 Aksum was a wealthy African trading empire from the first through the eighth centuries.

A hub between the Hellenic, Arabic, and African worlds, it encompassed the northeastern
highland regions of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, and extended as far east as Southern
Arabia during its height.

 Prospering from a luxury-goods trade based out of the port of Adulis, the empire
developed urban centers characterized by monumental architecture. Today, the former
imperial capital at Aksum contains some of the best-preserved examples of Aksumite-
style architecture, including stelae from the third and fourth centuries, and obelisks, royal
tombs, and palaces dating from the sixth and seventh centuries.

 While little is known about Aksum’s early history, its power was renowned abroad. The
emperor Ezana converted to Christianity around 330 A.D., making Aksum into one of
the earliest Christian states.

 The transformation was marked by the replacement of Aksumite coins bearing the
polytheistic crescent and disk with those bearing crosses.

 With the exception of Egypt and Meroë, Aksum was the only ancient African state with
written records. Inscriptions were frequently multilingual, testifying to the cosmopolitan
nature of Aksumite communications.

 One such example is the so-called Ezana Stone, whose Greek, Ge’ez, and Sabaean
inscriptions recount the ruler’s military prowess and thank the pre-Christian god of war

 Coins were equally multicultural: gold coins were minted with Greek mottos for
international use, and brass coins were struck with Ge’ez inscriptions for local use. An
indigenous Semitic language, Ge’ez later became the language of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church.

 The Aksumite capital was a ceremonial and residential center encircled by suburbs and
minor cemeteries. The palaces of

o Enda Mikael,

o Ta‘akha Maryam, Dungur,

o and Enda Sem‘on,

 all built before the seventh century, anchored the western residential area.
 Typical of northern Ethiopian built structures, they were composed of mud- or lime-
plastered stone walls interspersed with dressed beams.

 Square or rectangular in form, the monumental structures stood on high-stepped granite

podia with paved floors.

 Small buildings and courtyards surrounded a central pavilion, whose columned rooms
were decorated with paintings.

 The mass of the walls were divided by string courses and modulated by alternating
salients and redresses. Further punctuating the walls were granite doors and windows, or
“Aksumite frieze” windows constructed with square projecting cross beams. Still other
openings were framed with rounded cross beams, nicknamed “monkey heads.” Lower-
class stone and mud dwellings topped with thatched roofs dotted the slopes around these
palaces.

 To the east of the town, a ceremonial approach led to the religious center and royal
necropolis, which included towering granite stelae.

 Dated indirectly to the third and fourth centuries, the stelae were likely built by both pre-
Christian and Christian kings.

 Nearly 120 are located in the Stelae Park adjacent to the Maj Hejja torrent, while an
additional 600 rough-hewn stelae lie to the west at the Gudit Field, a non-elite necropolis
of the second to fourth century.

 During the 1906 Deutsche-Aksum archaeological expedition, the stelae near Maj
Hejja were numbered according to size; in the 1960s, they were divided into northern and
southern sections.

 The southern group is distinguished by the size and complexity of its stelae and by the
four major tombs contained within its bounds. Unique in the complex are the fourth-
century Tomb of the Brick Arches, where a staircase descends into multiple stone-walled
rooms adorned with horseshoe-shaped brick arches, and the fourth- or fifty-century Tomb
of the False Door, where a lifesized carved door stood above stone slabs concealing the
tomb entry.

 Underneath Stela 1 is the massive slab roof of the third-century Nefas Mawcha tomb,
which was legendarily dropped by the Devil when the Ark of the Covenant was brought
 to Aksum. The contents of the tombs—glass, jewelry, ivory, coins, sculpture, and pottery
—confirm the presence of imported goods mentioned in historical sources, like the first-
century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

 A Late Imperial Roman blown glass bottle (X.21.190) in the shape of a bunch of grapes

in the Museum’s collection is similar to one found in Aksum. Now broken, the
translucent, mold-made goblet with raised bosses was likely imported in the pre-Christian
era. Local artists reshaped broken imported objects or raw glass into inlays for mosaic
panels, such as those found in the Tomb of the Brick Arches.

 Stelae 1–3 were arranged as an ensemble, though only the third remained continuously

standing. At 32 meters and over 550 tons,

 Stela 1 was the largest obelisk constructed in the ancient world. In the northern group,
stelae of lesser quality and height are arranged in another royal burial place.

 These stelae are primarily unadorned, with the exceptions of Stela 7, whose front and rear
bear a houselike motif, and Stelae 4–6. Measuring between 15 and 32 meters, Stelae 1–6
are carved representations of Aksumite buildings. Perhaps symbolic houses, each
incorporates false doors, windows, and salients and redresses.

 Because of their representations of timber beams, these stelae were likely carved later
than the plain examples. While palaces never exceeded two stories, the stelae exaggerate
their height.

 The apex of each stela has a distinctive semi-circular top with a concave base, which
formerly held bronze or gilded plaques secured by metal nails.

