i called evaporation. Ut is why pdles af cain diy up in the son A Fowcos belveen patil in a rbstance deleming her much heck eneigy 1s eS bo Change state. the Stronger the forces, the more energy is needed 1 overcome them. Sa the higher the meliiny and boil tag points will bee soe Heating Cue A gregh showing how the tempeatere of o icbstance changes on heating, while if goes from solid te kequid fo gas a 3 Vexpeatere('6) a © Time (minctea) Gas Pressure Parkicles tm gases collide with each other and they also hat other matter exertin presue en them % > The presvee depends on the Hemperatve of the gas and the vol-me it Jakes A pute sbstance has o definite melting ant boiling point and there ave vnigre for each sebotance — When @ ibstance contains an ompority 5 oats melting PIF falls and boiling Point rises fo The mere im pecity tH melts and bec eves a renge of bemperaties nob sharply ar Lael Methods of Seperation Hethod of Seperation Use te seperate 0 solid Grim! a igeid crystellisation exageration & solvte from ily seldion © sdete from its sole Simple dirfillatien eo solvent fr fractional distillation (a Lager hice logeeph Chromatography This methed can be wed fo seperate a mixhre of svbstantey. Hen alo be vsed 4 identify Srbshences . liquids from exch other diffeent sbutences fiom @ ssl tion ==> A minke of sbstancey bf diuscled rm este solent and let to Veavel ove: the foper at different speeds, getting vepesaled (com each other HThe moe sol-ble @ sbrtance is in the solvent the ferther it GAL travel ve the chrometogcephy paper ae (iste spots need to be identifies hy wing 0 locaking agert such, as ainhydein, RK valve is then calelaes b: using the forma: Re valves distance moved by wmine acidy a Mstance moved by solvent the CF velse of « compread sa eleagt the some for « gee iseleenl, cnr the seme conditions. Thee fire, Rf veleas con be wed te etn the differnt sbstances in @ mnixhoe : ei < Karns eye cidATOMS ond ELEMENTS ri ga ee fee eee Neutron 1 unit 0 (neviea) : [electron almost nothing 1- Pecton number: The number of protons in an adom is called its proton Number, You can identify an atom by the number of protons in it. Proton umber is also called atomic number Nucleon number: Protons and nevtrons form the aveleus, so are called Mwcleans, The total number of protons and neutrons in atom is called its nucleon number, Nucleon number is aio called mass number. nucleon, rnb symbol 10 Elemen est @ Hydeogen = 1H @ Helin He @ Lithiven = Bhi © Berghivm —1Be © Boren —"B ©Coben—3e @ Natvegen—WN @ Oayyen~4O ts @ Florine =F Morin er Neon -*Ne Argon ~Mhe @ Sotism—PNa Drain PK © Masnes-m Hy @) Civ CO” B Aluminio Al @ shreom 5: Sect : ©) Phosphores SP ‘8 XK Note: Every atom has an protons and electrons. So atoms have ne overa\! charge. Saf 2S\sotage> Isotopes are the atoms of the same element, with different number of nectrons. > Some isotopes ave radioactive and others ave Non-radioactive. Radioaclive aofopes (sadioisotepesl: They are unstable atoms that break down, giving out radiation. Carbon- 1h UC is a rabisiset ope. Geiboa Ae P are roncnadicactives Gapbene sa nating we of mdionel e Sip) treat cancer! Alfovgh radioisotopes cavse radiation sickness, they are usebin cadtotherphy te cure Cancer becavse the gamma rays in radiation Vill cancer cells more readily than healthy cells. Cobalt 60 ts usually used for Hie > To check for leaks: Engineers can check of! and g pipe for leaks by adling radioisotopes te the ail or gas If a Geiger counter detects tadiation ovtride the pipe ,it means there ts « leak. Electron orrangement Electrons are avcanged in shells around the nucleus. The fist shell, closest to the nucleus, is the lowest energy level. — The further a shell is from the nveleus, the higher the energy leel. —STthe first shell can held only 2 electrons. > The second shell can hold 8 electrons. > The thicd shell can held 18 electrens. Bt it fills vp to 8. The next 2 Je tobe the fouth shell. Then the rest of the third shell fills. 7 SMI) BpB 2) Y, 8 18 a8 | 2 ory | 4 Col civen SHrontivesRorerns in Nhe Periodic Table The period number tel you hee many shells there ave. SAIL the clement» in a grovp have the same number of valency electrons. Fe" and Fe* rope ty. Copper > Co" ond Co om + But" some traniition metals form only one type of ion. T : Silver —> Rah Dine > 2,2 Comgovnd 2 NH, > the ommeonivm ton) OH >the hydroxide to» | wo; >the niteate ten | SOY > the svlfle tum > the carbonele ton | HCO; -9 the hydrogen i | Carbonate’ ionTne Covshent Bard The covalent bend ts the bond formed when two atoms shee electrons >A single covalent ts formed when atoms chee two electrons. — A dovble covalent frond is formed when atoms share four electrons. >A Hiigle covalent bend ts formed when atoms share six elecvons. Polecde® —— A molecle is a group of atoms held together by covalnt bondu. iodine, I, oxygen, O, nitrogen, Ny chletne Cl, avlfue, Sp phosphors, Feimation of single covelent bands Hydroge (H,) | Hyteegea chlonide (HC) | Methene (CH,) ae aoe a H-n Chlocine (A) |) Water i 7 Ik Teteahedral i cia Aagulac_rsle Oo H Fay Pid ae 7 Formotion of more compler ‘covalent strectwes Ethene (CH) Nitregen (Ne) Methanel few, on) New Anmonia (NH) Cerbon diexi de ( C0,) - i : \ # ae K Unear molecle \ H O=C=0Giant Covalent Strectwres Giant Covalent Stvclvres enond ee Diamond is made, of, carbon atoms, held in a strong lattice. A cwben Atom bends to fowr others. Each ovter atom then bonds to three More and so on. ~ Prope ties: A It ts very hard, becase each atom is held in place by fow strony covalent bonds. 2 For the same reason tt has a very high melting peint. 3- Vb cast condvet elect tor carey the charge. ~ Uses. = Ta tools for deilling and evtin B- for eveley _ 7 mabe Geoghite Geaphite is made of carbon atoms toe. |, forms covalent bends to three others. ~ Reoperties: A Vis soft ond slippery: That is becavse the sheets can slide over each ity becwie there arene lons or free elections n graphite, each carbon atom other easil 2-14 is a goed conductor of electicity. That is becavse each cabon atom ha avr oeter electrons, but forms only three bonds. So the a4 ton | ‘ 3 oo + free to meve thvowgh the graphite, cartying ~ Uses A- Asa lubricent for eagines and locks B- For percil ¢- «electrodes, and connecting bruches ia generators Slew ccewes netvealy os quarts, the main mineral tn sand, Each silveen atom bonds covalently to form silica Ve +, = Properties 4- Hovd. can seeateh things ser oxygen Bom. In Sand pay er 2- Hard Vets ght Avewgh — /B-for making glarr and lenges B- High melting petrt \c- in bricks for lining, furnacesCondel tity | (electrical) Steeture Bonds Solu bilit ia ‘olotilit Y | | I | Bost lonic | Strong Soluble ane fies . en melted | Conpoin | or dissolved | + leat | Lew MP and | Do not (BSH | Weal [tae | eg Pt [Deak Compound | | 7 | | 7 . ; iant * p | Graphite [Gert | Strong” | Lasoleble ae Seana Sdevetore | | | the others el | Wetsllic Bonding Metallic bonding is the strong attraction between a sea of delecaliaed tlectrens and politve metal fons, > Metals are giant stuchres of atoms These are Orranged in a regelar lattice strectere. The oer electrons of the met atoms seperate from we atoms and create a “seq of electron’. These electrms are delocalized and are free to move through the Strveture. The mebel atoms become petitive athactd to the sea metallic bonding. Explanation for some of the Vey progeties of mehaly 5p ati malleable and dvctile. This 15 becwse the layes of tom tn metallic beading can shde over each other. The lagers can slide withert breaking the metallic bond, eease the elections ore free to move +00, @Meras we good condvctars of cleuicity. That ts) because the free electrons con, move Fheough the lattice Carrying charge, when o voltage t applied across the metal. 9! 4 q fe charged Tons ond ave of electrons. This strong attraction is calledNG MASSES AND CHE Thee are some evles: A Equations + When the compornd contains metel and a non-metal: ~ the name of the metal ix given fixst ~ dnd then the name of the non-metal, bet ending with -ide 2G sodium chlovide "When the compand is made of two non-metale: ~ if one is hydrogen, that ts named fiest ~ otherwise the” wae with the lower grovp number comes first — and then the name of the other non-metal, nding with ~ide 2g yleogen chlaride, carbon dtoride Weiting formlae vsing valences A- Weite down the valencies of the two elements. 