Rural Infrastructure 1 (New)

Chapter 6: Introduction
Nepal : facts and figures (2015)
• Total population (million) - 28
• Population density (person/sq. km) – 190
• Population (annual change, %) – 1.4
• Migration & urbanization rate ( %) – 14.1 & 18.5
• Unemployment rate (%) – 3.1
• Poverty rate (%) , 2010 – 48.4 & 15.0 for < $ 3.1 and < $
1.9 per day
• Healthcare ( in 1000 population) – Physician (0.21) &
Hospital beds (5)
• Electricity Production (million kW-hr)
Production- 3559,
Export – 3,
Import-1072,
Consumption-3444 2
 Nepal: Facts and figures (2015)
• Govt. expenditures (billion rupees)
General public services- 102.9
Education- 79.8 ( 3.8 % of GDP)
Transport and communications- 44.9
Health- 29.5 (1.4 % of GDP)
Housing and community amenities -15.3
Electricity, gas, and water- 4.9

• GDP per capita – 689.5 USD

3
Poorest are the hardest hit in rural Nepal
Government Physical Infrastructure Dev.
Houses for Bara-Parsa Storm victimes
Newly constructed Ward Office Buildings
supported by the Community
Development Programme (CDP)
 Rural development in Nepalese context
• World Bank (1975) has defined rural development as strategy designed
to improve the socio-economic life of rural poor; as such it involves
extending the benefits of development to poorest in rural areas e.g.
small farmers, tenants, landless, and other disadvantage group.
• Rural development in Nepal is a complex phenomenon involving an
interaction of economic, social, political, and cultural factors.
• The concept of rural development is a process of development and
change to improve rural social life entirely.
• It is linked to:
infrastructural development,
commercialization of agriculture,
proper utilization and mobilization of resources,
food security,
creating opportunities,
inclusive social development in the rural community, and
modernization of overall society.

8
Seven sectors of Rural (Local) Infrastructures in Nepal

9
10
Local Infrastructure and Poverty reduction

Poverty Reduction

Rural Development

Rural/ Local Infrastructures

11
Role of rural infrastructure in rural development, Infrastructure needs in the
rural areas, Development priorities and policies for rural infrastructure
development, Rural infrastructures in development programs in Nepal

(Source: Upadhyay, B., 2012) 12

Road density in Nepal (km/sq km of land area)

Road density – 34.41 km/100 sq.km.

13
14
Agriculture for Food security
 Rural housing system

Self-financing, low cost, safe, and ADB funded Ujbekistan rural

affordable rural housing, Nepal housing
 Food Grain Storage Structures
• Inadequate and inappropriate storage structures have resulted
in qualitative and quantitative losses of the harvested grain.
• The qualitative loss may be due to chemical changes in the
protein, carbohydrate, and fat and by the contamination or
mico-toxins, pesticide residues, insect fragments, excreta of
rodents and birds, and their dead bodies.
• The quantitative loss in storage are due to the activities of the
birds, rodents, insects, mites and enzyme activity of micro
organism.
• The quantitative losses also occur on threshing yards,
processing plants, and handling.
• 1.3 billion tons of food are lost globally per year (Gustavasson,
et.al., 2011).
• It is estimated that 60 % of grain produced is used for
consumption and seed purposes by the farmers and remaining
40 % is marketable surplus and needs proper storage system.
17
Rural Storage Structures
Post-harvest Food loss
Components