 The stelae were quarried at Wuchate Golo, to the west of the city. Wood wedges swollen
with water split the rock from the earth, while pick-type tools created fine details. Though
the exact details of the transportation and construction of the stelae are unknown, it is
likely that wood rollers and rope pulleys were used. Once on site, the stelae were placed
into walled foundation pits, which were then filled with rubble and large rocks. Finally,
they were enclosed at the base by a pair of massive, notched slabs, which held the
monuments upright. Small basinlike indentations and stairs on the remaining base
plates suggest their ritual use. While many of the smaller stelae tumbled over time, the
colossal Stelae 1 and 2 were broken because of human action. Previously, it was believed
that the height and weight of Stela 1 caused it to collapse during construction. However,
 recent analysis shows that the structure did not fail but was intentionally toppled as the
empire declined in the late sixth century. By contrast, Stela 2 was accidentally destroyed:
treasure seekers looting the subterranean tomb under the monument disrupted its
foundational structure, sending the stela smashing to the ground. Two cathedrals
dedicated to Mary now occupy the ceremonial area once linked to the stelae field.

 Many churches were built in Christian Aksum, including the famed Cathedral of Our
Lady Mary of Zion (Enda Maryam Seyon).

 Following imperial convention, it was a rectangular, oriented basilica with apses, five
barrel-vaulted aisles, seven chapels, and many altars.

 Destroyed during the sixteenth century, it was replaced in the mid-seventeenth by a

crenellated Gondarine-style structure.

 Like its predecessor, the church is set upon a stepped podium. In 1965, the historic
cathedral was joined by the new Enda Maryam Seyon.

 The massive concrete domed structure was commissioned by Emperor Haile Selassie to
permit mixed gender worship.

 Veneration of Saint Mary increased in Ethiopia in the fifteenth century, prompting a

surge in the popularity of portable icons bearing her image.

 The depiction of Mary wearing a blue mantle while carrying the Christ Child in her left
arm was standardized during the Gondarine period, as seen in an early eighteenth-century
example in the Museum’s collection (1997.81.1).

 Facing the historic church is a cluster of thirteen granite thrones aligned in two rows.

Attributed to the twelve judges of Aksum, or to Christian missionaries and rulers, they
were later used in coronation ceremonies.

 The square thrones have indented channels that formerly held pillared canopies, back
rests, and inscribed panels. A fourteenth throne with intact corner pillars stands apart
from the group, while additional thrones are scattered throughout the city.

 Mounting political and economic problems caused the Aksumite empire’s decline
between 1,000 and 1,300 years ago.
 Despite the empire’s eventual fall, Aksum remained the coronation site of Ethiopian
kings through the mid-nineteenth century, and its architecture influenced later
construction.

 Nowhere is this more evident than in Lalibela, where a complex of medieval rock-hewn
churches incorporate Aksumite forms and ornaments.

 The basilica church of Biete Medhani Alem (“Church of the Redeemer”) is believed to
follow the original form of the Enda Maryam Seyon in Aksum.

 Other churches in the Lalibela complex incorporate stela-shaped or “Aksumite frieze”

window openings, while Biete Amanuel resembles Aksumite palaces.

 Like the stelae themselves, it is a monumental sculptural interpretation of a built form of

architecture.

 While most Aksumite churches have since been destroyed or replaced, Aksumite built
churches remain at sites in the Tigray Plateau, including the Debre Damo monastery
(founded ca. 6th century) and Yemrehana Krestos (ca. 12th century).

 In 1980, the city of Aksum’s ancient architectural heritage was added to UNESCO’s

World Heritage List, encouraging study and restoration of the site.

 UNESCO facilitated the recent return of Stela 2, which was taken to Rome in 1937
during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia.

 After numerous political and war-related delays, the obelisk was returned to Aksum in
2005, and reassembled on its original location in 2008.

 Today, Aksum is a regional university town with a population of about 56,000. While
still renowned for its stelae, the town is perhaps best known today for its association with
the Ark of the Covenant. Ethiopian tradition says that the Ark was brought to Ethiopia
from Jerusalem by Menelik I, son of Makeda (the Queen of Sheba) and King Solomon.

 The ark is still kept in the Chapel of the Tablet in the compound of Aksum Cathedral,
where a yellow-clad monk and his two youthful attendants guard it.
Aksumite currency depicting King Endubis The Kingdom
of Aksum at its greatest extent in the 6th century.
  The Kingdom of Aksum (Ge'ez: መንግሥተ አክሱም), also known as the Kingdom of
Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom centered in Northern Ethiopia,
and Eritrea.[2][3] 

 Axumite rulers styled themselves as King of kings, king of Aksum, Himyar, Raydan,
Saba, Salhen, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kush.[4] Ruled by the Aksumites, it existed from
approximately 80 BC to AD 825.[5] 

 The polity was centered in the city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron
Age period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.

 Aksum became a major player on the commercial route between the Roman

Empire and Ancient India.

 The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency, with the
state establishing its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush.