2- Write down thei, symbols, in the same order as the elements in the name. 3 Rds pembes after"the symbols if yew need to, to balance valenctes, Equations for chemies reeons ¥ corbon coher ene ==> word eg ration ceactan's [reagents product C+ 0, > CO, ==> symbol equation Qe the lett | On the eight 1 cabon atom | 1 caber atom QZ oxygen atoss, [2 oxygen ohms K Stole syrbals shold be added: (s) > solid GV gu (i) ~> ligue (aa! ~oagucos Cyt o, — 40, 9) (5)K To wile the eget fore renchion s 4 Wiite the equation in words 2 Waite i using cymbele, D- Balance the equation if unbalanced Le- Add the state symbols Relative atomic a 2 The average mass o of an element, i iahopes relative to the mass atom of carbene 12. pierce / A, = (one am inte * ‘ : [= om Reletive moleccler mass (He). The svn of the relative atomic mmugte of atoms present in a moleccle, Relative formela mass (Hi) will be used for tenie attics oF AK An ion has the same maw asthe. oom fon which ( Since, ane electors) lout oe ae re figs mas. Two \aws of chemisley If ye knw the ache amosnts of hve seibanas that reed, yor en: epeedict other amounts that will reach + say how mck K peer will fom — jut need te remember these ton lous of. lcnty ( A= Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given Compound. | 2 The tote mou does act change, during a chemical rerction. \ So total may of restarts = total mass of productsUSING MOLES The Mele and Avogatre Contant M A mole of a substance is the amount thet tontains the Same number of vaits as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams of carbon~ 12. The Avoysdo Comlant The number of particles ia one mele of an Clement or compond; it is 602010" peas from _equeon (Rosie os ae on for a reaction you can tell: From the equ shew any emeles of each sobrtawe take pat ro. of mala) = Fras (m) Show many grams of each substance take part Mole’ Nas (MH) Bane Cut Sey ny 1 mole of carbon | 4] 1 mle of oxygen | — J 1 mele of carbon atoms moleccles dionide moleccley ) [ps of cohen | * [22 5 of orygen] —> [fg of cohen dow “J (FR The ole) mas dees nob changss dving & chemieal cen iD ‘ ; Reoctions involving Jase? (Reacting vole Avogadro's Low A male of every gas occpies the same volime, at the same temperatvee and piessure. At coom temperswe and preuwe (rtp), this voleme iy Lh dad, Molar Woleme The volume occupied by t male of a qas is called ity molar valume, The moby volome of a gus is 24 de® at ctp. [ome at ctp (art) = no of moles x 24 i | Nee ae pee ee % Fram the equation for a eeaction, you can fell how ges take part. Then you can we Avogadro's Law to many moles of work out its volume.: atcatiand of sole tions) o solution (Reacting conce “he Conmentration of o solution \Rescting toneiin of ne The concentration ef a solution th the amount of solvte, in grame or emeles, that ts dtasolved in 1 dm” of seletion . Unit of concentiation ts. mel/dm' which ts often shortened to M. ere amount of solte (mel) Volume of tsleion (dn) Maa" Concentration (tmol/dq?) = Od deds 4 lite = 1000 em «= 1000 ml + AL hese mean the! same thing : > moles per de” > mel [dm mol dea? moles per lire OK For = ust canmange the. formes a ‘ag the amevat of soled in a solution: tamont of sel-te (mel) = Concentration (mol/y,?) X velume (dm’) ~ Make sure thad velume is in litres or dent ash sateen semantic ae Em gic orm ae “The empirical fomela shows the simplest caft@ in uhich otems combine. — IE yor know what massa combine, you cor werk ovt the formela. Shows Find the masses that Combine (im gears) by experiment Change grams to cnoles of otoms This tells 4p the ratte in which atoms Se you content & fermule CombingFarnsclae, “The molester formula shows the aclval numbers of atoms that Combine to form a moleccle HThe formla of on tonic compound ty the came as ite empisical formela Steps —To find the melewlar formela for an unknown compound, you need te know these: sthe relative moleclo mess: This can be found wsing a mas spechomeder. + 14s empirical formela: This 1s found by experiment. + CES empirical mass: This ts the may calelabed ostag the tmmpirical formula and A, valves ~ Coleelate Me for the compovnd: This gives « number, a feenpistcl mass — Melly. the aumbers in the empirical formla by a. / Nie\d ~~ The amovet of a product obtained in 0 reaction (the steal amevni) ie yields ield = octal may obi 1007: 7 yield ST akeal mess toor | Ce cess of t6e pure, piebeal cpilly ob aapriec: ai Bowe Pete Be « {007 mass of the import product obtainedREDOX REACTIONS Onidotions Oxygen 's gained. £9; magnesivm + oxygen —> Magnesium ovide Hagnaivm has been oxidised IMy iy * Ong, —> 2M90 b ee () Reduction: Oxygen it leat. ean Coppe [D) ovide ha -been reduced + coppe” (T)oxide + hydiog tn —> copper + ont CeO. Ba Cua Cuqy FH.Oyy Oxidation gad redvetion always take place together. We call these feections as Redox Reactions. : A Electron Teas {e | Oxidation : Laing electrons Redvetion: Gaining elechoa! AK Half- equations ace written to show the election transfer | Eg. Write the half -equations for the equaltens 2N . deat O Gy) aa) M90, Oxidation half-ceaction: Mg = 2e-> Mg" Reduction halt- reaction 0, ¢ hemo 29% Redor ard Onidetion Stebe Oxidation state tells yor how many electrons each alom of an element gaieed, lost, or shared, in Toming & Compond . UR Ocidativn States ave shoun in Roman nvmeallr Neat of the Heme the oxidation of element equal fo their vilency. % Tramitien elements have varidble valency (excepts In and by) Element IE Sometime oxidation | State needs to bi | *IE ond | caledated pccrpes | SE aa oT mangorse | ¥HL, ID, ond YUE anise dveemiive =| #0 ond “UD Ondet ion: lncreate in oxidation Reduction Desrense in widation state State I \€ oxidation JMO change deny a reaction, it ts a redew reacted -Oxdising and Redveing Agents 1 agent (oxidan’) oxidises another substance and ts itself cedwed. > A caductng agent (sedutani) reduces another sbrtance and is thelf axidised. Sion Dxidising Ageatr @ Fotessivm manganabe (vir) Facmwla: KNeO, Colow chanye and reason: Mae iy cedectin Nee mananate (vit) ion. manganese. (I!) ton (purple) (colow less) @ Potesiem dveheomele (vz) Foumle. KyCr, Op : Celovr change and censenr C6047 teen > 9," J Cay) (a) dithcomate (VI) ion chroctive (0) te0 (orange) (grees) @ Poassivm iodide Forme: KI sees Colew change ond reson: 2 (ay) =— I. (ay) Cred -browa) (colevsless) i "AA summery of Redox Resctions Oxidation ( Redciion "ses eager * gaining electrons + gaining oxygen slosing electrons + Uncreasing tn | + deccessing tn Oxidation state oxidation stateELECTROLYSIS Electeolyis: The process of break through i+ is called electrolyeu- Electrolysis of _melien ‘lead (1) bomide + = down « compoved by passing a cwsent A- Cathode: A negatively chaged electrode B= Anode: & pasitively- charged electrode C- Electrode: A condvetor which condvets. electric chorge into @ quid, ge Or vacwm, or onde the surface of @ sold. D- Eleceslyte: An ionte comparad chuolved in water or melted so that iF condvels electricity. > In the electerlysts of molten lead(t) bromide inert electrodes such Corben ave used. Lead (I) and bromide tone are present. Wher & event ts passed throvgh the electrolyte, the tens move to the opyoritely charged electrode. In this case, Pb which ts the cation Ts attrccled te the cathode and Br” uhich ts the anton ts atiratel fo the anodes PLT gains twe Medons and ave redveed. Be” Jores an electron and is redveed. Lead forms at the cathede. Bromine 4 is given off at the anode + Ae the anode: 2B¢w2E—> Bey > _Onidetion st the aafite: PEM #2e7 > Phy —> Redvction HK Overall, this reaction vs a cedox reaction and this i the overall equation: lead bromide —P lead + bromine Phebe (> Plry + BaryThe Rules fer the Electrol yin _of a salvtion @ At the cathede (-), either a metal_o hyde forms. eThe more reactive “an elernend, the mere et Mikes to exist as ions. So tf & metal is more reactive than hydrogen, ib oar shy in seletion + Bet if the metal rs ley reactive Mhan hydrogen, the metal forms Q@arthe anode (+), a non-metal other than hydrogen forms or fodine + 6-4 if the + If tt ts a concentrated solution of a halide, thea chlorine. bromine, halide solction is dilte, or, there iz 00 halide, oxygen forms. Electrolysts of Brine Brine ts 0 concentrated tabtion of sodium chloride, or commen salt, Draphraga cell ts used in this proce. bee YF > gions 57 chloine —--T4 || nickel a shee! lens present: ot athod = ae 4 — Na’ a anode x Ww ou” i; i sodivm hydioai de soltvon.ovt membrane: lis fenetien is to let Tens thevg but keep the gets pwd + Ab the anode 2 yy E> ch ) ‘ - + At the cathode: WH ap te eRe —> BHer two quer bbble off, Nov ond OH” @ solvlen of sodim hydroxide. Uses of _pradvelss fans ave left behind, giving Chlorine *Wleaches emedical devs * chlerination + Soaps s detergents + dyes Hydeegen + mabing nylon tHe make hydrogen pecoride +05 6 feel in hylrogen {vel cellsElectolysis of copper (it) sulfate selvtion Using inet electrodes (corbin or platinum) At the cathede: 20H t be > 20, > The coppte Coats the electrode. At the andes LOH, > bE > 2H,0,. +0, &) X Blue colow fades. “Ustog_ copper electrodes At the cathode: Cui. t2e°—> Co) > Copper cathode grows larger. Ak the anode: Cy, = 2e"—> Set ances Cur (ay) > The anode dissolves, giving copper tens in solution. Uses *To make Something to look better "To prevent corrosion Elchpishag Eledveplating is comting ont mebt with another, ving eletolyu The set-up to electap = object te be electroplated node — metal X Aecralyle = a soletion of « seluble compound. of X, # Elebiaty Cole: >The cables that carey electicity aromd the combry ae made of alumintem and steels Shel i wed ox the core fou strength and itis covered with aluminiem as it is Wight endo good condseter of electriity. Kt pylons, ceramre discs Support the bove cables. Ste this an inslater, Hee Ceramic prevents the curent from inning dawn the pylon. > Copper is vite for wirtyy, at heme. It ya very good cndecher But Fhe wires are Sheathte in playtic, and pig care ace made of plastee for Safety.ENERGY CHANGES IN REACTIONS During @ chemteal reaction, there 1s always an energy change. Energy is given ot or taken tn. The energy is vsvally in the form of heat Exot reactions Enothermte reactions give ovt energy. Se thee ts « temperate rise. tie be described _as: Thee testo tae te dewited e Eneigy level diegram of erothermic reachions reactants —> products + energy ln exothermic reactions, the prodvets have lower energy than the reactants. Examples of these reactres + the nectrolitabion of acids by alkalis * the combustion of fvels “texfication in ove body cally Endethemic reachons the enegy _ change =~ k3 Endothermic ceactions take in energy from they surroundings. These teachiou can be derided as: Faia ltl tigga Feactants t energy —> products of ‘endol ln endothermic reactions, the provers have hight energy than the reactants. Example of thee reactions rections the energy = +) change “Feackionr hat take place in couking + photosynthesis Woking ond Breaking Bonds “Brestng bonds taker in energy. Haliny bends releves energy, If the energy taken in to breale bends ts less than the enegy released in making bendy the reacHen iv exothermic. + IE the energy taken in to break bends & grester thar the energy celened te making bonds the reaction u enxothemtc. Bond Energies The, enerry need 4s make or break bonds us called the — > Enegy charges The calecletion is always: energy In~ energy ovt bond energy. Exothermte Ende thermreEnergy from Fe TA fuel 14 any sibitance we vse te provide energy The fosil frels ame ~ coal, petrolerm (oil), and aateral gas (methane) ~ are the main fuels vied around the world. We bern them te release heat. We convert the chemteal enecgy ia the fuel inte another form of energy: Uggeeste 9 This ger buens enplovively in oxygen, giving ovt a lot of energy~ Se it ts ysed te feel space rockets. Hts ale wed in Fel cells to Sire energy in the form of electricity. Radioactive isotopes (7° Y) Radioactive is These ase called nuclear fuels. Nuclew fuels ave not buned. The Contain unstable atoms called radsoisetopes. Over time, these break down Maturally into new atems, gietng oct radiation and a lot of enecgy However, tn nvelew Power stations they are sheet with nectront so that they ace forced to breat deun. The energy given ovt ts wed to heat ater, te make pet. an Me . clechitity, TOs OF steam to dives the tubines for gurerating A simple cell constits of tre metals and an electrolyte. The more readive metal is the negative pole of the cell. Electrons flow from it. Wydioger feel cell lo the hydrogen fvel cell, hydrogen and onygen combine wither t buming. Fr o redex reaction: The enegy is given ext as electric currents At the negative pole At the perifive pole Hydrogen loses elections te the The electrons are accepted ley oxygen OW joan Ito oxides. Meleccles: Onygen ty ceded to OM H, ) r 20H ye eae * ia 24, OF) the HOH) “The, fell cegentjon fae tis rebea net tin 2 O, 2H, @ + 6) > 20 Advantages + Only water V foraed: No polltart | sThe reacton gives glaby of enegy + We will nol vom out af hydrogen.le Reactions TA ceachion thet con go beth ways ts called a reverstble reactions. TSI This symbol u used to show a reversible reactions, Ny “yt 3H, y) = ANH 04) Foon bevel Diegcan forward reaction fer back reaction +A reversible reaction is endothermic im one direction, and exothermic in the other. The same amount of energy is transferred each Hime. Ne Reactions od Equilibi-m brie means thre ts ae overall change However, dynamic meant thee ts montinval change. ~Pynemre egvilibrivn: Ognamte egulibiiem is the paint whee forward and back reaction toke glace at the same cate, so there ts no overall change. ln a closed system 0 ceversible reaction reaches a state fynamic equi libriems The fem dynamic equilibrivm is vsvally shortened to egvilibriem. Shifbing the equibbrives Reversible reactions present o challange to indwtry, beease they never comple te. What can be done 2 This idea called Le Chalelier’s principle will help yors + When a cevesible teadion tu ta eguilibtiom ond yor make a change the system acts to oppose the change, and cestore egeilibiicm. A new quilibrin mixture forms. O Charge the temperate olt forward reaction ts exothermnte, invensing temperate will dearease yield SUG forward reaction is entathemic, neteasiny temperstore will increase yreld. © cheage the pressere Tlf thee ae few melelu on the right-hand side of the epratien, Facceoslag Pressure will increase yie’. @ Remove the prodeck When prodvet ts removed, the system will produce more of the prodect to restore the balance. @ Ma a catalyst “A catalyst speeds up the foward ond back reactions egrally.Se the ceachion Feaches eqeilitrrivm faster, which saver you Hime. (Wee este waaay, Change the concentration +6 change in temperate always shitty lace eaying conceaterbion of reactants will [the eguilibrive increase the prodvets formed as the systerr|*® change in pressure will shift egyilibeien Lil oppose only if the number of melecsler & differest ae Non at side of the toleTHE RATE OF A REACTION Chenging, the fale of a reaction (@ fale: Rete rs a menwe of the. a thak happens tn a 3st Gey changing concentration a. ingle watt A ceaction goes foster when the concentration of 0 reactant ts ineseuml This means you can also slow down « ceaction, by redveing concentration. @By changing _fempeabere A reaction gues faster when the temperate ix caised. When the Hempeahwe inereases by 10°C, the rade generally derbies. By chonging seface ove. The rate of a reaction increases when the surface area of a solid reattont is increased- BBy ving catalysts, A colalyst ts a svbstame that speeds up 2 chemical reaction, byt remains chemically vachanged itself: Very high rates of reactions may reyelt in explosions. This poses” o high risk ta: + Flour mills: Flow porticla ove Hay, se flor has a very large suface Grea. Ut cay also catch fire. la a flow mill if there ts a lob oF Flew dust tn the ace, 0 spwk from a machine covld be enevgh te cause an erpleten, *Coal In coal mines, methane (CH,) and other flammable gases collect the ai, At certain concentration, they form an explarive mtx with the ate A spark ty troogh to set off en explasion. Vn order for two substances to react: sthe particles must collide with each other tthe Collisions mut have enovgh energy to be successfel. In other words, enowgh enesy fo break bonds tO alle reahion to ocr ah. BN ge ge art oe cale of a reaction depend on how ming svccessful collisions Vhee ave in a giver vail of time Agr se tote Ae Eethe rate of a ceaction Inceeasing concentration means there ae more pa'tiles. So there fs more chance of a success fel collision The mae svccesfel collisions there are, the faster the react con This also explains why the rate of « reaction deceases as Sime passes. It is becavse afte o dime fever vaveacled atoms ave lef hk 50 there i less cherce of successfel collisions ~Temperature On hecking, all the porticles take in heat energy: So they have « highe: kinetic energy The extra enegy means thet mere collisions we success fel. So the cceachion vate increases A catalyst iv a scbstance thet speeds up @ reection, bet remeins chemically vachanged itself. Enrymes are examples of catalysts. Enzymes Fnaymes oe proleias meade by cells, to ack as biological cad alysbs a or est In condi hie, 4 Farge kb conditions Uke these cn the Kising cele thet TUB the dempecatire gets too high, the cnryme is denatered. I loses WS shape + An enryme also works bet ina specific He The more cal allt alyt you add) the foster the recelion gees > Catalysts lower the activation ene Too sremyle icon used in the many Gy feguived for « ceaclon to occur factere af ammonia * vende (IN) cede Wed in the mancfaclee of sulfsie acdPhetochemies\ Resetions Some chemical reactions obtain the enegy they need fiom light They ove called phetochemicel reactions. A photochemical reaction can be speeded vp by increasing the in leasity of the light This ts dve of atl photochemical seactions. Photoryathers Photosynthesis is the ceaction belween carbon dioride and water, in the presence of chlorophyll and seatignt, To prodwe glucose and oxygen 600, (4) 1 6H,0,, HE BH... 5 60 r 2 Calon diogide — Woter CY Morphy G) onygen glucose 1 CO, is chisined by stomets 1 HL O comes from roots + Chloeghyll is the cobelyst for Ihe reaction + Sunlight provides the ene-gy for Shir endethemic reaction Reactions 0 he pies poatogse iy The film is covered with & coating of get thet contains Ving grains of silver bromide. Light coves this bo bret dova: 2AGBe (> Ag ey * Bra (iy lh both « phobockemseel teaction and o fedox resection Reduction? 2Ag! + 2e—>2Ag [electron gain) Oxidation: 2Be "we —> Bry (electron Lass) > When a photo is taken light enters and steite the film Whee brighter light shites decomperitan is fosler, giving more Silver, Unceaded silver bromide ix then washed ames, leaving clean areas on the film. ‘The sive remain, giving darker evensAcids and Gases Acids and _Alictis anand —S they hove a pt lex than #. — They are soltions of compornds in water or they ave ligetds. > If “concentrated they ean be corrosive —> They taste sour. — They tern blue Viimus red. —7 They contain hydrogen ions — They wwvally ceact with mela to form salts P They tum Universel Indicator fran green to red. Om Hydradblerie acid HONG) b> Nitric acid WN O, a 4) a> Selferors aed, HS0, 4, ~ Carbonic acid, H, CO, €- Sulfete acd, Hy 50, ley) By closer (ook at acids a Be In water, the molecles of acids dissocale into seas. Th Tons. The hydrogen fons give them their geidit Since soon of acids contain Tons, they condect electiicity the bette, the Condvetivity of an acid. the stronger His, In other words, means the stronger the acid is. er ee eee So In soltions of stony acids, all the mole. ey Contain hydregen More ionisation cles become fans Ia gelvors of weak acids, only some do. The higher the concentratism of hydeoyen rons the lower the pd KS lfc acid is one of the strongest ocids as it is diprote. A diprotic aed plodcey more HY isn: shen comparcd with enoprotic. acl which hay “ihe woate. Concent ration: [F,80 0, > 2H] > They have a pH more then F. > They are salible bases > Like’ acids, they can bun the skin. > They tote bitte > They turn red litmus blue. 7 They contain hydroxide tons > They tern Universal Indiedor from green to blve or purple. Some common «ltelis a- Sodium hydiexde, NeOH ag) b- Ammonra, MH, NBO d C-Coleium hydvonide, Ca(OH), (ay)A closer lock at alkalis la water, the moleceles of olkelis dissociate into fons. They contain hydvonde ions. The same