WOLLO UNIVESITY

(KIOT)
GROUP ASSIGNMENT OF
FLUIDE DYNAMICS 2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
NAME ID SEC

1 DAWIT AYALEW 1274/11 A

2 ERMIAS ABERA 1359/11 A

3 AHMED AREBU A

WHY MEASURMENT IS IMPORTANT

 Scientists use many skills as they investigate the world around them. They make observations by
gathering information with their senses. Some observations are simple. For example, a simple
observation would be figuring out the color or texture of an object. However, if scientists want to know
more about a substance, they may need to take measurements.

Measurement is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts in science. Without the ability to
measure, it would be difficult for scientists to conduct experiments or form theories. Not only is
measurement important in science and the chemical industry, it is also essential in farming, engineering,
construction, manufacturing, commerce, and numerous other occupations and activities.

The word “measurement” comes from the Greek word “metron,” which means “limited proportion.”
Measurement is a technique in which properties of an object are determined by comparing them to a
standard.
Measurements require tools and provide scientists with a quantity. A quantity describes how much of
something there is or how many there are. A good example of measurement is using a ruler to find the
length of an object. The object is whatever you are measuring, the property you are trying to determine
is the object’s length, and the standard you are comparing the object’s length to is the ruler .

In general, scientists use a system of measurement still commonly referred to as the “metric system.”
The metric system was developed in France in the 1790s and was the first standardized system of
measurement. Before that time, people used a variety of measurement systems.

In 1960, the metric system was revised, simplified, and renamed the Système International d’Unites
(International System of Units) or SI system (meters, kilograms, etc.). This system is the standard form of
measurement in almost every country around the world, except for the United States, which uses the
U.S. customary units system (inches, quarts, etc.). The SI system is, however, the standard system used
by scientists worldwide, including those in the United States.

There are several properties of matter that scientists need to measure, but the most common properties
are length and mass. Length is a measure of how long an object is, and mass is a measure of how much
matter is in an object. Mass and length are classified as base units, meaning that they are independent
of all other units.

1 PRESSURE MEASURMENT

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used
to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer could also be referring
to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The
term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum
gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which is further divided into two subcategories:
high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the
techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of
gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar.

ABSOLUTE GAUGE AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ZERO REFERANCE

Although no pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire
pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made
relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero
references, the following terms are used: • Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect
vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. • Gauge pressure is zero referenced
against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative
signs are usually omitted. • Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

Example reading: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2  = 10−5 bar  = 10.197×10−6 at  = 9.8692×10−6 atm  = 7.5006×10−3

torr  = 145.04×10−6 psi .

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N·m−2 or kg·m−1 ·s
−2 ). This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units
such as N/m². When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit, for
example 101 kPa (abs). The pound per square inch (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada,
notably for cars. A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero reference;
psia for absolute, psig for gauge.

STATIC DYNAMIC PRESSURE

Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an
immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the
flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional
component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the
flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the
total pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is
neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure. While static gauge pressure is of primary
importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and
airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments
parallel and perpendicular to the flow. airplanes to determine airspeed.

INSTRUMENT
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and
disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of
magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube
filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. The U-Tube was invented by
Christian Huygens in 1661.

HYDROSTATIC
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force
per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the
type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor
dynamic response.

PISTON
Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring. Another name
for piston gauge is deadweight tester. For example, dead-weight testers used for calibration or tire-
pressure gauges.

LIQUIDE COLUMN
Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different
pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential
between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side
of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be the
atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the
applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the
hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hgρ. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure
P a and the reference pressure P 0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving P a − P 0 = hgρ. In
other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure to the right) must be
balanced (since the liquid is static) and so P a = P 0 + hgρ. If the fluid being measured is significantly
dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the
manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired.

2 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

There are numerous ways of measuring fluid flow rates or velocities. Some of these methods are
focussed on measuring the total flow rate in a pipe or other device while others are designed to
measure the flow velocity at a particular location in a flow. For convenience, we will refer to these
respectively as internal and external meters. Some of the listed devices have the advantage of being
inexpensive, some of being simple and rugged. Some have the advantage of having relatively slow
response time so that they effectively average over time; but this may also mean they have the
disadvantage of having a poor dynamic response. Some average over a larger spatial volume while
others have a higher spatial resolution. Some of the methods are intrusive in that they disturb the flow
they are measuring while others are non-intrusive. Consequently the experimenter needs to carefully
consider all these limitations and/or advantages in choosing a particular flow rate or velocity instrument