 It also regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula and

eventually extended its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
The Manichaei prophet Mani (died 274 AD) regarded Axum as one of the four great
powers of his time, the others being Persia, Rome and China.[2][6][7][8] 

 It ruled the South Arabia of Yemen for half a century in the 6th century.

 The Aksumites erected monumental stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-

Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, at
90 feet.[9] Under Ezana (fl. 320–360) Aksum adopted Christianity. [10][11]

The kingdom's ancient capital, also called Axum, is now a town in Tigray

Region (northern Ethiopia).

The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. [12][13] Tradition claims Axum
as the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of
Sheba.[14]

Historical records[edit]

Main article: Ethiopian historiography

  Aksum is mentioned in the first-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an
important market place for the trade in ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient
world.

 It states that the ruler of Aksum in the first century was Zoskales, who, besides ruling the
kingdom, likewise controlled land near the Red Sea:

  Adulis (near Massawa) and lands through the highlands of present-day Eritrea. He is also

said to have been familiar with Greek literature.

 Below Ptolemais of the Hunts, at a distance of about three thousand stadia, there is

Adulis, a port established

 There are imported into these places, undressed cloth made in Egypt for the Berbers;
robes from Arsinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; double-fringed linen mantles;
many articles of flint glass, and others of murrhine, made in Diospolis; and brass, which
is used for ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin; sheets of soft copper, used for
cooking-utensils and cut up for bracelets and anklets for the women; iron, which is made
into spears used against the elephants and other wild beasts, and in their wars.

 History[edit]

Origins[edit]

 Largely on the basis of Carlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work on Ethiopian
history, Aksum was previously thought to have been founded by the Sabaeans, who
spoke a language from the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family.

 Evidence suggests that Semitic-speaking Aksumites semiticized the Agaw people, who

originally spoke other Afroasiatic languages from the family's Cushitic branch, and had
 already established an independent civilization in the territory before the arrival of the
Sabaeans.

The King Ezana's Stela, an Aksumite obelisk in Axum, Ethiopia

 Scholars like Stuart Munro-Hay thus point to the existence of an older kingdom known
as Dʿmt, which flourished in the area between the tenth and fifth centuries BC, prior to
the proposed Sabaean migration in the fourth or fifth century BC.

 They also cite evidence indicating that Sabaean settlers resided in the region for little
more than a few decades.[12] Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor,
limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps
representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance
with the civilization of D'MT or some proto-Aksumite state.[12] As George Hatke put it:

 The most significant and lasting impact of these colonists was the establishment of a
writing system and the introduction of Semitic speech—both of which the Ethiopians
modified considerably. . . . South Arabian culture [was] a foreign commodity from which
the Ethiopians were able to freely pick and chose when they saw fit, rather than an entire
civilization imposed by foreign rulers.[17]

 The Ge'ez language is no longer universally thought of, as previously assumed, to be an

offshoot of Sabaean or Old South Arabian, [18] and there is some linguistic (though not
written) evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia since
 approximately 2000 BC.[19] However, the Ge'ez script later replaced Epigraphic South
Arabian in the Kingdom of Aksum.

This article or section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk

page for more information. (July 2020)

A 1907 reproduction of the damaged painting Painting of the Six Kings depicting the Ethiopian
Emperor of Axum, created by an Umayyad Caliphate painter in the 8th century AD.[20]

An Axumite jar spout

Empire[edit]

The Ezana Stone records negus Ezana's conversion to Christianity and his subjugation of various
neighboring peoples, including Meroë.

Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near Senafe

 The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.
[21]
 It existed approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite
period c. fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.
  According to the Book of Aksum, Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis,
son of Cush.[22] The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom
used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.[12][23]

 The Empire of Aksum at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea,

northern Ethiopia, Western Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia and parts of eastern Sudan.[23] 

 The capital city of the empire was Aksum, now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller
community, the city of Aksum was once a bustling metropolis, cultural and economic
center.

 Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps
providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the
city, the Aksumites had cemeteries with elaborate grave stones called stelee or obelisks.

 Other important cities included Yeha, Hawulti-Melazo, Matara, Adulis, and Qohaito, the

last three of which are now in Eritrea.

 By the reign of Endubis in the late third century, it had begun minting its own currency
and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time along with
the Sasanian Empire, Roman Empire, and "Three Kingdoms" China.

 The Aksumites adopted Christianity as its state religion in 325 or 328 AD under King

Ezana, and Aksum was the first state ever to use the image of the cross on its coins.[24][25]

 Around the 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Axumites led by Sembrouthes were
victorious over the Sesea, with Sesea becoming a tributary of the Kingdom of Aksum. [26]
[27]
 

 Around 330, Ezana of Axum led his army into the Kingdom of Meroë, conquering and
sacking the town itself. A large stone monument was left there, and the conquest is also
related on Ezana Stone.[28]

King Kaleb[edit]

 Around 525, King Kaleb sent an expedition to Yemen against the Jewish Himyarite

king Dhu Nuwas, who was persecuting the Christian community there.