is tre of all alkaline Gke cits, since solutions ef alkalis contain ions, they condrct electricity, The betfer the condechivdy of an alkali, the stronger is. In othe weds, more sol-lions Voreation means the stranger the albelé ts So. In soltions of stren la soletions of week alkelis, only some do —~— > The higher the cencenlration of hydioside ions, the higher the rll allelis, all the molecles become ions WF Beomentn tel tia NH. enwch eas than 07 tay +41 OS re Nu ,7 OH i na Gp inte tons Nectral_Sebostence Nectral_ Srlostencs” 9) Liens poger is nok affeded by mevtrel substances. D) Tend to be hemless B) Universel Indicetor stage green £) Have @ ptt of around F Geme Common neAral scbstances? eee o Water, HO bb- Scdium chloide sol-Vion, NaCl (,.) C> Suge sol-tion, COMO (a etor> Ar chemicel that shows by its colour whether a scbstance is acidic ov alkaline Indicates Colewr imacd |Colew in clli lites ced ble [iphenelphthale’n] colowitess | pink methyl crange | ced yellow Usivasel Indicator | ced, ble, pple Vanessa Undteetor aes Se A paper oF Viqeid thet can be vsed to find the pid of o solten: it chenyes Colerr acetps the whole range of pH. It is a minke ef dyes{he Reaction of Acids and Beses Tr picel Aad Reoachons Name of soit Inydochlorre acid —> chlorides slferic acid ——> SHfales nitig aed ——> nilectes a) acid + metal —> salt + hydrogen Se a ed 24 Maun t Ha 50, (a5 ete * hy SFE ae eee a ES H This iso sinde displacement cecetion ta vhich hydrogen ts duplaced by a ) , ecetion tn ydeogen ts dupl aH fone —— eae Seana an cnaee aS NEG ORE ae (b) add + base —> salt + water OS —> M450, ol 44, HCl) + MeOH, | > Natl FR Oy 0.5 Foran acd and insolvble bese HaSOe cay) OO. —™ Cv 5% (5) 1H OG, HR This is a dovble displacement rewhion etweer an acid and a base ina) they get netrelised (0) acid + cecbonate —> Sell + weler + Carbon dlioaide eee er 23 C00, alle 4,0 + 2H — CaCl ) + 9 wy * Crp Typicl Base Reactions Nici Dais, Mesctiees (0) Bases ate involved in nectralisation fenctions. (Lock a type (b) reaction in ait) (GE) met hydroxides + ammonite salts —o salt + weber + ainmnonta =a a3 te 7) Co (oH) “ANH C1 > CaCl WO. + 2N¢, ()! cy *G) eds and Redox Ce Type (2) vecetions are redon reactions. The metal os oxtdised und hydrogen is ve duced. Type (4) actions ave aot berevse there is nochange in the oxcdation state of the reactant.Nectralisatien Reactions —— Oe: Nevtre (sch as alkalis carbonates and metel oxides) vhich prodvees water and a salt. ahon is the reaction of an acid vith nevtraliuers We The ph ef en acid increases towady F * The ett of an alboli decreases towads 7% in ® nertralisetion reaction, in & nedralisalion reaction. 7 One vse of this recction is thet, it redvees acidity in soil Ly Plants die whee ho Exomele Ble ace Hel at Neon yt Mee + 419%) => This is overall reaction Venic equation for the reaclion: Spectator tons Fons that are present in o reaction mintre, but de not octvelly take part in the reaction so Tonic egudion: H* 7 atte epections Hey + OH > HO, See Ovring netralivation, H* | Toms Combine with OW fans to form wale muleecles Ancthec Fnample (for an insakble bese) HCl My. > MgCl 2 (ayy MnO.) =D This 1s overall rese tion lone equation for the resehion + 2H 0 Toms, fhis dime orygen tom we present 1 et Proton Donors and Receptors lq beth cramples above: e the protons a: doneted by the acids sions in the beses accegt them , forming weler molecles FAcds ove grote donors, ond hares are proton acceptors. fo Satna ee ne ELSOvwier Oxides are comgounds containing oryger and another element. Ha & types. 4-Basie_onides Besic_onider Metel onides and hydroxides ae baie oxides since they cor pe-Halise an acid HThe more reactive the metal the more vigororily it veacts Y go gS Fe, O, CuO VW berms vith Ve gles bight | When hesled in a (Formation a biillient hile oracde add Aout them of the ge: cxygen =———. Fleme when hela | ort e she of [its cifce te : bl. ee over a Bunsen Burner F perks ahen plage! per eee inl a ge ja of open Reachivi ty decreesing Hilo general metals recct with oxygen to form besic oxides Boric onides belong to the lager grap of compunds called bees tr Rese, Ses Nen-metel oxides ave acidic oxides. no, so co, 1t bents inte flame | Mt catches five Fiat hecled, ther pleaged nee ead liae ee us ju of obygen, - LEensticn} = and buns vith «| gles by aaa heating blue flame. : aie Pitt ad H lo geners\- mancmatsls cece wilh onyyen te form acidic onides Ae amphoteric oxide will react with bob ecids &s alo, and 2nO (Mumina) (Zine oride) e- Netral onides end bases Nectrel oxides do not react with acids or bases €: Co and NO (acai) fg)Gating vith « mete] metal + acid —> salt + hydrogen Seg for nee Arey t HaSPe py 208, tay He oy The steps Ps Holl ue, Mee te ogid tg oe eae, >It stata 4a disse, and hy dvogen bebbles of f Brbbling stops when o\\ the acid ts osed up 2- Remove excess rine left by filleir 3- Obbein the crystals of the salt by cystellis ation OH This method can be Used for magnesicm, alminivm, 2inc and iron. However, vt cannot be vsed for More ov leas reactive metols BMerting with an inusleble bese insolble base + acid —> solt + water .g for CoS0y Eg for Gs (Oey FH SO, 5, + HO + aq) (os) The steps ~ Aad cope (It) oxide to the eed in o beater tees, the recckion ia flashed. Rbtmeve the exces by filtering 2- When no more 35 Oblein the crystals of CSO, by crystlltsetion Siiailieg, eA pe alk Srace both reatants are bote solble in water and no gas bbbles of f im Where reactions to find ot thel the reaction i: complete a method called Mutrabion is ued sete —_— ~ nding Hoe enact volume of an wet) for valme of alke Titielions A laboratory technique fi foltion thet ill reat with o gi or vite vee © seltien, > This equipment cen be wed for this reaction bette me a —> Natl +H O NoOH,, th ey etl ea H, , 9 BS sreHaving Insoleble Sells boy Precipitation sey ot solts Solvble AAI sobiven, Qoteaasiom end ammeonion selts Insolvble All Chlorides... nitrates silver aad eed chloide. al the: carbonates Procipitalion Nasoleble salts can be made by pespilation Fig Baty The overall aguetion for the rencfied 3 Ma 50, a 2. . Set NY a © SO, iy 1 Nae lonic equation Belt $0 —> B.s0, 7 og 3) The Ste 1 Hebe vp solctiens of bariem chloride and magnenim slfate. D- Min then, A while grecgitebe of baviim slfate forer al once 3 Ter the mintwe. The precpitele ts trapped in the filler paper Rinse the Hb Hi eu plate by conning distilled wales thiogh jt S-then plae 14 ! ques 7 in wom oven to dey, To precipitate an insoleble sold, you muhmixn a seledven thet conta ibs posiive ions with on the contains Hy nesetice ions. + Te meke coloured pigments for paint Te vemere humfel substances disselved in water. s Ve photescephic filer > 2AsBe > 2g (94 Ba 0: wroteon Findin Concentia¥? ons vy Ti Steps Ae Calerlele the avmber of moles wed, 2- From the egution, ford the mole cole of acd to alle 3 Work ot the number moles of A soltion of = Stended lnomn concertrativn Soltion + Aember of moles = concentration x volumeTHE PERIODIC TABLE The pesodic table 1s a way of classifying the clement * UF shows them in oder of ther proton pumber # When avenged bg proten number, the elements show pertodic: elements wit similar prope tie tye oppes at ce gvle intervals. The are areanged in columns (groups). Grove Es The Alls Mele Phusical properties — Good condclos of heat and cleclici hy — They are softer thar other metals. Similar elements — They have lew denity when compared with other metals, — They have low mp and bp compared with most metals ~ They form white compounds Physical trends of fee XK Sof ines AH Denity 7% Melting & increases increases Facats ¢ GR) ta reaction, the gory 1 atoms lose their evter shell electron, 10 gain a Stable ovter shell. The more shells there are. the further the eter election %5 from the Positive nvelas~so the €aste +o lose. And the easter id & $e lose an elechion, the more vendre the metal vill be! When you oven the ee Chemice\ Propertios A) Reoclion with water The albeli metels rect vigorous! with wales Hydrogen bubbles eff, Veasing Soletions of iher hydoxider, which ae alkalis~ tlithivwm floats and fir res Sodiom t water > sodivm Ayloside thy dopey ssodivan shoots acess the water 2) Reaction with oxygen « potanion wells with the heat ae burst ints flame 42 form bese of the ceaction and hydiegen feet Cotche fire HE The allel metal form ionic comperady ig which the metal ion ha a cheye of 44. The Compounds we vbile soli. They d wasalve wale t2 give calovley seltions,Group VEE «The Halegens The clements in this grove ave called halogens They all: # form colowed gases # are povsonovs + Form diatomic molester RL]. £ Colour gets deeper K Deity 2} Bz Fi — a yellow gu inciewes Ca 4 green gu HK Boling. pal Bea ced liquid Ty = @ block solid ain or share an Halogens atoms reat to Ry KK We! OU Readivity election She positive nuclees pike atom ettecs the decreases extia electron. The moce shel thee are the forthe the ote shell is from the pucleus. $0 eMecliag an Clechowm be comes moce diffiell. So teackvty falls Displacement React ions A halogen will displace a les seaclive halogen fiom 6 seltion of is halide. Colour choages ace observed in this reachion £ ‘: Chlorine ger and polwsivm bromide CN a (0g) F PUB (4g) —> WKNagy 1 Be (a) caloviless Orange Grog ©: The Noble Gases Since their atoms already hue a stable © Non-melal ee over electron shell po Uses of noble gee Velivis Wed to {iM belloers and Bishi ps, becawe it much [rgnter than air and will aot catch fire Began: Wied te provide inert abmoaphere for tagslen tght bulbs aad to pickeet metals thet are being welded Neon: Used in advertising signt- MY glows ved bet the colecs cen be