Here we list some of the most common flow rate or velocity measurement techniques with some of
their individual characteristics:
[A] Anemometers: These are simple external devices (some of which are depicted in Figure 1) that
rotate when placed in a fluid flow. The flow velocity is then obtained by measuring the rate of rotation
(often by using a magnetic proximity sensor that monitors the passage of rotating components). They
come in many geometric forms and are based on the fact that the drag on a rotating component is
greater when the flow is impacting the component from one direction rather than from the opposite
direction. They have the advantage of being simple, inexpensive and rugged but the disadvantage of
having

B] Propeller Meter/Turbine Flow Meter: Another form of external anemometer frequently used in
water is the propeller meter that consists of a small propeller (of the order of 1cm in diameter) mounted
on a free-wheeling shaft and on the end of support strut. The flow velocity is evaluated from the
measured rotation rate. Again these are simple and inexpensive but intrusive devices and have relatively
poor spatial and temporal resolution. They also require calibration.

[C] Drag Disc: Yet another form of external anemometer is the drag disc which consists of a small flat
disc facing into the flow on the end of a support sting. The force on the disc is measured by means of
strain gauges and converted to a velocity knowing the disc size and the fluid density. Often the device
comes with a variety of disc sizes so as to cover a range of flow velocities. Such an anemometer has a
better dynamic response than the above types but may be less robus

D] Bernoulli Devices: Many flow rate and flow velocity meters measure a pressure difference and
derive the velocity from that pressure difference. Examples are the external Pitot tube (for example,
used to measure aircraft flight speed) and the internal

F] Electromagnetic Flowmeters: An important set of instruments utilize electromagnetic effects in

order to measure fluid flow rates and velocities. These instruments utilize the fact that a liquid flow that
carries charge constitutes an electric current and in the presence of a magnetic field at right angles to
that current will induce an electropotential gradient in the third perpendicular direction

[G] Laser Velocimeters: Another class of instruments use focused laser light scattered off minute
particles in the fluid to obtain measurements of the velocity of the fluid. Section (Kdcd) describes two
such instruments, namely the Laser Doppler Velocimeter and the Laser Two-Focus Velocimeter. These
instruments are primarily used to measure velocities at very well-defined locations in a flow.
Consequently they have high spatial resolution. They also have excellent temporal resolution and are
therefore ideal for mapping out complex turbulent flows.
H] Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry: Yet another class of instruments use the Doppler shift that sound
waves experience in a fluid flow in order to measure the fluid velocity. Examples of such instruments are
detailed in Section (Kdce). Instruments exist that measure the flow rate in a pipe and that attempt to
measure the fluid velocity at a discrete location in a flow. They can aslo measure flow rates or velocities
up to quite high frequencies.

3 DICHARGE MEASURMENT
Discharge is the most common parameter that is monitored in rivers and is used in various types of statistical
analyses for assessing trends and flow frequencies, as input useful for the operation of dams designed for irrigation
water supply or hydroelectric generation, and as model input by water resource managers, design engineers,
planners, and flood emergency coordinators.
 
In the typical river setting the discharge is directly correlated to the water level, also known as the river stage. Since
it is relatively easy to directly monitor water level using a variety of sensors the most common practice for
determining discharge is to continuously monitor stage and convert it to discharge using what is known as the stage-
discharge rating or simply the “rating”. Ratings are developed by making instantaneous discharge measurements
using various types of instruments over a range of flow conditions. These instruments are called “flow meters” or
“current profilers” and are designed to measure the velocity of water at different points in the cross section.
Discharge is computed by multiplying the average cross-sectional velocity by the total river cross-sectional area.
MEASURMENT METHODES
1 TRACER METODE
Tracers are often used in mountain streams with high turbulence and without clearly defined
channel. A good tracer needs to be non-reactive, besides it should be as harmless as possible for
the environment. During the field course, we will measure the discharge using sodium chloride
or salt (NaCl) as a tracer, by applying the instantaneous injection method. After having defined
an appropriate location to conduct the experiment, a known amount of tracer is poured into the
river in one go. This should be done upstream of where the measurements are taken, at a distance
sufficient enough from the first measurement location, so that the tracer can get well mixed
beforereaching it