 For nearly half a century south Arabia would become an Ethiopian protectorate
under Abraha and his son Masruq.[29] 
 Dhu Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed a Christian
Himyarite, Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), as his viceroy.

 However, around 530 this viceroy was deposed by the Aksumite general Abraha with
support of Ethiopians who had settled in Yemen.

 Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. Kaleb did
not pursue the matter further, and recognized Abraha as his new viceroy. [30]

 After Abraha's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Axumite vice-royalty in

Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Axum.

 However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-
Karib sought help from Khosrow I, the Sassanid Persian Emperor, thus triggering
the Aksumite–Persian wars.

 Khosrow sent a small fleet and army under commander Vahrez to depose the current king
of Yemen. The war culminated with the Siege of Sana'a, capital of Axumite Yemen.

 After its fall in 570, and Masruq death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In
575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Axumites.

 The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and
becoming hereditary governor of Yemen.

 According to Munro-Hay, these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great
power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money
and manpower.[citation needed]
Fresco of king Khosrau I war against Masruq Abraha in Yemen

According to Ethiopian traditions, Kaleb eventually abdicated and retired to a monastery. It is

also possible that Ethiopia was affected by the Plague of Justinian around this time.[12]

14th century illustration showing the king of Aksum declining the request of a Meccan
delegation to yield up the Muslims. It is also known as First Hegira

 Aksum, though weakened, remained a strong empire and trading power until the rise
of Islam in the 7th century.

 However, unlike the relations between the Islamic powers and Christian Europe, Aksum
(see Sahama), was on good terms with its Islamic neighbors and provided shelter
to Muhammad's early followers around 615.
 [2][6]
  Nevertheless, as early as 640, Umar sent a naval expedition against Adulis,
the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz, but it was eventually defeated.[31] In the 7th
century, early Muslims from Mecca sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by
travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijra. However
the religion did not established until the arrival of the Ottomans in the 15th century. [32][11]

 Aksumite naval power also declined throughout the period, though in 702 Aksumite
pirates were able to invade the Hejaz and occupy Jeddah. In retaliation,
however, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was able to take the occupied parts back and
the Dahlak Archipelago from Aksum, which became Muslim from that point on.

 After a second golden age in the early 6th century[12] the empire began to decline in the
mid 6th century,[33] eventually ceasing its production of coins in the early 7th century.
Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to
the highlands for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital.

 Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum)
as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and
their tributaries.

 While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no
longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants.

 The capital was moved to a new location, currently unknown, though it may have been
called Ku'bar or Jarmi.[12]

 Eventually, the Rashidun Caliphate took control of the Red Sea and Egypt by 646,
pushing Aksum into economic isolation.

 Northwest of Aksum, in modern-day Sudan, the Christian states

of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia lasted till the 13th century before being overrun by
bedouin tribes and Funj sultanate.

 Aksum, isolated, nonetheless still remained Christian.[12]

 Under the reign of Degna Djan, during the 10th century, the empire kept expanding
south, and sent troops into the modern-day region of Kaffa,[34] while at the same time
undertaking missionary activity into Angot and Amhara.
  Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "Gudit"
defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature.

 While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her
existence has been questioned by some western authors.

 Another possibility is that the Aksumite power was ended by a southern pagan queen
named Bani al-Hamwiyah, possibly of the tribe al-Damutah or Damoti (Sidama).

 It is clear from contemporary sources that a female usurper did indeed rule the country at
this time, and that her reign ended some time before 1003.

 After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Agaw Zagwe
dynasty in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size
and scope.

 However, Yekuno Amlak, who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the
modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the
last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od.

 It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of
Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty
at Lalibela and Yemrehana Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence.[12]

Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st century AD (Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long
decline against pressures from the various Islamic powers leagued against it.
 The economically important northern Silk Road and southern Spice (Eastern) trade
routes. The sea routes around the horn of Africa and the Indian sub-continent made
Aksum an important trading port for nearly a millennium.

 Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea, Aksum

was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean (Rome,
later Byzantium), exporting ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and
importing silk and spices.[2][6] 

 Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit
in trade between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.

 The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time,
agricultural products.

 The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their
principal crops were grains such as wheat and barley.

 The people of Aksum also raised cattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also
hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns.

 They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The
empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits.

 These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: salt.
Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.[11][36]

 It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked the
Roman Empire and India. This change took place around the start of the 1st century.

 The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red
Sea was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland connections to
the Levant. Starting around 100 BC a route from Egypt to India was established, making
use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea directly
to southern India.

 By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older
routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in
greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from Roman Egypt to the
Arabian Sea and India.[37][38]
  The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading
situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as
ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals.

 In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an
inland trading network.

 A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa
was that of the Kingdom of Kush, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via
the Nile corridor.

 By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously
Kushite. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in
Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken
to Meroë, the capital of Kush.