Quantitative food loss

Qualitative food loss

Food loss

18
Factors responsible for storage losses of food
grains:
• Insects: cause qualitative as well as quantitative
values,
• Rodents: cause serious problem by eating and
breaking the grains into pieces,
• Dampness: in the structure through floor and side
walls,
• Leakage of water through roof,
• Excessive oxidation: causing rise in temperature of
the grain, heating and cake formation,
• Moisture: encourages fungus, mould, and termite
growth; at times rendering the entire grain stock
unfit for human consumption,
19
Requirements of good storage structures: it should
1. Provide adequate protection from rodents,
birds, insects, and mites etc.
2. Permit aeration and fumigation, when required.
3. Prevent losses due to temperature and moisture
(with each 1 % moisture content increase or 5
deg. C temperature increase the storage life of
grain is reduced to half).
4. Permit easy inspection.
5. Facilitate proper cleaning and should be self
cleaning if it is silo.
6. Be economical on unit storage cost basis. 20
 Grain storage system:
• Grain is stored either in bags or in bulk.
• Bag-cum-bulk system is also practiced.
• In villages the bulk storage system is more common than the
bag storage which is used for grain storage in the Govt. godowns
as well as in trade.
• Size of the gunny bag is large enough and contains 93 kg of
grain.
Bulk storage of grain is done in one of the following structures:
1. Bukhari type structure.
2. Kothar type structure.
3. Morai type structure.
4. Grain bins:
a) Cylindrical bins
b) Rectangular bins
c) Pusa bins.
21
 Location of Stores:
1. The structure should be located at the point where there
is no chance of flood.
2. The structure should be at least 500 m far from kilns,
bone crushing mills, garbage dumping ground, and
tanneries.
3. The structure should be at least 30 m away from the dairy
and poultry farms and at least 150 m away from factories
and others possible source of fire.
4. There should not be trees near the structure to avoid
chance of damage due to roots.
5. It should be near a main road. There should be sufficient
parking space.
6. The structure should always be clean.
7. If the structure is near the railway station there should be
loading and unloading facilities.
22
Some of the major considerations in building a storage structure to
minimize losses are:
• The structure should be elevated and away from
moist places in the house, no chance of flood;
• As far as possible, the structure should be airtight,
even at loading and unloading ports;
• Rodent-proof materials should be used for
construction of rural storages;
• The area surrounding the structure should be
clean to minimize insect breeding; and
• The structure should be plastered with an
impervious clay layer to avoid termite attack, or
attack by other insects.
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 Measures for good storage
I. Proper drainage of rain water.
II. Repair of cracks, crevices, and corners where insect
can hide.
III. Fumigation of storage space and surroundings.
IV. Protection from fire and rodent attacks.
V. Movements are not restricted for inspection and
fumigation.
VI. Preventing rats from entering the store by raising
plinth or providing over hangs.
VII. Grain moisture should be less than the
recommended for safe storage.
VIII. Inspection of the storage at least once a month.
IX. Insects properly controlled.
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 Advantages of bulk storage bins over bag storage
• Handling and quality control are easier and less expensive.
• Less space required for construction.
• Expenses on ward and watch are minimum.
• Bag cost is eliminated.
• Automation and mechanization introduced to hasten
transactions and maintain quality of the stored product.
• Losses due to insects, birds, and rodents are avoided
completely.
Classification of bins depending upon dimensions are
classified into two groups :
1. Deep bins
2. Shallow bins
3. Bunkers 25
Shallow and Deep Bins

26
27
28
 Bulk storage systems
1. Bukhari type structure.
2. Kothar type structure.
3. Morai type structure.
4. Grain bins:
a) Cylindrical bins
b) Rectangular bins
c) Pusa bins.
 Management for bag storage
1. Prevent damp (moisture) from floor and walls by stacking the
bags on pallets off the ground and away from walls. Damp
from roof is avoided through proper ventilation and using
damp absorbing materials.
2. Stack the bags properly to allow:
• Optimal use of space.
• Ease of sweeping floors.
• Ease of inspection for rodents and insects.
• Ease of counting the bags.
3. Control of insects and rodents:
• Make sure that the building is rodent frook.
• Treat the building and protect against pests.
• Keep the warehouse clean.
• Close all the holes in doors, roof, and windows.
• Repair cracks in walls where pests can hide.
• Remove and destroy any infested residues. 30
Bag storage structure

31
32
Stacking system in bag storage
 Bulk storage of food grains
• The grain is stored in bulk: mainly by traders, big
farmers, cooperatives and government agencies
such as the Food Corporation of India (FCI).
• The available storage capacity of these sectors is
of the order of 18.55 million tons which is about
12% of total production and 41% of surplus (i.e.
30% of total production) production which comes
to market for sale.

34
 Community Storage Structures
• Bulk storage structures of higher capacity,
ranging from 25-100 t are termed community
storage structures (Birewar, 1985).
• They are made from reinforced bricks,
corrugated galvanized sheets and aluminium
sheets.
• Capacities: 25 to 57 t.

35
 Rural Godown
• The rural godown are primarily meant for providing
warehousing facilities to the farmers.
• Capacity: 100 to 1000 t.
• They are owned by FCI, central and state warehousing
corporations, market committees, or cooperatives looking
to the need for having storage structures or facilities for
agricultural produce.
• The Government of India (GOI) appointed an expert
committee (1979-1980) which concluded that there was a
need for storage facilities for 2 million tons of food grain.
• The GOI, keeping in view these recommendations, has
given a 50% subsidy for the construction of rural godowns.
• Therefore, godown are being constructed on a large scale
in Indian villages.

