Basic Concepts in Soil

Fertility
Soil Fertility Workshop
February 23 & 24, 2005

Jonathan Deenik
Assistant Specialist, Soil Fertility
Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences
 Outline
• Definition and Significance
• Historical Perspectives
• Soil as a Nutrient Reservoir
• Organic Matter
• Soil Reaction
• N and P
• Cations
• Micronutrients
 Definition
“The status of a soil with respect to its ability to
supply elements essential for plant growth without a
toxic concentration of any element”
Foth & Ellis, 1997
 Historical Perspectives
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Irrigation Rotations Law of the Minimum

Manure Morrill Act
Lime

http://www.nri.or
g/InTheField/boli
via_s_b.htm
http://www.classicadventures.com/pages/iti
n_bike_tour_greece.html
 Soil Plant Relationships

Havlin et al., 2005. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers

 Soil as a Nutrient Reservoir
Clays

Properties:

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/forengeo/thnsec.htm • Non-expanding
• pH dependent charge
Kaolinite • low CEC (1-10 cmolc kg - 1)

• Relatively low surface area

• Non-sticky
 Soil as a Nutrient Reservoir
Clays

Properties:
http://webmineral.com/specimens/picshow.php?id=1285

• Expanding
Montmorillonite • Constant charge (-)
• High CEC (80-120 cmolc kg- 1)
• High surface area
• Sticky
 Surface Charge
Constant Charge
• Net Negative
• Isomorphic substitution

Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Surface Charge
pH-Dependent Charge
• Net Negative or net positive
• No isomorphic substitution
• pH-dependent charge associated
with broken edges of kaolinite and surfaces
of gibbsite, geothite, hematite, allophane, and
organic matter

Protonation De-protonation
 Buffering Capacity
The ability of the soil to resupply an ion to the
soil solution

Plant uptake

Nutrient
Total soil nutrient Solid phase nutrient in
(unavailable) (adsorbed/absorbed)
solution

Buffering capacity depends on:

• clay content and type
• CEC
• organic matter
 Organic Matter

http://www.sct.embrapa.br/diacampo/2004/releases.htm

Humus
Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Organic Matter
Stable OM Active OM
z Composed of complex z Composed of less complex non-
organic compounds: Humic humic substances:
polysaccharides (10-30% of soil)
and Fulvic acids and humin z Microbially modified and
(60-90% of soil) synthesized compounds
z Derived from OM deposited z Derived from recently deposited
centuries ago OM (1-2 yrs)
z Susceptible to microbial action
z Resistant to microbial action
Functions:
z Source of energy for
Functions: microorganisms
z Water sorption z Aggregation
z Source of mineralizable N, P and
z CEC S
z Glue
Soil is Alive Importance of Soil Biology
- diversity
- nutrient cycling
- pest/pathogen
suppression
- symbioses

Source: Thompson and Troeh, 1978

 Management Affects SOM

z Tillage increases OM
decomposition
z SOM regeneration
depends on organic
inputs
z SOM accumulation
slow because most of
the inputs released as
CO2 http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/soilwater/soil/fbe01s09.html
 Soil Acidity
Natural Sources of Acidity: Human Induced Acidity:

z Carbonic acid and z Acid rain

organic acids z Urea
z Organic matter z Ammonium fertilizers
z Precipitation and cation z Mono and diammonium
leaching phosphate
z Nitrification z Elemental S
z N Immobilization
z Ammonium volatilization
z Cation uptake
z Deprotonation of pH-
dependent charge
 Soil Acidity
40 years of N application

Source: Schwab et al., 1990 SSSAJ

(NH2)2CO + 4O2 2NO3- + 2H+ + CO2 + H2O

 Adverse Effects of Soil Acidity
z Aluminum toxicity
z Manganese toxicity
z Nutrient deficiencies
z Decreased microbial
activity
Havlin et al., 2005. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers

Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Acidity in Hawaiian Soils

z Al toxicity uncommon
- Kaolinite and Al/Fe oxides stable
- pH in soils with variable charge minerals moves
toward pH0
- High OM levels complex Al
• Mn toxicity more common as soil pH
approaches 5.0
• Ca and P deficiency widespread in
weathered oxidic and andic soils
Correcting Soil Acidity is Costly

Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Correcting Soil Acidity is Costly

Al3+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+

Liming Reactions:

CaCO3 + H2O Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-

OH- + H+ H2 O

HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)3
 Water
1. Nutrients move to the 3. Saturated soils
roots with water - Loss of N
(denitrification)
2. Leaching - Accumulation of toxic
compounds (H2S, CH4)
- Nitrate,
4. Salinity
- cations - salt build-up under dry
conditions
Nitrogen

http://www.bettersoils.com.au/module2/images/27.gif
 N Mineralization
z Mineralization: Decomposition of soil organic matter by soil
microbes releasing inorganic N in the process.

z Heterotrophs use organic molecules as source of energy

• Bacteria – neutral to alkaline environments
• Fungi - acidic environments

z Release of N from the organic matter

• Soil Organic Matter ~5% N
• 1 to 4% organic N mineralized each year
• Added organic N sources
(C:N ratio < 20 = mineralization
 Immobilization
z Immobilization
• Conversion of mineral N to organic N by microbes
z Organisms that decompose organic matter as an
energy source require nitrogen

z Organic materials with a low N content (C:N > 30)

cannot supply the needs of these organisms thus they
use soil N in competition with the crop.

z Freshly immobilized N = 5-15% of soil N

 Ammonium N

Ammonium N = NH4+
• Cation, therefore adsorbed on CEC
• Won't leach or denitrify
• Can be fixed in certain clay minerals – micaceous clay
• Plant uptake
• Very common source of N
• Rapidly converted to NO3-N under most conditions
• Volatilization at high pH

NH4+ + OH- → NH3↑ + H2O

High pH Gas
 Nitrate N
• Anion, therefore not adsorbed on CEC
• Most common mineral form of N in most soils
• Most common form taken up by plants
• Very susceptible to leaching and denitrification
losses
2NO3- → N2O & N2 + 3O2
Anaerobic gases
z No oxygen - wet soil
z Energy source for bacteria - organic matter
z Warm temperatures
z Favored by higher pH
 Phosphorus

http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol112/Biol112WebPage/Syllabus/Topics/Week%2013/PhosphorusCycle.jpg
Effect of pH on P Fixation

http://www.regional.org.au/au/asssi/supersoil2004/s11/oral/1840_harringtonb.htm
 Factors Affecting P Fixation

z Soil type
Andisol>Oxisol≈Ultisol>Inceptisol>Mollisol≈Vertisol
Honokaa Kapaa Kunia Makaweli
Waimea Wahiawa Waialua
Kula Alaeloa Keahua
Kahana Lualualei

z Organic matter
- OM imparts negative charge to surfaces inhibiting
reaction between phosphate and oxide surface
 Base Cations
z Ca++, Mg++, K+, Na+
z Means of expression:
- extractable (mg kg-1, ppm)
in solution + on exchange site
- exchangeable (cmolc kg-1, meq/100g)
on exchange site
z Base Saturation (BS)
%BS = (∑Exch bases/ CEC)x100
% Ca Sat = (Caexch/CEC)x100
z Converting ppm to cmolc kg-1
Cappm/200, Mgppm/120, Kppm/390
 Calcium Availability
z Factors:
- total Ca supply & pH
- CEC, clay mineralogy
- %Ca++ sat
- ratio of Ca++ to other cations
z General Rules:
- 15 ppm Casol sufficient
- Most crops respond to Ca
when Casat < 25%
- 2:1 clays require >70% Casat
- 1:1 clays 40-50% Casat suff.

Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Calcium Availability
Example:
Caextr = 1000 ppm or Caexch = 5 cmolc kg-1

Oxidic Soil: Smectic Soil:

CEC = 9 cmolc kg-1 CEC = 34.1 cmolc kg-1
Casat = 5/9x100 = 55.6% Casat = 5/34.1x100 = 14.7%

In oxidic soil 1000 ppm likely adequate, but smectitic soil is

Ca deficient. If we want 70% Casat we must add 18.9 cmol
kg-1 Ca (6,733 lbs Ca/acre).