 During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their
control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which
bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier
of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian
Ocean trading system.[40]

Society[edit]

The Aksumite population consisted of Ethiopic-speaking people,[41][42][43] Cushitic-speaking

people, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking people (the Kunama and Nara).

Aksumites had a modified feudal system to farm the land.[24][25]

Kings[edit]

Main article: List of kings of Axum

The Aksumite kings had the official title ነገሠ ፡ ነገሠተ ngś ngśt – King of Kings (later
vocalization Ge'ez ንጉሠ ፡ ነገሥት nigūśa nagaśt, Modern Ethiosemitic nigūse negest).
Culture[edit]

 Ruins of Al–Qalis Church cathedral built by Abraha in Sana'a between 527 and 560

 The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet,
the Ge'ez script, which was eventually modified to include vowels, becoming an abugida.
Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to
mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the
most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum.

 Under Emperor Ezana, Aksum adopted Christianity in place of its

former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. This gave rise to the present
day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic
Church in 1959), and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the
Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following
the Council of Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and
its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Ge'ez.[2][6]
Religion[edit]

Typical Aksumite architecture – the monastery of Debre Damo.

 Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion

related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-
and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. [44] In
the UNESCO sponsored General History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray,
suggests that the pagan Aksumites worshipped Astar, his son, Mahrem, and Beher.[45]

 Coins of king Endybis, 227–235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ
BICIΔΑΧΥ, possily "man of Dachu, (king) of Axumites", linguistically mixed(?). The
right one reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".

 Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with
only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad
of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr.

 " He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying
that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of
Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AC."

 He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large
numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural,
economic, and political center could have had a considerable impact." and that "their
influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period.
 By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-
Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no
longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the
acceptance of Christianity."[46]

 Before converting to Christianity King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he
might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem.

 Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Spirit".[47] Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by
his teacher Frumentius, the founder of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

  Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point
staged the conversion of the empire.

 We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they
replaced the disc and crescent with the cross, the Axumite Jews, however, rejected the
new religion and rebelled by creating the Kingdom of Semien.

 Frumentius was in contact with the Church of Alexandria, and was appointed Bishop of
Ethiopia around the year 330.

 The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum,
allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity.

 However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that
the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by
rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon.

 Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is
said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for
safekeeping.

 Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar when the followers of the
Prophet Muhammed were persecuted by the ruling tribe and begun migrating after the
first followers got asylum from the King many begun to migrate. All of them returned
to Medina in 622.
Ethiopian sources[edit]

 Ethiopian sources such as the Kebra Nagast and the Fetha Nagast[50][11] describe Aksum as

a Jewish Kingdom. The Kebra Nagast contains a narrative of how the Queen of
Sheba/Queen Makeda of Ethiopia met King Solomon and traces Ethiopia's to Menelik I,
her son by King Solomon of Israel.

 In its existing form, the Kebra Nagast is at least 700 years old and is considered by
the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to be a reliable and historic work.

Main article: Aksumite currency

Silver coin of Ezana.

 The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins,[37]
[38]
 which bore legends in Ge'ez and Greek.

 From the reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and
bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great
importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to
its neighbours.

 Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were
minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the conversion of the
empire to Christianity.

 The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument
of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire.
Homely architecture

Ruins of the Dungur palace in Axum

 In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of

loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks
which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the
walls narrowed as they rose higher.

 These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins.

 Defin by Britanica

 Podium, plural podiums, or podia, in architecture, any of various elements that form the
“foot,” or base, of a structure, such as a raised pedestal or base, a low wall supporting
columns, or the structurally or decoratively emphasized lowest portion of a wall

 Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often
whitewashed, and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the
stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the
exterior and sometimes the interior
Kidane Mehret Church in Metera is one of the  few Churches which posses the original style of
construction known as re'ssi hibey (monkey head) #Eritrea

 Example of  Yemrehana Krestos Church

  Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented
at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients.
This helped to strengthen the walls.

 Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals,
doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as
enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides.

 Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at
the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used.

 Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the
later rock hewn churches of Tigray and Lalibela.[12]

Define

Pavilion, light temporary or semipermanent structure used in gardens and pleasure grounds.
Although there are many variations, the basic type is a large, light, airy garden room with a high-
peaked roof resembling a canopy

Palaces

 Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures

pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The
largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 ×
 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were
even larger.[12]

 Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were
like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts
a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that
end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found
in Hawelti. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched
thatch forming the roof.[12]

Model of an Axum Palace by A. Davey

Stelae

 The stelae (hawilt/hawilti in local languages) are perhaps the most identifiable part of the
Aksumite architectural legacy.

 These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied
palace.

 They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design.

 The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters ( about 11 stories
building) high had it not fractured.

 The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive
underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem
denoting the king's or the noble's rank.
  The African kingdom of Axum (also Aksum), located on the northern edge of the
highland zone of the Red Sea coast, just above the horn of Africa, was founded in the 1st
century CE, flourished from the 3rd to 6th century CE, and then survived as a much
smaller political entity into the 8th century CE.