36
 Cover and Plinth (CAP) Storage
• This is an improved arrangement for storing food
grains in the open, generally on a plinth which is
damp- and rat-proof
• The grain bags are stacked in a standard size on
wooden dunnage
• The stacks are covered with 250 micron LDPE
sheets from the top and all four sides
• Food grains such as wheat, maize, gram, paddy,
and sorghum are generally stored in CAP (cover
and plinth) storage for 6-12 month periods
• It is the most economical storage structure and is
being widely used by the FCI for bagged grains.
37
 Silo System: Constitutes
a) Receiving Platform
b) Moisture meter
c) Magnetic separator(s)
d) Grain cleaner(s)
e) Grain dryer(s)
f) Silos
g) Temperature detecting system
h) Aeration blower
i) Grain conveyor
j) Motor controls
38
 Types of silos
a) Flat Bottom Type
b) Hopper Bottom Type
Classification of Silos:
a) Metal silos
b) Concrete silos – 150 % more expensive than metal silos.
Advantages of silo system:
• Negligible loss of grain than in CAP, godown storage, and
handling.
• Quality of grain is maintained.
• Operational cost is lower as mechanical handling used.
• Economical as bags are not used.

39
Comparison between silo and godown storage
Item Silo Godown
Construction M.S. all welded or bolted Bricks, concrete, Asbestos
roof, R.C.C.
Ancillary system Cleaning, drying, aeration, No provision for ancillary
conveying, temperature system
detection etc
Handling Mechanical Manual
Losses due to:
I. Drainage Controlled Can not be controlled
II. Humidity Controlled Can not be controlled
III. Pests and rodents Controlled Can not be controlled
IV. Birds Bird proof Difficult to avoid
V. Pilferage NIL Yes, due to manual
Quality of stored product Good Deteriorated
Fumigation Not necessary Essential
Pesticide/fungicide Not necessary Essential

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Bulk storage has advantages over bag storage, as follows:
• low running costs
• low labor requirements
• rapid handling
• low through spoillage and rodents
• efficient and effective fumigation operation
• less land area requirement
• complete control of aeration
• possible to store the grain for longer periods
• possible to mechanize all operations, and
• possible to store moist grain for short periods.

41
 Storage structures for semi-perishable
• A very high percentage of animal produce is wasted due to
inadequate and poor storage and transport systems.
• Potatoes, onions, apples, and green vegetables need to be
stored in modified environments.
• Semi-perishables are harvested at comparatively higher
moisture contents, 60 – 90 % and the self life is short.
• Storage requirement of potatoes is to preserve culinary
properties and to prevent the tuber from sprouting.
• Storage temperature of 4 deg C and RH of 85 – 90 % is
best suitable for potato storage.
• Lower temperature below 4 deg C (0 deg) increases
storage life, but, also increases its sweetness.
• By means of evaporative cooling system, 20 tons of
potatoes can be stored for 4 months at about 25 deg. C
and 90 % RH. 42
 Contd….
• The Nasik types of storage structure, though traditional is
quite suitable for onion storage.
• The structure is 16.5 m in length and 3.1 m in width with 1
m centrally alley.
• Proper natural ventilation is created to remove respiratory
heat from onion bulk stored on both sides of alley.
• A sloppy roof prevents rain water entering into the
storage, and is constructed out side the rural settlements
in an open space for natural wind blowing.
• A base for 2 m high heap onion stack of 25 cm thick sand
layer and 10 cm reed matting is prepared .
• The sand offers cooling effect and the mat permits the
flow of air. The rotten and cut onions are removed from
the bulbs before storing. The same structure can be used
for potato and onion. Humidifier is disconnected while
using for onion.
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Desirable Environmental Conditions for Perishable Products
Product Temp Relative Storage life Product Temp Relative Storage life
⁰C Humidity ⁰C Humidity
% %
Apple 1.0 89 – 90 5 months Cabbage 0 90 – 95 15 months