changed by mining iF with other gaues- Key plor Used tn loses. Xeasa’ Used am hospital opealing rooms becewe UA giver o Laght Vike bight dogli ght. © Colovcless gases * The atoms incense to sire and ma K The dewity of goo increas K The boiling pera lace stPhysical Properties s herd, deugh and shen y thigh melting por at s malleable and ductile + high densi t + good condhilos of heel ead eleclic Mite ) mD Chemicel_prope-bies a + They ove aavch leas ceecdive then Grevp I fretels . They shor no clew frend in sekclivity , valike Grop T metaly Moat ansi tion elemmls form Calowied compornds- * Transition elements except Ay tnd 2n show variable velency + They can form mare than one comporad vith asother eleneat- Most deensition elemeats con form cempler ions 5 & H Mang fransi tien elements and thew compornds act as golalysts tod Trends across opera’ [Gop | F |w mw fav j Oo Nalenc —_— Cleves | 4 213 7 a Flertgt.. [metal [metal matt [rele [anv tvoenel all hl Oxide is... basic | bare Naleacy [4 2 Nalency: The valeny sf an element 1a the aumbe of elections i atoms lost, gn o shee, Jo form @ compound16 koe wore : pee hos. 04 Fyre D2 sf yalebys dys vous vryyre0s 5°27 Ce es abi —™~ 21499710) “sb aonsey base.” ase y xy mqmp po ose ee EM “ qvied bvy10q po by jaw ub ny anol) Goals Vayisva |x ic | “Saas wt saswayqul AFoaxw) /\ - Hy tt NM oot W 2] 7 y Teevgs7e py a. ae al fe > a 2A} 4>wa IVA Sareas2ap 3 $ \\o ae Soyy +) “Sosoasovs 4] g 2% as) “Sa spaU! “Sasvayou! a 1 H I TY AEN 741) suaboyoy) 242 | soya ray HL ee To dos | £eorMETALS The Physical Properties of Metals | The Chemical Properties of Medals 1° steon 1- They react with onggen to 2- meNecble form enides. 3- detile 2-Medel onides ave hases The y L- songrovs ne-Tralise acids So shiny whee polished jo Metals form positive tons uhen 6- goed condetors of heat end eletiicily (they react Fe high meting afd boiling pecate [#7 Fer the metels in membered gro-p!, the 3. ae i 2 charge on the ton thea he yop ng density Retnber, But transition elements have Variable valency Compecing_metels for_cenctiviby A cecclive clement has 0 strong drive $s beieme a Compound, so that VAs atoms gain stable o-fer shells The reaction of metals with uater Sedivm: 2 Novy + 2H, 1a 2Ne0H C5 +H (s) > Resets violeatly vith cold water chiring over the suefece. Calivons Coc.) 12H 0; Glol), 4.) > Reacts stoves forming @ clordy solrtion Magnan: Hy sy + Hy Oey —> My Oc H* (49 — Nery slow wills cold voter, bet vigorous vith clean [Riko ae dhaplecemen? renctisns The more fecctive melt i oy hgleogen: They J are ale sedon renchion ot mela te wvdued and hyteyen te vee ee The reection of metals vith bytrechloie acid Magoesicn : Hy at Wy —= HyClagy + Meo [tell That ave lew reece then hydregen Cucinel eect alle cules es lage.Ny Pas Bay eAeqD Sy a va’ sup aoqe y}ryy <— Bouya S2PIMO JYeYE B29PId EW Veqw> 22) Spee puo son wor) voborphy 29 = Spe ess — | porate oy Eee eee See eee a eee = oH Zz a verperd ony veypoes ony | Jot + Ee eee Se eS : = 5 Hee Verma ON _ wespee Sh ley im) — $$ _____—__—_§ ~ —+— — - >| voupees ony ee erp) on) al apavarve - mal al 1 aoe er 9) un (De we: ran 01s Cre Mrirgy pv Oy eoppe wt ds Five pve “Ki70)5 ong pee Cay Leena nae 6 n | [OD aay eve Cy] MOIS | M ory pro Ory WrDys 4p Alyy eceeeenia ca tee eae eee ee eel D Vajyuz poo C)y) mays apace) 0% po Oy WPA ES met ung | ml in ia : LL pepe et tte see 7 | z | * * a | * | * i flees a $+" | ™ & 5) a weap 4pm Toba Ky poo © Dy se0s0 Bin Coty pus 4, 4g Zapen pler yin “IF ban Syparroubo yy | = prar oy ee bueR 1s apn ne wen pee ey) Spy Poe eae Paige par ay ne weet To, —_ year of ranbvop Kany Layer py 4 en | enies a a, 6; oe a t =] io errs continp Fay Puan te Oy | canyon py ire etie Boy coreg | eer ab escent si +} Bpnpeig pire seeweaty gis voujz=ay symp Jojom afin vergmeny | sywoway resin atecnaaag: - — —_—___—_+—_____ — a Sawas Alive AHI VWelas in Competition (A) Competing with carbon WHO y+ Spy —> Whey & CO gy >The load hes lest onggen so Ht her Been redeced Corben is the cedveng agent. The reaction s ved Pn 1s more rea ceaction Fhan some motels. will vedvee thet 0) form the metal _—___ [2\cempering with other metals, for eayyen Fe wt CO, > Fe Oey + Cvey —> The iron is acting as a redecing agent removing oxygen FA metal will vedvee the onde of « lens rece Jive metal, The sedekion > yaheeys gives oct heat, as if fs exothermic (3) Competing $0 {arm dont in sollion + CS0,, | —> Feso, x cocking Fagg eg) = (ay) * ey oF cep? on 2 Sime tron hes « strenge: dive te exist ot fons (owe seu), VE has displaced copper (Ml) fram thy Giitn..Tie lear pale green selstion Cheaged ie tt é bie scltion. the el een and coppe wes contet on nail —~—~__~_-_*—_f ———— [ee metal displaces Bb less veaclive metal from solefions locene, The more reactive metel forms pes % SS me ve ions moe readily. —~ Thing Yo eemember alowt the recctvity sere A- The feockivity series is teclly a list of metals in oder of ther dive to Forme Pasitive tons vith stable ote shells. The more ecily 14 atoms can give vp electrons the more reactive the metel ill be - So a metal will react with a compornd of a less ve ecfive metal by Pushing the less reactive metal out ef the com fore ond taking hs place “Gite more reactive the metal fhe more stable its Compoads are They de not Greek domn emily, Pa Dre more feactve the metal, the moe difftecl4 vhs Ores M4 Ao ented from For the most reactive metals texghest_methed of extractisn:/électralynu.) 5 The less rectice the metal, the less it kes do Since Nhese are stable compornds Yor need the form compounds, ‘Thetis chy Peete silver end _gold are foord as elements in the Earth's erst the othe, wodale ae aleays fond as compornds.Thermal Decomposition The brecking dour of @ compound wpor heating 14 called thermal decomposition H The tess ceacline the mutel, the ewter itv to Becempase Ths Com vpen heeting. PE ae eae aero A= The lower « metal is in the react ‘ y sever, The more readily its cempernds decompose when heated. 2- Carbonetes encept Yhore of sodium ond potessivm, decompoe to the onde and cecbon dionide B Wydrentder, except thae ef solic and patesiom, decompore to the onde and water. Nitrate, except there of sodrm and pebessivm decompose te the oxide, , nitrogen dioxide ond oaygen. The nitrates of salir and poteuivm form niteiter and ony gen Poking, vie of the Resell ies (4) Theemite Piecors \ The veden reaction belween tron onde cand aleminiim which proteces melten iron. The malter iron is wsed to cepars ail and trem Vines. [It hardens), Fe. O, (yt 2AL —> Pe ig + MLO, Uy m0) (2) Simple Cols A simple Cell consists of Heo metals and an electrolyte. The more reactive metal is the negslve pole Of the “cell. Electrons flow fromit. Electricity is bern: Generated dee to the Curent of electrons " 7 the fother aped the metals are in reac highs the voltage be ty, the Allowing one mets| to correde in order to prefeat another metel is celled sauificin’ qrolection. ln’ ender to prevent the oxidation of tren, it is cocled with rine. Zinc a move reactive Deny HE Pet (owdalzand 7 > 22 pyt Ox, 44,0 > 225 (oH). Oncyt hE 20,0() > LOH), | (ede ctisn) ae > (©) Gedvarising = Contin of iron or Heel wilh ainc 42 beep ai and meulue ancy 14 called Jelvanising JS Wrmniom is self prolected by ferminy ala otide proltels Cather are Tha, formed alone dation of aleminMAKING USE OF METALS The Compettros of the Faith's Gut Onygen — EST Von 6 7 Nole thets Onggen and silicon v9 : —— Silteen, ~ 27 ernie ie Cavally occ Fagether in cn porads Alveinicm = 87 Magnestvm- 3 1 Such as silica Veto) Ores @Reek salt- sodivm chloride —> for sediven *® Bowrite = aleminivm oxide —> for aleminivan ® Hematite — iron(II) onde —> for iron *®© Zine blende — 280 sulfide —> for Extraction of Hele\s Extraction ot The main ore of alemintum is bavxile which is alumine mixed With imperties- The ore is then p-rifted centbing in pure white alvmina. The neet stage is electrolass 1 Gince alumina hat o ver high melliag point, i} cenmot be wed in ily molten form. (1 ss sather diseleed in a solvent culled ery olite (Nay ALF) which Nowers the melting point. The electralysis tank a is made of graphile. Ab the ancde oxygen forms whereas at the eajhede pore mollen alominiem forms AY the cathede Att anode AI43eS AV (redvction) 20° be O, (oxidation) The ovalt fection LALO, (> bAeg + 30,5 Serer are tnnneseseenvdlseeeersnaeet Ron %K In these het Condi ttens, the oryser formed at the anode reacts with raphite te form carbon dioride And thee electredes even teal The grphite grad-slly wears aray j hae fo be replaced —# Lropaities of aleminion = Silver shiny metal — Was ao low density — ik ts Light — grad condsctor of heat and elect: — malledble and detile — resisG corcesian ~ Mads stronger by ming with othe mets to form alla = generally pan terre ys@ Extracting iron Afler the ove hemetile is mined and brought to the pleat, blat venace Gs used te extract iron, A mixture ef called the charge charge is added to the top of the furnace. Charge ——> Iron are Hematite ~ Fe, O, Limestone ~ Celem carboncle - CaCO, Coke — Coal- almat pure carbon The reactions in the blast frnace Stage 1+ The cube burns, giving off heat Coy +0,,.