 The territory Axum once controlled is today occupied by the states of Ethiopia, Eritrea,
Djibouti, Somalia, and Somaliland. Prospering thanks to agriculture, cattle herding, and
control over trade routes which saw gold and ivory exchanged for foreign luxury goods,
the kingdom and its capital of Axum built lasting stone monuments and achieved a
number of firsts. It was the first sub-Saharan African state to mint its own coinage and,
around 350 CE, the first to officially adopt Christianity.

 Axum even created its own script, Ge'ez, which is still in use in Ethiopia today. The
kingdom went into decline from the 7th century CE due to increased competition from
Muslim Arab traders and the rise of rival local peoples such as the Bedja.

 Surviving as a much smaller territory to the south, the remnants of the once great
kingdom of Axum would eventually rise again and form the great kingdom of
Abyssinia in the 13th century CE.

Name & Foundation

The name Axum, or Akshum as it is sometimes referred to, may derive from a combination of
two words from local languages - the Agew word for water and the Ge'ez word for
official, shum. The water reference is probably due to the presence of large ancient rock cisterns
in the area of the capital at Axum.

THE AXUM RULERS NOW CALLED THEMSELVES BY THE RATHER GRAND

TITLE NEGUSA NEGAST OR 'KING OF KINGS.' 

The region had certainly been occupied by agrarian communities similar in culture to those in
southern Arabia since the Stone Age, but the kingdom of Axum began to prosper from the 1st
century CE thanks to its rich agricultural lands, dependable summer monsoon rains, and control
of regional trade. This trade network included links with Egypt to the north and, to the east,
along the East African coast and southern Arabia. Wheat, barley, millet, and teff (a high-yield
grain) had been grown with success in the region at least as early as the 1st millennium BCE
while cattle herding dates back to the 2nd millennium BCE, an endeavour aided by the vast
grassland savannah of the Ethiopian plateau. Goats and sheep were also herded and an added
advantage for everyone was the absence of the tropical parasitic diseases that have blighted other
parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Wealth acquired through trade and military might was added to this
prosperous agricultural base and so, in the late 1st century CE, a single king replaced a
confederation of chiefdoms and forged a united kingdom that would dominate the Ethiopian
highlands for the next six centuries. The kingdom of Axum, one of the greatest in the world at
that time, was born.

Map of Ancient & Medieval Sub-Saharan African States

by Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Expansion

The kingdom of Axum really started to take off around 350 CE. Axum had already established
some form of dominance over Yemen (then called Himyar) in southern Arabia as well as
Somalia in the southeast and several smaller tribes to the southwest. Subjugated tribes, although
left semi-autonomous, had to pay tribute, typically in the form of hundreds of heads of cattle (as
indicated by Axumite inscriptions). This perhaps gave some slight justification to the Axum
rulers now calling themselves by the rather grand title Negusa Negast or 'king of kings.' Details
of the Axum government and how this absolute monarch controlled conquered tribes over the
centuries are lacking but the title 'king of kings' would suggest conquered rulers were permitted
to continue to reign over their own peoples.

In the mid-4th century CE, Nubia (formerly known as Kush and located in modern Sudan), with
its capital at Meroe, attacked Axum from the north (or vice-versa), perhaps because of a dispute
over control of the region's ivory trade. The Axum king Ezana I (r. c. 303-350 CE) responded
with a large force, sacking Meroe. Once mighty Nubia, already in serious decline and weakened
by overpopulation, overgrazing and deforestation, was soon toppled and broke up into three
separate states: Faras, Dongola, and Soba. This collapse left the way clear for Axum to dominate
the region.  

THAT AXUM'S TRADE WAS BOOMING IS EVIDENCED BY THE FINDING OF THE

KINGDOM'S COINAGE AT SUCH FAR-FLUNG PLACES AS INDIA & SRI LANKA.

Another period of great Axum expansion came during the reign of Kaleb I in the first quarter of
the 6th century CE. The kingdom came to occupy a territory about 300 kilometres in length and
160 kilometres across; not so large perhaps, but its control of trade goods was the key, not
geography. Rulers were keen, too, to indulge in a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in
Yemen in an effort to completely control the many trading vessels that sailed down the Straits of
Bab-al-Mandeb, one of the busiest sea stretches in the ancient world. Raids had been made in
Yemen in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, but it was the 6th century CE which saw a major
escalation in Axum ambitions. The king of Yemen, Yusuf As'ar Yathar, had been persecuting
Christians since 523 CE, and Kaleb, who himself then ruled over a Christian state, responded by
sending a force to Yemen in c. 525 CE. This invasion was supported by the Byzantine
Empire with whom Axum had long-established diplomatic ties (whether the support was merely
diplomatic or material is not agreed upon by scholars). Victorious, the Axum king was able to
leave a substantial garrison and install a viceroy which ruled the region until the Sassanids
arrived in 570 CE.
Axum the Capital

