The Fungi

- Eukaryotic
o Organism with two nucleus
o Contrast with bacteria and viruses
- Oxygen requirement
o Aerobic or facultatively anaerobic (Tortora)
o Obligate aerobes that grow best at a neutral pH (Mahon)
 Though they can tolerate a wide pH range
- Moisture
o Necessary for growth
 But spores and conidia survive in dry conditions for extended lengths of time
- Chemoheterotrophic
o Requiring organic compound for energy and carbon
- Most are decomposers
- Mycology
o Study of fungi
- Constitute a generally diverse organisms
- Generally classified as
o Molds and Fleshy Fungi
 Thallus (body)
 Consist of Hyphae
o Long filaments of cells joined together
o Singular: hypha
o Can grow to immense proportions.
 Grow by elongated at the tips
 When a fragment breaks off, it can grow into a new
hyphae
o Two types:
 Septate Hyphae
 Divided by Septae (Singular: septum)
o Cross-walls that divides them into
distinct, uninucleate (one-nucleus) cell-
like units
 Coenocytic hyphae
 Contain no septa and appear as long,
continuous cells with many nuclei
o Vegetative hyphae
 Portion of the hypha that obtains nutrients
o Reproductive or Aerial hyphae
 Concerned with reproduction
  Named that way since it projects above the surface of
the medium on which the fungus is growing
 Bears reproductive spore
o Mycelium
 A filamentous mass that grows from the hyphae when
environmental conditions are suitable
 A mass of hyphae
 Visible to unaided/naked eye
o Yeasts
 Unicellular Fungi
 Typically spherical or oval
 Non-filamentous
 Widely distributed in nature
 Frequently found as a white powdery coating on fruits and leaves
 Types
 Fission yeast
o Symmetric Division
 Produces two new cells
o During fission
 Parent cell elongates
 Nucleus divides into two
 Colonies on a solid medium have similar appearance as
to those of bacterial colonies
 Capable of facultative anaerobic growth
o Can use oxygen or any organic compound as the final electron
acceptor
o Makes them capable of surviving any environment
o Performs aerobic respiration
 When it receives oxygen
 Metabolises carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and
water
o When denied oxygen
 Ferments carbohydrates into ethanol and carbon
dioxide
 Used in
o Brewing
o Wine-making
o Baking
 Budding yeast
o Asymmetric division
o Parent cell forms a protuberance (bud) on its outer surface
  When bud elongates
 Parent cell’s nucleus divides
o One of the nucleus migrate into the bud
 Cell wall material is established between parent
cell and bud
o Bud breaks away and becomes a parent
cell
o One parent cell can produce 24 daughter cells
 Pseudo-hyphae
 Short chain of cells formed by the buds that
failed to detach themselves
- Some are recognised as
o Classic pathogen
o Environmental saprobes
 Living on non-living materials
 Environmental fungus that derives nutrients from dead organic material
 Generally non-pathogenic to humans
- Beneficial
o Important in the food chain
 Decompose dead plants thereby recycling the vital plants
 Primary decomposes of hard parts of plants which cannot be digested by
animals
 Using the extracellular enzyme such cellulases
o Mycorrhizae
 Symbiotic fungi
 Nearly all plants depend on this
 Helps the roots absorb water and minerals from the soil
o Valuable to animals
 Fungi-farming ants
 Cultivate fungi that break down cellulose and lignin from plants
o Provides glucose
 Ants can then digest
 Humans
 Use fungi for
o Food
 Mushrooms
o Produce foods
 Bread
 Citric acid
o Drugs
 Alcohol
  Penicillin

Fungi Bacteria
Cell Type Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
Cell membrane Sterols present Sterols absent, except for
mycoplasma
Cell wall Glucans, mannans, chitin (no Peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan)
Spores Produce a wide variety of sexual Endospores (not for
and asexual reproductive spores reproduction); some asexual
reproductive sproes
Metabolism Limited to heterotrophic, Heterotrophic,
aerobic, facultatively anaerobic chemoheterotrophic,
photoautotrophic, aerobic,
facultatively anaerobic,
anaerobic
Sensitivity to antibiotics Often sensitive to polyenes, Often sensitive to penicillin,
imidazoles, and griseofulvin tetracyclines, and
aminoglycosides

Fungi Algae Protozoa Helminths

Kingdom Fungi Protista Protista Protista
Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph Photoautotroph Chemoheterotroph Chemoheterotroph

Multicellularity All, except Yeast Some None All

Cellular Unicellular, Unicellular, Unicellular Tissues and Organs

Arrangement filamentous, fleshy colonial,
(such as filamentous,
mushroom) tissues
Food Acquisition Absorptive Absorptive Absorptive; Ingestive (mouth);
Method ingestive absorptive
(cytosome)
Characteristic Sexual and asexual Pigments Motility; some Many have
Feature sporesq form cysts elaborate life
cycles, including
egg larva, and
adult
Embryo None None None All
Formation