—> CO, ST This 1s a re den cenction. Carbon is oxidised The blast of ic provides the oxygen. The Yeachion i> exothermic which hele the heat the fernace *¢@) Stage 22 Corben reanonide is & => Thir is a redon ceaction. Carbon dionide is cedveed wt > 20.) The ceactian is endothermic. The! good because shage 3 needs « love tomperatre Stage 3 : The iver ft onide is reduced. Fe,0, Hy The whee the acheal ertrorhion oy # BOO, FP TFeyy + 3CO¢, eceert. Carbon moneride ts the Fedecng agent chrch peictuce. Oates 3 icon (DD) onide a ee ee race at ee AK The limestone brecks doun in the heal of the f. CaLO, > CO, +C0, nace: 79 *(a) The caleivm oxide thet forms ceact vith send: La0,54 S10, > CSD, The calerm silicate é- dhe iren dui ldany. erms & slag which nas down the fringe and floss on Ui then drained of f. When it solidifies it sv old matly fer road K The waste goes get o-t fiom the top of the Arnace Na co,6 Estreching ine Vts ore zine blende s+ mainly aine sulfide This ty redvced in two different ways after being coasted in airs O- Using cerbon monenide Zn Op, + CO > Ime COney gh ee K The finel mixture contains inc and a sleg of im The 2ine seperated by fractional distillation, Sa ee aor aC be Using _cledralyss Exteaction by means of Us theefore prefered The electrolyte is forms at the cethede. en Cay) f2EH2n ey Csodeetion) LIM Sey+ 30, (2200+ 206) cletialysic gives tine of vey high potty end rine slfate and after wndecgeing electrolysis une tA mixhkre where at leat one otter sebstance v added to 0 metal, to A\\og> “improve it properties. wef Metal | iad ¥en... Properties chat make it suibable (Piet. a ee pon. idiael ini ovehead elechicity cable |9 goed candsctor of clectucity, deeble [oluminceen nen-tysic, cemlant 49 Corosion, Con fecoking fit and ford covtans| Cat valle 2 inte view sheets deenks cans Hight, nen-tonic, esistent fo covresion coating CDs and OVDs [7G dstoided Bio thie Gln, dey | ore of the best condichos of eledriuily, | copper electical wiring ei ce “| Sovcegans and savcepen bases palate Conducts heat well, unreselive, RAE. | pct seal from eotting off a sacrificial protection to th teh cauerion, but offes sacfiel polation eebing OF gelvaniing ican or ee eects . Fes a cutsend when connctled #9 = Carlen Ther Horch batteries Mp pease te “a peu eof sieco\ple “4 RE 7 000559 The lages The lages con can ‘tide over — 7 no Nenger slide, So each oer easily the alley is Aonger Han the origins meta!Steels Gleels are alley of ion: Two oxemgle? TS mild steel! > In car bodies and machinery ~ stainless stee\ > in chemical pleat and eile Mating Steels (1) Unwanted impurities ore removed from the iron. Sime icon fiom the blast funne is posed inte on onygen funace a A Imperities react with oxygen be form oxides. The gases ave carried of > Wet is left i reacied ith coleum oxide PN clas fms that is skimmed off (2) Other elements mosy then be oddedAIR and Water Atmosphere Space aygen br if tonosphere arias + A \eogen Ameinly argon meso phere FBT. 44 (THe cabor diowde +a Wille water veyou Strotosphere + sma\\ amounts ef the ether noble gases aad Some poiltadh gues Froposghere (co, s0,,NO,) Greied Note that HR Onyger is needed for cespicelion % Cobor donde i+ needed for pholosynthess + JE Nitrogen ic aeeded for the synthais of protein oy Ac is a mixtwe of gases. The gues ae seperated from each other by fractional distillation of liguid air. The Factions! distillation of ltgeid ois in plants The steps? oo into = glant, and fsWert to cemove gas particles (2) Water vaperr, Carbon dioxide and other gases are removed r Waler vapor by tining it inte wales - Corbon diesite > by pesing it over absorbent beads (3) ic is then com prested. This meker it hot. So if 14 cooled down boy recgling cold air (4) The air 1s passed thragh a fetinte al this maker it very cold. (DW Sometimes step 3 ond for aie tapeeted to liguify the air) Hanstiag colvmn chere itis agai space Wexponds rapidly and () The Wastd sie ts then pumped ints the frac Slowly vemed ve. The geses boil off one by ome and we collected fae Niteog Noble a 7 | Dauaen Nitrogen - 99 eset (eee Ht | __¥s 3) [Ree Sry onsen sepptie: So [+ Oick-frecse tm food Factores [Argon oa Ragiten fh balls | 3 doa Sebi i | usb greidas emt Satake) we teal wack, Fo convert im To freee Wend in cracked pipes |" Neon, | Wainy ei hi, Y ached pipes |" Meeng in adwer any sign 3] Yicn ino eeu before vegsiing them On gerade J) [rR mutere of Ox and mcetylere «ty ‘food puliejicg fove dens he ve Saal gy ti mith me Gon ta ral Patkaying fo remore |* Relive; te fill balloons by deca saad ms m ee, < foo + DO Wewthes for coling ant Seung [Galges ANd katy the fond iC ‘+ ¥e'$ fapht and sole) metalAw Poltshion Cool = Petrolevm — ~ Natvral gas K Most are hydrocarbons A They provide vs vith energy 5K Sue of most of the gollutant gases in aie The_enein oir _pallitents Carbon mononide (C0) > Colouiles odes iless ges > Insole ble > Forms when ceben Compounds burn in little «if Plomes from cox engines ond fornaces, > Poisonovs as it resets With haemoglobin tn blood Covsing people to die from Selfer dioxide (SO.) > An widic got F Has 6 shaip smell > Forms when silfer composnds in Fossil feels burn > Comes from cnaily power stations tae the eyes and throat TF Cavses respirator, bl eons a a * Acid cain attacks stonework in beildiny (espgecally timestone and macble) + U foves the pit in tiers Oxygen starvation ‘99 - TW EIN trees and insects Nitrogen 26 (no) a > Acidic gases on naa > Forms when the sitrasen = Forms. shen. uteal wapipends: ave borne Lead is added to peteol in some end eayger in au react together > Comes ror hot engines sand it comes from there Counts > Damages children’s brains ond funaces > Cowes respicatory pisblems He ead > Dindve fa d. give acid tain a the Lidneys ond ne r F Carbon monctide is feleasod from the incomplete combustion of caboon-contain Substances aie pall Ason, Redan > Fhe ge: dentfutsation ete! ee oe [PF Fithng of cart with eat2 or _car_enhevsts falyhic convedter* © Cobsby { vo —PHemfel_geses that ave prodvied in a eof engine’ = oxides of nitrogen = Carbon monoxide Modern car enhaust contain a cetelytic converter in which thee ges tent to fern hormless see The eatelgsh speed -p the reaction Ta 8 henfcl compnnds ere _onidived are ceded 2N0,, > Nee Or, 260+ Oye 2ry *The catalyts involved: = Platinium — Palladivn — Rhodivim Rushes Resting rs the name given to the cowosion of iron This is the reaction thal occurs’ be Fe cy ¥ BOs (yy 1 EHO, —> 2Fe.O,- 2H.0, [Oy sy iron + oxygen t water —> hydiated sven (WL) oxide (vst) So, evsting regrires onygen and valer HK trom rvshe faster in say waler, Salt speeds vp the aeidation How te geet esting ? (4) Cover the iron *paint sapense + ancther mete) Le with aine = gelvonising Ls with ting by electroplating leon is coded vith a more reective metal. The more veechse metel hes o stronger dive to get ovidised . So, thet nove reactive metal disselves rather “tren jronWater Woter We ell need water | Uses of water + At home + On forms + No indstiy + la power salions = Drinking = Drink for animals J As a solvent shea = Cooking = lerigetion I Washing thing. f ld be used casey? i iF Cooling) tne HS genwrate. alec = Fltking teilk mnachinery 3 chechy waste away hes Treatment_of vate (4) The water is prmped va. A screen Heaps any bis perticles, (2) A coagelend is then added which is a chemral that mater small suspended particles Shek together. (3) Next, wate gets in a flotation lank. Air is blown through 1. Thet wakes the coagulated paticles flost to the lop, so that they can be skimmed off GY The water i, then fillrsled by passing iF Anvongh a bed of fine sand (5) Charcoal mess alro be added te remove bad taster and smelly (6) After pi all the particles, the next step is chlorination which is Me process Fo FEU the bacteria and other microbes by adding chloing to water (7) Florine ts somekmes added te help fight tooth decay. (8) The voler fs Finally pumped to the storage reservoir — vig, eee Vn the presence of water —> while anhylrons copper (I) slfate vill form blue —> blve cobelt (Il) chlonde paper will torn pink sere rere eer aeALS ANO THEIR COMPOUNDS A fertiliser is any substance added fo the soil to make it more fertile. RK plant (apet from CO, H,O and ligh!) needs nitrogen, pefasivan and phosphors. Thue ae there fore forad in fe dhisers Nitregea: Plants need nilroger for mating chlorophyll, and proteins Potassivr 2 Petassivm help» them to prodvce proteins and do cesish disease Phosphorws: Phaphors helps rests to grow, and craps to ripen thetic fertilisers Eg for sgottets fe Ammonem — svifatell nn), 50, | — nitrote (wi No,) Phosphel ¢ — Bed effects * Leaching te tives —> Agel bloom = Eetrophic dion + Mixing to weter Sepply —> Nik vite ived = Decreaed enyger corying capbility Amigos, Duglecement tecchsnd of enmoni (A brase— ammorivn sélt reaction) ps lace DINK, Cl, t+G (0%, (5 = Colla 4,5 +H, OH + 2NH, mmeniem caleivm caleivm water + fs) chisile ——ngdesile chlorite Conte A= Wis @ colovless gas with a strong, choking smell D- Ub is less dense than air 37M veacts with hydrogen chloride gas to farm 0 while smote The smoke is made of Hing particles of solid ammonivn chloride 4 cl Nas (gt HCG) NHL CI Ths vesclion con be wed to lat whether « Le Ut is very selble in vader S- The soletien 23 1s ammonia. (IF shows the fecatsin effect) in wader is alkaline 6 Since ammonia Soltion is alkaline Fo example with ailrie acid il f ‘+ feacts with acids to form salts syothelic feclib ser ammonium atrale which is a Na, fay) * HNO, 1.) > MH, NO, 4)The Heber Frogess The process fer 7 ammenia from aitragen ond hydrogen, in industry is called the Haber process * Nitrogen end hydrogen ave the inpels. They ave obtained at follovs ; Sptaciny He ee a Nittegeo # Air ia nearly 801 aibregen, and 201 onygers The onggen is remoed by burning ny begen PHa gy 4 Orgy —> HO py Thot mainly leaves nidregen, and a small amend of ether gee Hydrogen elt is vavally made by reacting nalerel gos (methene) with st com rately st CH gy F 2H, O16 otter. CO. (y1 + KH, (5) “HW can acho be made fy cracking hydrecerbens from pe b eoleem. For exam ple: Coy cote YS 0,4, tt rg) i see + The two gases (N, and H,) ore mined and