The city of Axum (sometimes called Axumis) is located at an altitude of over 2,000 metres
(6800 ft) in the north of the Ethiopian highlands (in the modern province of Tigray), close to the
River Tekeze, a tributary of the Nile. The city, occupied from the 1st century CE, was both the
capital and a ceremonial centre which included many stone monuments. Some such monuments
are very similar to Egyptian obelisks, although curiously, the granite stone is sometimes worked
to resemble architectural features of dry-stone and timber Axumite buildings. Many of these
stelae are around 24 metres (78 ft) in height, although one fallen and now broken example is 33
metres (108 ft) in total length and 520 tonnes in weight, making it the largest monolith ever to
have been transported anywhere in antiquity. The stelae were likely transported on log rollers
from a quarry 4.8 km (3 miles) away. Almost all were used as tomb markers and many have a
carved stone throne next to them, often covered in inscriptions.
Royal Obelisk, Axum

by Pzbinden7 (CC BY-SA)

Other remains of stone structures include three palace-like buildings which once had towers -
each with stone pillared basements, royal tombs with massive walls creating separate chambers,
water cisterns, irrigation channels, and two- or three-story buildings used as residences by the
Axum elite. Most large structures were built on a stepped granite base composed of dressed
blocks, with access provided by monumental staircases, usually consisting of seven steps. Stone
lion-head gargoyles often provided roof drainage.
Stone structures used clay instead of mortar, with a decorative effect achieved by alternating
projecting and recessed blocks. Wood was used between stone layers for horizontal support in
walls, for doorways, window frames, floors, roofs, and in ceiling corners to give extra structural
support. The decoration on many of buildings at Axum and the motifs used in Axumite art in
general such as the astral symbols of disc and crescent are evidence of influence from South
Arabian cultures across the Red Sea (although the influence may have been in the opposite
direction). The capital also had dedicated areas for craft workshops and, from the late 4th century
CE, many churches.

Trade

Gold (acquired from the southern territories under the kingdom's control or from war booty) and
ivory (from Africa's interior) were Axum's main exports - the Byzantines, in particular, could not
get enough of both - but other goods included salt, slaves, tortoiseshell, incense (frankincense
and myrrh), rhino horns, obsidian and emeralds (from Nubia). These goods went to the
kingdom's seaport of Adulis (modern Zula and actually 4 km from the sea), carried to the coast
by camel caravans. There they were exchanged for goods brought by Arab merchants such as
Egyptian and Indian textiles, swords and other weapons, iron, glass beads, bronze lamps, and
glassware. The presence of Mediterranean amphorae at Axum sites indicates that such goods
as wine and olive oil were also imported. That Axum trade was booming is evidenced by the
finding of the kingdom's coinage at such far-flung places as the eastern Mediterranean, India, and
Sri Lanka.

Adoption of Christianity

In the mid-4th century CE, the king of Axum, Ezana I, officially adopted Christianity. Prior to
that, the people of Axum had practised an indigenous polytheistic religion which was prevalent
on both sides of the Red Sea with some local additions such as Mahram, god of war, upheaval,
and monarchy, who was the most important Axumite god. Other notable gods included the moon
deity Hawbas, Astar, the representation of the planet Venus, and the chthonic gods Beher and
Meder. Such gods, as well as ancestors, had sacrifices made in their honour, especially cattle -
either living animals or votive representations of them.
Saint Frumentius

by Unknown Artist (Public Domain)

Traders and Egyptian missionaries had brought Christianity to the region during the early
centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and the official acceptance by Aksum may have occurred
because the kingdom had important trade connections to the North African provinces of
the Roman Empire, which itself had adopted Christianity a couple of decades earlier. Indeed,
there were many trade and diplomatic connections directly between Constantinople and Axum,
and it is probable that this passage of individuals to and fro also introduced Christianity into
Ethiopia. It is important to note, though, that the more ancient indigenous religious beliefs likely
carried on for some time, as indicated by the careful wording of rulers' inscriptions so as not to
alienate that part of the population which did not accept Christianity.

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According to traditional accounts, it was Frumentius, a 4th-century CE shipwrecked traveller
from Tyre, who introduced Christianity to the kingdom. Frumentius gained employment as a
teacher to the royal children, and then he became treasurer and advisor to the king, probably Ella
Amida. When Ella Amida was succeeded by his son Ezana I, whom Frumentius had even greater
sway over given that he had been his childhood tutor, the king was persuaded to adopt
Christianity. Frumentius next travelled to Alexandria to receive an official title from the
Patriarch there in order to aid his missionary work, then he returned to Axum and became the
first bishop of the kingdom. The dates of exactly when all this happened are wildly different
depending on one's ancient source and range from 315 to 360 CE, with the latter end of that
range being the more likely according to modern scholars. Frumentius was later made a saint for
his efforts in spreading the Gospel in East Africa.