Characteristics of Fungi

- Identifying yeasts and bacteria requires biochemical tests

- Multicellular fungi
 o Identified on the basis of physical appearance
 Colony characteristic
 Reproductive spores.
- Vegetative Structures
o Composed of the cells involved in catabolism and growth.
- Dimorphism/Dimorphic fungi
o Can grow either as mold or yeast (especially the Pathogenic fungi)
 Temperature-dependent
 Yeast-like at 37ᵒC
o Reproduce by budding
 Mold-like at 25ᵒC (25-30ᵒC)
o Would produce vegetative and aerial hyphae
 Some can be carbon dioxide-based

Life Cycle

- Filamentous Fungi
o Asexual reproduction
 Fragmentation of their hyphae
- Spores
o Asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi can happen by its formation
o Fungi are usually identified by spore type
 Bacterial endospores
 Allow a bacterial cell to survive adverse environmental conditions
 One vegetative bacterial cell = one endospore
o Not a true reproduction since it doesn’t increase the total
number of cells
 Fungal spore
 Breaks off the parents cell and producing a new organism
o True reproduction
 Can survive for extended periods in dry or hot environments
o Most do not exhibit the extreme tolerance and longevity of
bacterial endospores.
o Types
 Asexual Spores
 Anamorph
 Formed by the hyphae of one organism
o Produced by an individual fungus through mitosis and
subsequent cell division
o There is no fusion of the nuclei of cells
 Genetically identical with parent cell when they germinate
  Two Types
o Conidiospore/conidium
 A unicellular or multicellular spore that is not enclosed
in a sac
 Conidophore
 Conidia are formed in a chain at the end of its
tail
 Example
o Penicillin
o Aspergillus
 Arthroconidia
 Conidia formed by the fragmentation of a
septate hypha into single, slightly thickened
cells
 Example
o Coccidioides immitis
 Blastoconidia
 Formed from the buds of its parent call
 Example
o Yeasts
 Candida albicans
 Cryptococcus
 Chlamydoconidium/chlamydospore
 A thick-walled spore formed by rounding and
enlargement within a hyphal segment
 Example
o Candida albicans.
o Sporangiospore
 Formed within a sporangium, or sac, at the end of an
aerial hypha called a sporangiophore
 A sporangium contain hundreds of sporangiospores
 Examples
 Rhizopus
 Sexual Spores
 Teleomorph
 Result from the fusion of nuclei from two opposite mating strains of the
same species of fungus
o A fungal sexual spore results from sexual reproduction
o Made less frequently than asexual spores
 Because it requires two different mating strains
  Organisms that grow from sexual spores will have genetic
characteristics of both parental strains
 Phases
o Plasmogamy
 A haploid nucleus of a donor cell (+) penetrates the
cytoplasm of a recipient cell (-)
o Karyogamy
 The (+) and (-) nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote
nucleus.
o Meiosis
 The diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei (sexual
spores), some of which may be genetic recombinants.
 Zygospore
o Fusion of haploid cells produces zygospore
 Deuteromycota/deuteromycetes
 A “holding category” for fungi whose sexual reproduction has not yet
been observed
 rRNA is used to classify these organisms

Nutritional Adaptation of Fungus

- Fungi
o Generally adapted to environments that would be hostile to bacteria
o Chemoheterotrophs
o Absorbs nutrients rather than ingesting them
o Nutritional characteristics:
 Fungi usually grow better in an environment with a pH of about 5, which is too
acidic for the growth of most common bacteria.
 Almost all molds are aerobic. Most yeasts are facultative anaerobes.
 Most fungi are more resistant to osmotic pressure than bacteria; most can
therefore grow in relatively high sugar or salt concentrations
 Fungi can grow on substances with a very low moisture content, generally too
low to support the growth of bacteria.
 Fungi require somewhat less nitrogen than bacteria for an equivalent amount of
growth.
 Fungi are often capable of metabolizing complex carbohydrates, such as lignin (a
component of wood), that most bacteria can’t use for nutrients