If we assume no response after 25% Casat, then we should

add 1,257 lbs Ca/acre.
 Magnesium Availability
z Factors:
- total Mg supply & pH
- Al saturation
- ratio of Mg++ to other
cations
z General Rules:
- Mgsat 4 - 20%
- Mgsat 7-10% ideal
(mainland textbook)

Brady & Weil, 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils
 Potassium Availability
z Factors:
- total K supply & pH
- texture: fine > coarse
- CEC
- type of clay
z General Rules:
- solution K 1 -10 ppm
- K uptake influenced
by exchangeable Ca
and Mg
 Cation Ratios
z Concept of fertilizing to achieve balanced Ca:Mg
ratio (6.5:1) developed by Bear and co-workers
(1940’s). W. Albrecht adopted the approach and
claimed:
- Reduced weed populations
- Stimulated microorganisms
- Better “balance” of soil nutrients”
- Improved plant health
z Private labs (i.e. Brookside) use ratios,
University labs use sufficiency approach
 Cation Ratios
z Mclean and co-workers (1983) conduct 6 year
study and conclude no specific ratio necessary,
but avoid extremes (too wide, too narrow)
z Range of cation ratios
- Ca:Mg: 2:1 to 26:1 no effect on temperate
climate yields, ratios < 1 lead to problems
- Mg:K: suggested around 2.5-5, when
< 1 Mg deficiency likely
 Micronutrients
z Research limited in Hawaii
- Zn in coffee production (Hue et al., 2004)
- B requirement for avocado (Miyasaka, 1999)
- OM effects on micronutrient forms (Li et al.,
1997)
- Pot studies on Zn response in Paaloa,Keahua
subsoils (Rashid & Fox, 1992)
- B requirements of macadamia seedlings (Fox,
1989)
- B response in Hawaii soils (Hue et al.,
1988)
- Zn response in sugarcane (Huang, 1974)
 Manganese
z Mn2+ form of plant uptake
- low solubility as pH increases
z Mn toxicity can be a serious problem in Hawaii
soils - especially weathered Oxisols/Ultisols
Factors:
1. Low pH (<5.5)
2. High soil moisture (waterlogged)
3. Increased availability with OM in mineral soils
Management:
- maintain soil pH above 5.5
z Mn deficiency can occur in high pH soils
 Iron
z Fe2+ taken up by plants
z Solution Fe low in soils
- Fe forms chelates with OM increasing
phytoavailability
- Fe commonly deficient in calcareous soils
- Fe deficiency can occur in acid soils with
high Mn
z Fe deficiency often corrected with foliar
application of Fe.
 Zinc
z Zn solubility low in soils
z Forms chelates with OM to increase
phytoavailability in mineral soils, but can lead
to deficiency in organic soils
z Zn uptake reduced in when other metal cation
concentrations are high, also high P can
induce Zn deficiency in marginally deficient
soils
z Zn deficiency most common in high pH soils
z Zn fertilizer broadcast/banded in field crops
and foliar applied for orchards and vegetables
 Copper
z Cu solubility low in soils
z Forms chelates with OM to increase
phytoavailability in mineral soils, but can lead
to deficiency in organic soils
z Cu deficiency more common in organic soils
and coarsely textured leached soils
z Cu deficiency most common in high pH soils
 Boron
z Narrow range in soils separating deficiency
from toxicity
z B deficiency common in high pH soils and in
dry soil conditions
z OM increases B availability
z Celery, broccoli, cauliflower highly sensitive to
B deficiency
z Foliar applications common at 0.09 to 0.4 lbs/a
 Resources
Books
z Havlin, J.L., S.L. Tisdale, J.D. Beaton, and W.L. Nelson. 2005.
Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ
z Foth, H. D. and B.G. Ellis. 1997. Soil Fertility. CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton FL.
z Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2004. Elements of the Nature and
Properties of Soils. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River,
NJ
Web
z http://www.extension.iastate.edu/pubs/so.htm
z http://www.montana.edu/wwwpb/pubs/mt4449.html
Excellent short course in soil fertility