The form of Christianity at Aksum was similar to that adopted in Coptic Egypt, indeed, the
Patriarch of Alexandria remained a strong figurehead in the Ethiopian Church even
when Islam arrived in the region from the 7th century CE. Churches were built, monasteries
founded, and translations made of the Bible. The most important church was at Axum, the
Church of Maryam Tsion, which, according to later Ethiopian medieval texts, housed the Ark of
the Covenant. The Ark is supposed to be still there, but as nobody is ever allowed to see it,
confirmation of its existence is difficult to achieve. The most important monastery in the Axum
kingdom was at Debre Damo, founded by the 5th-century CE Byzantine ascetic Saint Aregawi,
one of the celebrated Nine Saints who worked to spread Christianity in the region by establishing
monasteries. From the 5th century CE the rural population was converted, although, even
in cities, some temples to the old pagan gods would remain open well into the 6th century CE.
The success of these endeavours meant that Christianity would continue to be practised in
Ethiopia right into the 21st century CE.

A Cultural Mix: Writing & Coinage

The area which Axum would later occupy used an Arabian type script from the 5th century BCE
called Sabaean (a Semitic language then used in Southern Arabia). Greek was also used in some
inscriptions. The kingdom of Axum had its own writing system, the earliest examples of which
are found on sheets of schist rock slabs which date to the 2nd century CE. This script, called
Ge'ez or Ethiopic, resembles Sabaean but had gradually evolved into a quite distinct script which
included characters for vowels and consonants and which was read from left to right. The Ge'ez
script is still used today in modern Ethiopia.
Coin of King Ezana I

by Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. (CC BY-SA)

Another example of Axum's tendency to profitably mix ideas from different cultures can be seen
in the kingdom's coinage, the first sub-Saharan kingdom to have its own mint. The gold
and silver coins of Axum, which appeared from the 3rd century CE onwards, have Greek
inscriptions, Sabaean religious symbols, and they were minted adhering to Roman
standard weights. The most common material of the thousands of Axum coins discovered is
bronze. Coins and their legends are often our only information on Axum's various kings, 20 in
total. A portrait of the king is usually accompanied by two ears of corn and, from the reign of
Ezana I, a Christian cross. Legends include the name of the king, his title and an uplifting phrase,
for example, 'Peace to the People' and 'Health and Happiness to the People.'    

Art

In the arts, Axum potters produced simple red and black terracotta wares but without using a
wheel. Wares are usually matt in finish, and some are coated with a red slip. Forms are simple
cups, bowls, and spouted jugs. Decoration of geometric designs was achieved using incisions,
painting, stamps, and added three-dimensional pieces. By far the most common decorative motif
is the Christian cross. There seems not to have been either the inclination or know-how to
produce the finer wares which Axum imported from Mediterranean cultures.

No large-scale statues have been discovered from the kingdom but there are stone bases. One
example has indentations for feet carved into it with each foot space measuring 90 cm (35
inches) which would make the standing figure three-times life-size. An inscription on the base
indicates that there once stood a large metal figure on it, probably of a divinity. The same
 inscription mentions other statues of gold and bronze. The stone thrones found near stelae may
also have had seated metal statues on them. Small scale figurines abound and these depict nude
females and animals. Unfortunately, the impressive stone chamber tombs of the kingdom were
all looted in antiquity and only broken fragments of precious materials and pieces of storage
chests and boxes indicate what has been lost to posterity.

Decline & Later History

The kingdom of Axum went in decline from the late 6th century CE, perhaps due to overuse of
agricultural land or the incursion of western Bedja herders who, forming themselves into small
kingdoms, grabbed parts of Aksum territory for grazing their cattle and who persistently attacked
Axum's camel caravans. In addition, the policy of Axum's kings to allow conquered tribal chiefs
a good deal of autonomy often backfired and permitted some of them to have the means to
launch rebellions. Ultimately, Axum would pay dearly for its lack of any real state administrative
apparatus. Finally, there was from the early 7th century CE stiff competition for the Red Sea
trade networks from Arab Muslims. The heartland of the Axum state shifted 300 km (186 miles)
southwards to the cities of Lalibela and Gondar. As a consequence of the decline, by the late 8th
century CE the old Axum Empire had ceased to exist.

The city of Axum fared better than its namesake kingdom and never lost its religious
significance. The territory of the kingdom of Axum would eventually develop into the medieval
kingdom of Abyssinia with the founding of the Solomonid dynasty c. 1270 CE, whose kings
claimed direct descent from the Biblical King Solomon and Queen of Sheba.

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Bibliography

 Bagnall, R. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

 Curtin, P. African History. Pearson, 1995.

 Fage, J.D. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press,
2001.

 Garlake, P. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford University Press, 2002.

 Hornblower, S. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2012.

 Hrbek, I. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. III, Abridged Edition.  University
of California Press, 1992.

 McEvedy, C. The Penguin Atlas of African History. Penguin Books, 1996.

 Mokhtar, G. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged

Edition. University of California Press, 1990.

 Oliver, R.A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1981.

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About the Author

Mark Cartwright

Mark is a history writer based in Italy. His special interests include pottery, architecture, world
mythology and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share in common. He holds an MA in
Political Philosophy and is the Publishing Director at AHE.

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