seirbbed to remove impurities + The gas mixive is compressed by Pemping mere gas in + The compressed gas flows de the converter which 14 @ Cevnd dank with beds of hot iron. The iron Kooy 3K calelyses the cevesible reaction + (5) = 7M) +The miatwe which incldes Ny Ha and NH3 is cooled vail Ammonia condenses 12 & higecd cecgcled fo the The ailegen and hydrogen ave converler for another chance + The ammonie ts wn into tants, Making Aomori ! & Summaly cere theemie N, + 3H, == 2H, fe mmoledes enbotnte 2 molecales 1o remed and Hoved ay a ligsid ende picsiere Ue spree thegelds To gel « decml cenction cade # quite high presuie (abot Datm) st moderate lenperste (shew Ls0'c) aH penabelce aus + we a celelyst (iron)Carbon Carbon dioxide (CO,) ~ Formation: TYE forms ase product of complete combustion of tohen- conbaming Substances. Such as in this reaction: — 1, CH tay! 2% (4) Orgy 129, TM forms as © wosle podeed of sepivetions 4 6 CMO, la) * 60, (> 600, i! 4,0, * VM forms aso podeh of the reaction behween an acid and a Carbonate, For enemple between HEU sy and meble chips. CalO, 1) 4 te ag roa Catlays + Oy + Ory NE forms from the themal decomposition of a cwbonate: heat CuO, SA 60/51 0, 5) Properties + Colourless + Odowless * Heavie thon air "It docs ned sepport compestian. "WE a slightly scleble in wate, forming cerbonie acid, Hy CO. Hethane (CH) (Natval ges) ~ Sources: TIE As foond im gas depesits in the ocean Fleer and om land TUF forms wherever bacteria decompose plant meteial, in the absence of ony gen: (vegetation) + Some animals give out methane as a waste Bacleis in ther stomachs help to break down giving methane as one proded. ges from digestion gees and othe food KThe firz in firry drinks is cased by coder dionide coceping. 2 Casbon monoxide ts nother carbon Containing ge Wis dangerovs No inhele this gases i Brads vith the haemoglobin in the ced blood cells vedveing thes Caygen cerying cepabilily. So ths ger is Said to be Persenes Nictims die {econ oxygen servation,Carbon Cycle Corban Us newly fornd in eumy molecde, and is thee fore an important element. Stages Carbon dionide in air is absorbed b. y green plants fer Photosga thes + Carbon is Ihen stored in these plants in the form of sugars. To selene energy fer Wife proces, these pleals cay ovt cespication velecsing CO,. These plants ae eaten by animals, so the cesbon sieved 4 posed from Plants bo saimals end further Shvowgh dhe food chain, Animals lite all Niving orgerisms canny ovt respiration welensing CO,. Moreover dead malerel and eacredo of Plants and animals thet die and/or egest get do the sot. the organic malejal in them we decompose d by bacleia and feng: These OGanisms release the carbon they oblaine d into the elmosphere es CO, by reupicalion, The othe- impertand Process Ly the combustion of fossil feels dene by human amovat of CO, is selensed by this way Some important reactions ta this cycle — Photosynthesis: 6CO. o Respiration: iC, HO iA sign’ ficon +6 Lyht 264) * 6H.0;) “Alege” CHO (y+ 60, is 60, ,, >» 4) 60.0) * 644,011) (+ enersy) 4 (3) + 20s (4) —> Go, G)* 222, (+ enegy) Greenhouse goses and glebal_varmin a Corhon dioxide and methane ave the two main greenhovse gases That means they 4rop heat coming fiom the Sun and prevent 14 from escaping te Space. However, the level of CO, F2 rising becavse ef the “berning of fosil feels and the level of Cha is risin ecavse of the increase Animal farming ond sce forming, Global Fempelere is also cising and some scientists believe that the in bevels of: greeahorse gases is leading bo globel warmin Glebal warming may be leading te climate change which Whos Some consequences: sucly asi a? ~Combstion of methane: CH. 3 smelting land-ice in the Arctic and Antarctica will cave sea levels be rise smere dreeght is likel species That cannot adept to the changin g climate will die ovtCorbenotes L When limestone is heated il breaks down to lime: @ (caleiem oxide) CalOs (yy SE CaOQ * © Wg) Calin carbonate Calum oxide Carbon > (limestone) (lime) dioxide —> This is thermal decompos! bion > This vencdion is seversible boot corbon dhenide before st hes a chonce Jo react Uses_ef limestone crush is couied away ~ rind ‘ Vimestone ,Cacd, ) tnshed limestone ) 2 > pertered limestone red weed t ce ‘40n from + be nectralise acidity in al ematile + for toad beilding + for flee gas deselferisation + as chips (aggregate) for conceele heat ad : a ® Lime, CaO} HANS, Faiated time, calor, used: used "ie making steel from i100 Ao nesta se eu rh a see fe ; jo Mertiolise acidity én sel, acl ae ity in soil in Vales affeced by acd rain ee 9 Agent in Sfor (lee 500 deslfurisalian heat with clay innmarasaarecenas J Oo «to meke coniebhe Flee ges deslfersation means the semovel of selfer diotide from the wosle gases al powes stations, he fore The eae ; Reacher we : Y ge ert the flee fehtmney) + Colon), (y+ caldvm hydresde $0144) —> CalOs |, + 4,0, Litaked fine) selfer dhacte —celetom ilfhe Water + 2alOy,) £ Os py* bHO, ——> 2 CaSO, 2H, 9, Colevm sulfite oxygen wate, Cras leiven sulfele vases in mating cement plaster ead athe prodeetsSovrces CV4 ts fovnd, os the element im Large vaderground beds T 1H is fovnd around the sims of volcanoes TUN cars 03 e comporad in many metal ores > led cre (gatenc) eed (t)slfide (Pys) > Zine ore (rine Wende) --= vine sl fide (2n5) + Sulfur Compornds occur nalveally in the fosil feels Properties tlh is oO brittle yellow solid. TM her dre diffeseat eNetvepes [Shembic ead mohoclian self-d) TTF has geite «bow melting porat TUN dees mob con dect elect vieity TW iavoleble in water vO reacts with metels to form slfides SU bens in oaygen 49 form sulfr dionide Othost sulfer is sed be make svifurte acid vt as vsed do tovghen evbber for eremple for car Iyyes This is called wleanrring the evbber Sulfer TH ts 0 coloviless ges, heoviee then oir, with @ sivong, choking smell, vide Mis on acidic owde. HW dssoclves fn wate forming selpvies ceid- HO, 4 $0, 4) = HiS0a0, Wis breaks down easly again bo selfer deoide and water e Woacts os & blench chen ibis damp or in soletion. This is bece HV cemeces the color fiem colevied compennds by reducing then t Ab can Lith bacteria Uses TUES main vac is in the manefachre ef selfurie acid SHH is wed te bleach wool, silk, and weed Pelp for making Peper Tb is used as @ ateslizing agent io meting sft deints end jom, and in deging foil HW stops the growth of bederia ond movids,The Contact Process (he Contact Process Sulfuric is mede by the Contact process The raw materials ove: esvlfur bair eweter Steps * Sulfur is burned in aie: S08 O2(g)> aig) * Golfer dioxide obtained is mixed with more oir TIES posed over ecls os Torr seperate beds of pellets of venediom (V) onde which 2 catalyst. + Selfer teionide forms: 280, (q) +8, ince this reaction is ceveuible and se (5) = 55/4) ee Mer WoKide contincally breaks dona, sulfur Aionide is cemwved by dissclring & Congentuted sulferie acid tn order to inccease the yield + Thick feming Viguid called cleom is mined care folly with water: HO py # $05 (4) —> Hs S04 oSAferic acid forms M The catalyst will not werk below 400°C, kept arwad 450°C 0 so the team perabere is *« \nereesing pressere increases the geld bt increased “oaly a little Dilebe selfuric acid Dilvte _svlfuie coeis is practice Presere cs ly the lab, it is made by adding the coatentrate & ud do vale + Vt thoes the eival reactions of acids TIN salts ave called slfates Comets selfrre oc *Comentratled slferic acid is a dehgdiebing aged HW removes water t When iis mined Stith wales eel of het M4 removes Fhe ceaction 4iV in the lab TAs you hect the pulrclevin, the compounds stat te evaporate. The ones comperads into groups with molecctes of a similar size with smalle lighter molecles ge first, Since it tales less enegy to free these fren the liquid TAs the hot vapors ise, so does the thermometer reating. The vapours Condense in the cold~test-iche. + When the thermometer reading reaches 100°C replace the first tol tbe with an empty one. The liquid in the first best-tebe is gee Gerst fraction from the dutillation. * Collect dnvee further fractions in the same way, replacing the test-tube at 150°C 200°C, and 300 Comparing the frackons Fraction oe [tex Ny | Nolotility aa Ph | encteestes | 4 ve te 100% [very eunny | volatile | very cnsly Fst | my 100-150'C | runny Jess volatile | easily | | 3 | 150=200°C [net vey cunay ee les vee not easily | | | fe | 200°300°C | viscous leat vatatie [only with « wick] taeUses of the frections Uses | Nome of Nember of | Whet fraction is used fer = fraction carbon atoms bottled gases for cooking aad heating geseline (peti) CO. to C, fuel for cars Stailing point 0 feedstock fo- mony chemicals end plastics | Cefiney gas C, tel, | i naphtha Cy te Cy 7 | coffin | feet fer aircraft, oil stoves, | | Peed Cue t0 Cis and lamps | | diesel it Feel for diesel engines Ce to G,, { tae 2s) 6 = | | vel oid | feel for power stations, ships, [& . ° Cre $0 C5. | aad for hone heating systems | | lobricati, Oil for car engines and machinery | sachion Con ta Coe | aE og the tons | balay el 1 oe if itumen Coe vpenrds | fo" ced svifaces end cool, a imsease Ceocking hydrocarbons Cracking Genta rmilecles deca inde ausller one Imporance of _cvadein: * Cracking helps you make the best we of peticleem. Suppose you have too much Of the ‘nuphtha freetion, and toc litle of the giseline fraction. Yeu con crack some Raphthe to get moleactes the sight site for peel, * Cracking always pred vees shorb~ chain composads with a carbon-carbon dovble bend, This bond makes the comporads reackive, Se they Gad cher substances. OCescking the naphtha frsclion Compocnds in the raphihe Frection ave often cwcbed, Since