Banana 16.5-21 90 – 95 7 – 10 days Carrot 0 85 – 90 4- 5 months

Grape -1 to 1 85 – 90 5 – 6 months Garlic 0 70 – 75 6 – 8 months

Lemon 7 to 10 85 - 90 4 months Onion 0 70 – 75 6 – 8 months

Orange -1 to zero 85 - 90 3 months Potato 4-5 85 - 90 5- 6 months

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 Problems
• Ten tonnes of apple, having specific heat of 0.85, are to be
cooled from 30 ⁰C to 15 ⁰C in 24 hrs. The heat of respiration per
24 hrs is 750 Kcal per tonne. Two men will work for 4 hrs and
lightening load is estimated to be 100 watts. Air charge load can
be assumed as 1000 Kcal in 24 hrs. The store measures 6m X 6m
X 3m on the inside and is constructed of bricks laid in cement
mortar. Wall thickness is 45 cm and there is 10 cm thick cork
insulation on the inside of the four walls. The cement plaster is 1
cm thick. The heat transfer coefficient for the ceiling is 20 %
more than that for the walls. The outside design temperature is
35 ⁰C and the inside is maintained at 5 ⁰C . Estimate the plant
capacity needed in tonnes of refrigeration.
Thermal conductivity of brick = 0.5 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Thermal conductivity for cork = 0.025 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Thermal conductivity for cement plaster = 0.28 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Heat of respiration for persons doing light work at room
temperature = 165 Kcal/hr
Assume no heat transfer through the floor.
45
 Solution
I. Heat for cooling the apples = 10000 X 0.85 (30 – 15) =
1,27,500 Kcal in 24 hrs
II. Heat of respiration from apples = 750 X10 = 7500 Kcal in
24 hrs
III. Heat load due to air charge = 1000 Kcal in 24 hrs
IV. Heat load due to lights = (100 x 24 x 3.6)/4.1868 = 2060
Kcal in 24 hrs
V. Heat load due to workers = 2 x 165 x 3 = 990 Kcal in 24 hrs
VI. Heat load due to conduction from four walls
Q = U x A x ∆T, where,
Q= rate of heat transfer,
U = overall surface coefficient of heat transfer,
A = surface area,
∆T = difference of inside and outside temperatures 46
 Contd….
The overall surface coefficient of heat transfer, U, can be computed from
the relationship 1/U = 1/ Ub +1/ Up +1/ Uc
Where, subscripts b, p, c stand for brick, plaster, and cork, respectively
In general, U = k/x , where, k = thermal conductivity and x = thickness of
the layer, substituting the values of k and x , we get
1/U = (0.45/0.5) + (0.01/0.28) + (0.1/0.025)
Or, U = 0.2025 Kcal/m2 /hr ⁰C
Surface area of walls = 4 x 6 x 3 = 72 m2
Heat transfer through walls = 0.2025 x 72 x (35-5) x 24 = 10, 500 Kcal in 24
hrs
vii. Heat load due to conduction of ceiling is 20% higher than that of walls
Uc = 1.2 x U = 1.2 x 0.2025 = 0.243Kcal/m2 /hr ⁰C
Area of ceiling = 6 x 6 = 36 m2
Heat load through ceiling = 0.243 x 36 x (35-5) x 24 = 6285 Kcal in 24 hrs
Total heat load = 127500 + 7500 + 1000 + 2060 + 990 + 10500 + 6285
= 155835 Kcal in 24 hrs
Because, 1 tonne of refrigeration = 3000 Kcal/hr
Therefore, Plant Capacity = 155835/(3000 x 24) = 2.16 Tonnes
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 Chapter 7
Rural Housing
Types of rural housing:
A) Private: (a) residential (b) shops ( c) factories (d)
godowns (e) Mills (f) banquets (g) cinema hall etc.
B) Public: (a) schools/college (b) hospitals/healthposts (c )
party places (recreational buildings) (d) market (e)
temples/mosque/church/
Primary objectives of Farmstead Planning:
1. Sanitation
2. Well-being of human beings and animals
3. Economy of labor management
4. Economy of initial cost
5. Low cost of maintenance.
Types of houses
 Location of farm stead:
(1) Farmstead should be located at the center of the farm
or in the middle of the long side for proper
management. It is possible only on large farm where
labors live near the farmstead.
(2) Location at one side or at the corner is helpful in
procurement of the farm supplies and in disposal of
farm produce.
(3) A high elevation site with good drainage be selected.
(4) The stead location should be near permanent water
supply. An existing water well is advantageous while
selecting farmstead.
(5) The site should have trees around to protect from
wind storm and also provide shades for human beings
and animals.
Good residential-house must have the following
facilities:
- Bed rooms depending upon the family size.
- Sitting room.
- Verandah both for sitting and house work.
- A kitchen with good ventilation.
- Food grain store.
- Fuel wood store.
- Animal shelter.
- Animal fodder store.