The concentration of the tracer is then monitored by measuring the electric conductance in the
river. Ideally, the following conditions have to be fulfilled: (i) the background concentration of
the stream has to be known, (ii) it should not change during the experiment, (iii) the tracer is
totally intermixed with the water in the stream (no backwater effects), and (iv) there are no water
losses nor inputs between the injection and measurement locations. Using several measurement
sites and/or several measurement devices enables to check the results by repeating the experime
2 VELOCITY AREA METHODE
Discharge is obtained by calculating the integral of the stream velocity V over the cross-section area of
the flow A, where V is measured perpendicular to the cross-section:

The velocity V can be measured in discrete intervals along the cross-section by means of a currentmeter.
A current-meter consists of a small propeller mounted on a pole that is connected to a device which
measures the frequency of the propeller rotation. This information can be converted into a stream
velocity using the provided look-up tables, which were established during calibration experiments.

3 VELOCITY AREA METHODE USING THE DIPPING BAR

The principle of this method is the same as for the current-meter. The dipping bar (Tauchstab) can be
used to measure the flow velocity based on the torque exerted on the bar by the streamflow. A metallic
horizontal stick can be interlocked in the dipping bar to counterbalance the force of the flow. By varying
the position of the horizontal stick, the torque it exerts on the bar is changed.

4 BUCKET METHODE
If one finds a spot where it is possible to capture all the water from the streamflow (for example at a
spillway), using a stop watch and a bucket one can collect the volume of water delivered by the stream
during a precisely known period, and then measure this volume to finally calculate the discharge.

5 FLOAT METHODE
This method can be used to get a rough estimate of the runoff. With a floating object the surface
velocity of the river is measured. The mean river velocity can then be approximated by

Vmean=0.85Vsur

6 MANNING EQUATION
This method allows an approximate estimation of runoff without performing any velocity or runoff
measurements. The empirical “Manning’s equation” assumes that there is a relation between the flow
velocity (v) and the river geometry.

4 VICOSITY MEASURMENT
DENSITY MEASURMET
The measurement of the density of a substance is, in principle, extremely simple since from the definition
of density, one merely needs to determine the mass of the material contained in a given volume. In
practice, the measurement is not so simple, particularly if the thermodynamic state at which the density is
required departs significantly from ambient temperature and pressure. The technique employed for
measurements also depends upon the phase of the substance.

MEASURMENT IN LIQUDE

Measurement of the density of a liquid at atmospheric pressure and temperatures near to ambient can
readily be conducted with a specific-gravity bottle to an accuracy of better than ±0.1%. The device merely
consists of a small glass bottle with an extremely accurately-calibrated volume, which is weighed empty
and then filled with the liquid. Obviously, such a device becomes impractical in this form for
measurements at high pressures and/or temperatures far removed from ambient.
Measurements of liquid densities at moderate pressures are now most easily performed with the aid of
vibrating U-tube densimeters Wood (1989). Such devices are commercially-available for use at pressures
up to 40 MPa over a wide temperature range. The principle of the technique is that a thin steel or quartz
tube bent into the shape of a 'U' (as shown in Figure 1) is set into oscillation perpendicular to the plane of
the U. The frequency of oscillation of the tube is determined by its mass which, in turn, is related to the
mass of liquid contained within it.

MEASURMENT IN GASES
 the gas phase, some of the techniques for measurement of density are quite different owing to the
property of a gas to expand and to fill the space made available to it. Thus, at moderate pressures the gas
under investigation is contained in a well-defined volume and pressure and temperature are measured
and/or controlled. Measurements are then made by varying one quantity and determining the effect on
the second. Thus, one may vary the volume and examine the resulting pressure change with the
temperature constant throughout. This is the method most often employed for the determination of the
second virial coefficient. (See Density of Gases.) If the volume in the quantity is maintained constant and
pressure is measured as a function of temperature, one has the so-called isochoric system which is often
employed also at higher pressures.

There are numerous ways of measuring fluid flow rates or velocities. Some of these methods are
focussed on measuring the total flow rate in a pipe or other device while others are designed to
measure the flow velocity at a particular location in a flow. For convenience, we will refer to these
respectively as internal and external meters. Some of the listed devices have the advantage of being
inexpensive, some of being simple and rugged. Some have the advantage of having relatively slow
response time so that they effectively average over time; but this may also mean they have the
disadvantage of having a poor dynamic response. Some average over a larger spatial volume while
others have a higher spatial resolution. Some of the methods are intrusive in that they disturb the flow
they are measuring while others are non-intrusive. Consequently the experimenter needs to carefully
consider all these limitations and/or advantages in choosing a particular flow rate or velocity instrument