this fraction ts vied a the feedstock for mating mreay vse fel chemicals This is the bind of cecctivn thel occur can be wsed to mabe plestics HoH oo ee ware ty ae ear Gren Co toca + CaC-C-H + Cae ty i te Hoe HEE is How nou pentane, CsHi, —— propene, GH, ether, GH, @ Coaching ethane: Ethane has very short melecles~ by Yo give ethene and hy dragen i. t even it can be cracked, au H i pee w-c-c-H SE Cok gy, ti > 800°C re now HH hydeegen ethane etheneves of organic. compounds Name ead ngs formvla TONE ——> the slbones ——_—_» = TERR ——> the alkenes = Gia TON ——> the olehds = ¢..Oe —Oic acid —> the carborglic acids ——__s acuet) oh, 0, Homolegess series Any e:ganic Compovad beleags te a homologovs sevies. A homolog e+ Series isa fomily of similar compounds with similar properties dve te the presence of the same functional group. A functional ge is the part of aw molecle thet lagely dictates how the molecle will ceact. cemnesean In_a hemelegors series: Ks the chein gels loge : a eo talkenes ——__s cx solcohels oy / * Carboaylic aids —> | : \ timelting and boiling points cise * viscosity increasey~ the compocads Flew Less easily co # flammability deccaues- the compernds N J r oH burn less easily: Pikanes meee, ethane pete GH, tune cI), i i? Ve Woy Heol WOW HHL Vt Cn tra 4 HoH wun hua Key points abovt the alkenes sThey ove fovnd ia pebrolevey and aateral ge? * Boiling points Increase with chain length because athactien between the molecles inceayes~ so it bakes more onergy to seperate them * Since aM their C-€ bonds ave Single boa "Generally, the alkares ore que vareactive + But, they combust well. complete \ Feombuhg. CH iy* 20,(,)> 00, (5) + WOU)" neck eneyy wncomplebe Conbfhon 3. the alkenes are saturated CH leigh 30,04 seuaiat ate 44,0; .¢ los het enegyGulstitution teact ons of. alkane with chlorine “Chlorine ges feacts with alkanes te displace hydeegen. That 1s why the veaction is called & sbslihton teachion. Hes abo a photochemice! reaction which means light energy Is needed Fe break the bends in the chlorine melecles do stat ihe seaclion off 4 # i i He Crt 4 C1, ——S H-c-c) + Hcl ' 4 Ww methane eee eee Chleromethane = Sore names Chlocornethane. —___>, CHCl dichloromethane ——> (ii, Ci, tei chloromethone ——_> chal tetrachloromethane —> ca — ls uclvcal_isomerisey Structural © Isomers ere compovnds with the same formula, but different shuclvees There are branched chains and unbranched chains Since isomers have different stectLies, they abe have slightly defferent Properties. For example branched isomers have becovse the branches make it hade the altradisn between them is Fo evercome it lower beiling pets, for melees to get close. So Ness strong, and less hast ig needed 4 imple 1 erry H-Cc-4 Hou HOW “ “ rey i i 1 4 -C-C-C-C-H H-~cC—~c-—C-H rot 4 ieee HHH fi ww b Forma: Cy Hie Forma: Cy Hig Nemes Butane Name: 2- meth ylpropane Botling point: OC Boiling pont - 10°CA\ecne ethene —C 4, propene~ C3 H, but -t-ene — CH Ht mn H ? on ra Ncac’ Neec=e-n KeC-6M N 1 9 i H 4 HoH 4 4 Hun A Becavse alkenes contain C=C devble bund, they are called vnselurated out alkenes Keg points sheet *Alkenes ore meade from alliance by cracking: 4 if shes any H-C-c-H —— gee 4 vs vet > 800°C re = Hoy i & ethene aa * They ave involved in addition reactions. (Alkenes ae much more reactive then alkane, becarse the double bond can break, te add on other atoms.) Sy it *K Cec pH, epee oe oy Ww u (5) (5) catalyst toy MoH ethene ethane rm a Hou % / heat, pressure i * eC questa HW - C-C-o4 H catalyst ra () ( : 2 Rey HA ty ethene steam, ethanol H H Br Be Ne Vd aon + Ge ey ey aa (-) ts ethene bromine water 1,1- dibiomoethane (coleviless) (orange) (colevsles) CB The best addition ceackion can be wed a © Nest foc vasalyration Vea C=C bead is present, the crenge Coley fades which shows that thee is an vnsetvcted compornd [an elkenc).fon Polymensbie Alkene molectes vadergo o very vsefil adddion peadion, where they add on te ea ether be fom compounds with vey long cevbun chains called polymers H ph HLM He wa ‘eae ce cod oe aes seg, [moncimer) au“ “nd w BF Hut Cu —s H 4 \ 1 t 4 4 1 ‘ be ‘ C-c€-C-c -C-C-C-€ pelythene Horotoporuoroud Hou 4 oH H H WH nN Mcchels ae Pre methanel — CH,OH | ethane ~ CMH piepsasteol - C,H, 04 i ue hu Beets [Retne-o-H H-C-C-C~O-H i toad 4 t hou Hoan butan-4-ol— CH, OH AC About ethene) Aaa Ethanol is the elohol in the oleckelic dunks, H “C- c- é t- o-“" SH is a good selvent. IF dissolved man W “ 4 i Sebstames that de net disstlve in water tlt is volatile Fowmtion ef ethane) 1- By fementation Fermentation is the process in which the eatymes in yeat beeakidenn Fe form ethanol end corboa dioxide CH nQ ar 2C, HOH amen 42 " © (a4) Ta Geaw oda m5 * energy shes dioxide I By the hydration of ethene V H HOOK aa a BPOC 60-70 atm con C=O # WO EE ee ony ee a a h HG) cabal get A (phospho oxcd) 4HK The reacten is ceversible ¥ The forward reaction is exothermic AR High preswe and a low hemperatre world give the best yreld Bet en Prackce the feacton is carried ot at 570, to give a decent rate of feuckon. RA catalyst is also vsed to speed ve the reaction —> Ethanel is tnueasingly vsed as a feel for car engines because: tit can be made quite cheaply from waste plant meteial smany countries hove no petrolevm of their on, and have bo by it from other countries: it costs a Sot so ethanol ts an attractive e¢tion + ethanol has less impact on carbon d fossil foals do. > Ethane! has some drawbuks too: More and more crops ave being groun to make ethandl, for cus toxide levels than + Bet that fakes op a lot of land. s Vr means Ness land 40 grow crops for foed. +B shortage of ford means a rise in food prices. + When food prices rise i+ affats poor people the most. 4% Many people ave against growing Crops to make ethane! They say: Ween people oa not cars| © | ceE tenet buns well in eaggen, giving ovt pleaty of heat: Aa * BH, Ory 4 heat C,H, OH) + 30, ) (5) Corbonghe 0? Le methonsic acid HCOOH P H-c. ou ropancie add -(,N, 00H peepee seen at Sou Hoo } 4 bvtancic acid~ C,H, COOH oe eee The (erdions\ group COOW +s HW 7 \ e e eel Wetec also called the caboayl group to Hua O# Formation. of ethenste_ncid Hu wot vt Ethanvic acd is meade by oxidising ethenels \H ~CC-oW a wdc’ \ The exidation can be ewried in two wayot \ Hy 4 » By fementation Whea ethanol i> left Handing in air, badeia being about 1s oxidation te ethencic acid Thir methed 15 called ccid Ferment ction * With aculified pufetiom meagonete (VEE) E thant is oxidised mith fester by worming it with the peve fel oxidising Agent potestivm meangonute (VEL, in the prvence of acid MnO] + SH + Gems Nat + 4H, O peiple colevrless Ethene acid tee tes Se tvens telus ced + 1h thowd typical aed renehions TM dissecieles inte HY ions in woller te HC 4 Now ea bw na Estes 4 fa) : Ethanete acid reads with alechels {=e fe give compernds called eaters thy (CCW a COOH) tNeOH, j >CHCOON + Heo) 13 6 Condensation peaetion whee molecles junto make very lege moleetes, by eliminating small moleccles u 4e eee 47% te tune ol ane wo Wu s (ele ww ta ae ath dy ee Hee ih YE inege a a eo eer 4 How y ethanic asd prepane! oo Prepyl ethancale (este:) es Meng erdes here ettrsclive smell und tastes.POLYMERS A polymer is any substance containing mactomolactes formed when lots of smell molecvles join together. Very lage melectes ore called meacromole cles and small molecles are Called mariners. ing ust wf ploslies Taking wie of Syo thetic polymers (men-mede ese) ore vsvally callect plastics Mest plastis are made from chemicals found in the nophthe frodion ef petioleem They ave vovelly qvite cheep fo make The prepecties of plastics sThey do net usvally condvcl elecleicidy ov heed They ave vareoc dive + They ace esvally ligt te covey. They doat breck easily + They are trong + They do net coteh fire easly, bit some melt oe char. AR Density of polymers can he changed by chenging bemperotue and presivre High-density polymers are stronger than low-density polymers Relyener Exemples of usey eplestic begs and gloves, dingftlem [low dewity) = aaa timuss, bowls, chara, Seatbias te “) a Pelychlo-cethene (Pvc) eae tipes, wellingtons, hoses, covering for electricity lialisde mere used gs expanded pelystrene in fast-food cartons Pelysty cea inseladion for roofs and vals (to bee ieee caaled ex NG pos Polina aoc pure Teflen Polector, windscreen witees, flooring eee aglon fp 3, fishing nets and Wacs, tens culains Terylene clothing (especully mixed vith cotton), thread 7: eee ——— ed pelyprepene | Crates, copes |Pechlems with plestics Plastics ave wed everywhere. One big reason far ther success is their vaceactivily. However ths 1s abo o grablem. Plutics do net break down or rot away Plastics gre said to be non- disdegradable. So the plastics lie evovad “and cavse mony problems: * Animals that ingest plastics stave to death + Plastics elegy vp drains, and sewers, and cavse flooding. + Plastics callect in civees, and get in the way of fish. Some river beds Row contain a thick layer of plastic * Plostis blow into trees and beaches erealing an unaHvactive scenery Addition polymerisation In odd polymerisation, dable bonds in moleccles bieak and the Moletes add en to each other For addition pelymecisation to take place, the monomers must have C=C double bonds feet Ee NF The menomer | Part of the polymer melacte [the qqualion i The veccligs # 4 —_— XC ae WW you W heat! | Bf Scat | Cae | poate | eee | | gist tet ug Bee bed, € - = aes - Ook, WG GH, : ° ~ = ae c-¢ vo oh eC | me -bae eet Gran 1 | Chempethene ;sicggy ‘ “Nec Jo pec | | est ‘ we ee | 3! {phenglettend) or Ciyrene\ ei ltheglethnd ro ee we —C-C30-C1¢-¢-6-¢ ¥ identify the repeating nit ( tea) \ id a at , i fe