Medically Important Fungi

- Zygomycota
o Conjugation fungi
 o Saprophytic molds that have coenocytic hyphae
 Saprophytic
 Obtaining food by absorbing dissolved organic materials
o Example
o Rhizopus stolonifera
 Common black bread mold
 Its asexual spores are sporangiospores
 When the sporangium breaks open, the sporangiospores are dispersed
 If they fall on a suitable medium, they will germinate into a new mold
thallus.
 Zygospores
 Sexual spores
 A large spore enclosed in a thick wall
 Forms when the nuclei of two cells that are morphologically similar to
each other fuse.
- Microsporidia
o Unusual eukaryotes
 They lack mitochondria
 Don’t have microtubules
 Obligate intracellular parasites
o Sexual reproduction has not been observed
 Probably occurs within the host
o Have been reported to be the cause of a number of human diseases most notably in
AIDS patients
o Cheonic diarrhea
o Keratoconjunctivitis
 Inflammation of the conjunctiva near the cornea
- Ascomycota
o Sac fungi
 Because of Ascus
 A sac-like structure wherein ascospore are produced
o forms when the nuclei of two cells that can be either
morphologically similar or dissimilar fuse
o Molds with septate hyphae and some yeasts
o Their asexual spores
 Usually conidia produced in long chains from the conidiophore.
 Conidia = dust
 These spores freely detach from the chain at the slightest disturbance
and float in the air like dust.
- Basidiomycota
o club fungi
  also possess septate hyphae
 derived from the club shape of the basidium
o Includes fungi that produce mushroom
o Basidiospores
 Formed externally on a base pedestal called a basidium
 Usually four basidiospores per basidium.
o Some of the basidiomycota produce asexual conidiospores.
o Example
 Cryptococcus neoformans

Mycoses/Fungal Disease

- Generally chronic (long-lasting) infections because fungi grow slowly

- Fungi are related to animals
o Drugs that affect fungal cells may also affect animal cells,
 Making fungal infections of humans and other animals often difficult to treat.
- Some fungi cause disease by producing toxins
- Five Groups
o Systemic Mycoses
 Deep within the body
 Not restricted to any particular region of the body but can affect a
number of tissues and organs
o These infections typically begin in the lungs and then spread to
other body tissues..
 Usually caused by fungi that live in the soil
 Transmitted by inhalation
 They are not contagious
 from animal to human
 from human to human
 Two systemic mycoses
 Histoplasmosis
o Caused by Histoplasma fungal spores
 Coccidioidomycosis
o Valley fever
o Cause by Coccidiodes
o Subcutaneous Mycoses
 Beneath the skin
 Caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil and on vegetation.
 Sporotrichosis
 A subcutaneous infection acquired by gardeners and farmers
 Infection occurs by direct implantation of spores or mycelial fragments into a
puncture wound in the skin.
o Cutaneous Mycoses
 Dermatomycoses
 Affects
 Hair
 Skin
 Nails
 Dermatophytes secrete keratinase
 An enzyme that degrades keratin
o A protein found in hair, skin, and nails.
 Transmission
 Direct contact or by contact with infected hairs and epidermal cells
o Human to human
o Animal to human
o Superficial Mycoses
 Localised
 Hair shaft
 Superficial (surface) epidermal cells
 Prevalent in tropical climates.
o Opportunistic Mycoses
 Caused by normal microbiota or fungi
 A number of fungi, including opportunistic pathogens, are found in and
on the human body.
 Generally harmless in its normal
 Can become pathogenic in a host who is/whose/who has
 Seriously debilitated or traumatized,
 Under treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics
 Whose immune system is suppressed by
o Drugs
o Immune disorder
 Lung disease.
 Examples
 Pneumocystis
o Opportunistic pathogen in individuals with compromised
immune systems and is the most common life-threatening
infection in AIDS patients
 Stachybotrys
o Which normally grows on cellulose found in dead plants but in
recent years has been found growing on water-damaged walls
of homes
 Mucormycosis
o Opportunistic mycosis caused by Rhizopus and Mucor
 o The infection occurs mostly in patients who have
 Diabetes mellitus
 Leukemia
 undergoing treatment with immunosuppressive drugs
 Aspergillosis
o An opportunistic mycosis caused by Aspergillus
o Occurs in people who have debilitating lung diseases or cancer
and have inhaled Aspergillus spores.
 Cryptococcus and Penicillium
o Can cause fatal diseases in AIDS patients
o May be transmitted from one person to an uninfected person
but do not usually infect immunocompetent people.
 Yeast infection/candidiasis
o Most frequently caused by Candida albicans
o May occur as
 Vulvovaginal candidiasis
 Thrush
 A mucocutaneous candidiasis. Candidiasis
o Frequently occurs in
 Newborns
 People with AIDS
 People being treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics

Economic Effects of Fungi

Fungi Positive Negative

Saccharomyces Bread, Wine, Beer Food Spoilage
Trichoderma Cellulose used for juices and Cryphonectria parasitica
fabric (chestnut blight)
Taxomyces Taxol production Ceratocytis ulm (Dutch elm
disease)
Entomorphage Gypsy Moth Control

Books Used:

Chapter 27 – Mahon and Lehman - Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology 6E

Chapter 12.1 (pages 324-333) - Gerard J. Tortora, Berdell R. Funke, Christine L. Case – Microbiology, an
introduction 13E
* study outline (page 357) also helps since most info sa lesson ni Dean kay from this book (seriously,
dean was just reading this chapter most of the time)