51
 Factors influencing livestock production
Feed Quality Temp.
Nutrition
Husbandry Quantity Radiation
(Management) Water
Nutritional Humidity
Balance Air
Environment
Quality move.
Physical Quantity Rain
Total
To man
factors on
Chemical Climatical Space
animal To other
production species Mechanical Furnis
hing
To same Acostical
species Social relation Equip
ment
Heritage Optical
Virus/ Natural
(Genetic light
Bacteria Toxic gases
factors)
Dust Artificia
Parasite Microbiological l light
52
 Animal Environment Requirement:
• Capacity of an animal to produce differs between species,
breeds, and strains as a result of genetic factors.
• However, a complex of interrelated factors in the animal
husbandry will influence the animal’s ability to utilize that
capacity for growth, development, and production.
• Heat regulation: all domestic livestock are homeotherms
i.e. they maintain relatively constant internal body
temperatures within a 1 to 2 deg C range.
• Body temperature of an animal is higher than
environmental temperature.
• They maintain their body temperature by balancing
internal heat production and heat loss to environment.
• At low ambient temperature, conversion of feed to heat
energy is increased, while, at high ambient temperature
blood circulation in skin and respiration (rate and volume)
increased. 53
 Contd…
• Variation in body temperature results in changed behavior.
• Animal activities reduced at hot environment e.g. pigs lie in cluster in
cold and spread out in hot. Therefore, more space requirement for
tropical climate.
• Body tolerate heat stress for short period, but, can be fetal for longer
period.
• When feed is converted by animal metabolism for production of milk,
egg, meat, off-spring, heat is produced as a bi-product.
• Feeding fibre-rich, low digestible feed like hay will result in high heat
production.
• In hot climate, increased share of concentrates in feed may reduce heat
stress in animals.
• Heat is produced centrally deep in the body, surplus is conducted to
skin surface and is given up to atmosphere as sensible heat and as
latent heat by means of evaporation of moisture from lungs and skin.
• Less heat loss when the temperature difference between body an
ambient is less and vice-versa.
• The heat and moisture produced by animals in a house/structure must
be removed by ventilation.
54
 Contd…
• In tropics, sufficient ventilation flow is provided
by open sided structures.
• The minimum ventilation rate should remove the
moisture produced, but, retain the sensible heat
as much as possible during cold periods.
• The maximum ventilation rate should remove
enough sensible heat produced so that the temp
difference between inside and outside is small,
usually in the range of 2-4 deg C.
• Ventilation alone can maintain the building
temperature slightly above ambient.
55
Normal body temperature of domestic animals and human
Animals Temperature (deg C)
Average Range
Dairy cow 38.6 38.0 - 39.3
Beef cow 38.3 36.7 - 39.1
Pig 39.2 38.7 - 39.8
Sheep 39.1 38.3 - 39.9
Goat 39.7 38.7 – 40.7
Horse 37.9 37.2 – 38.2
Chicken 41.7 40.6 – 43.0
Human 37.0 - 56
Animal Housing Design:
is mainly concerned with the physical
environment i.e. climatic, mechanical and other
factors consideration for good layout where
healthy and high yielding animals can be
provided with:

• Correct feeding
• Easy handling
• Producing without stress
• No physical harm
57
 Climatic factors:
1. Temperature:
• It is the over riding environmental factor affecting the
physiological functions of animals.
• For most farm animals, the mean daily temp range between
10-20 deg C is referred as the “comfort zone”.
• In this range, the animal’s heat exchange can be regulated by
physical means such as constriction and dialation of blood
vessels in the skin, ruffling of fur or feathers, and regulation of
evaporation from lungs and skin.
• At upper or lower critical temperature, the body temp can not
be maintained by physical regulation and the animals must
increase or decrease its metabolic heat production.
• A very young animal, lacking fully developed temp regulating
mechanisms, particularly the ability to increase heat
production by increased metabolism, is much more sensitive
to its thermal environment and requires higher temperature.
58
 Climatic factor:
2. Humidity:
• Poultry do not have sweat glands so all evaporative heat
loss must be through respiratory tract. Other livestock
species have varying abilities to sweat and in descending
order. They are: horse, donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep
and pigs.
• In hot-dry climate, evaporation is rapid, but, in hot-humid
climate, the ability of air to absorb additional moisture is
limited and the inadequate cooling may result in heat
stress.
• Too low humidity in air may cause irritation of mucous
membrane, while, too high humidity cause growth of
fungus infections.
• High humidity may cause decay of structures.
• Thus, keep the humidity between 40-80 % range.
59
 Climate:
3. Radiation:
• The heat load on grazing animals can be increased by
direct solar radiation and radiation reflected from clouds
and the ground.
• A white hair coat will absorb less radiant energy than dark,
but, the heat penetration is deeper in white loose coat.
• Air movement dispel the heat and reduce the differences.
• Solar radiation may adversely affect the skin of the
animals.
• Heat gain by solar radiation can be efficiently reduced by
provision of shaded area. It should be sufficiently large to
provide enough space between the animals.
• Grassland surrounding the shade will reflect less radiation
than the bare land.
60
 Climate:
4. Air movement:
• A wind velocity of 0.2 m/sec is regarded as the
minimum requirement, but, could be 1 m/sec when
the temperature is nearing the upper critical or
more when it goes beyond that.
• Air movement assist in heat loss by evaporation and
by conduction/convection as the air temperature is
lower.
• When air temp reaches body temp, fast air
movement is experienced as comfortable, but, at
low temp fast air movements will lead to excessive
cooling of unprotected skin areas (cold drought).
• Air movements are required to remove toxic and
noxious gases and to supply fresh air for breathing.
61
 Climate:
5. Precipitation:
• Heavy rain may penetrate the fur of an animal
and decrease its insulation value. A strong wind
in such circumstances lead to excessive cooling.
However, a naturally greasy hair coat will resist
water penetration.
• Provision of shelter will avoid this problem.

62
Animal Housing:
1. Dairy Cattle Housing
2. Poultry Housing
3. Swine Housing
4. Sheep and Goat Housing

63
General housing requirements:
 Protection from extreme heat i.e. temperature
of 25 – 30 deg C and direct sunshine.
 Sun-shades needed in tropical and sub-tropical
areas.
Free from mud and manure to avoid hoof
infection.
Concrete floor and pavements need.
Ample space.
Earth yard.
Proper slope for good drainage.
64
 Sun-shade:
• Shade structure: 2.5-3 sq. m./head.
Roof area: 3 x 7 sq. m/10 cows
Roof height: 3 m
Floor: paved with concrete (1:2:4)
• Size of the floor area depends upon the orientation of the
shade structure.
• East-West orientation: floor area should be extended 1/3
of its length on the east and on the west, a paved surface
will be provided for the shaded area at all times.
• If the orientation is North – South: the paved area is 3
times the roof area, i.e. 1/3 to east, 1/3 to west, and 1/3
underneath, which mean it is more expensive.

65
 Deciding factors for shade orientation:
1. East – West Orientation: the feed and water trough will be in the
shade and the cows will eat and drink at any time of the day. However,
the shaded area should be 3-4 sq. m./cow and is increased. As feed
consumption is higher, more manure will be dropped in turn, it will
lead to dirty cows.
2. North – South orientation: sunlight will fall at every part of the floor
area and on either side of the roof area during day time which helps in
keeping the floor dry.
3. If paved area is too costly, the N –S orientation is the best choice to
keep the floor dry.
4. If the daily average temperature is 30 deg C or more for up to 5
hrs/day during some period of the year, E – W is the best orientation
and beneficial.
5. Gaveled roof is more beneficial than a single pitch roof and allows for
a centre vent.
6. A woven mat of local material can be installed between rafter and CI
roof to reduce radiation from the sheet and lower temperature just
under the roof by 10 deg C or more.
66
 Floors of cowshed:
 It should be higher than surrounding land area.
 It must be laid to follow the inclination of the fall of
the dung channel- 1 in 70
 The fall on the standing from manger to the dung
channel should be 1 inch; 1.5 inch is better.
 Standing should be insulated.
 Length of the standings: 5 ft + adjustment of the
ties ; for small breeds: 4.5 ft; for large breeds: 5.25 ft
 Non-skid floors: 1 inch top of the floor should be
granolithic concrete – 2.5 parts granite chippings + 1
part cement; finish the floor with wooden float.
67
Floors of milking parlors:
• Do not requires insulation.
• Slope of floor: 2 to 5 inches.
• It is usual to hose-down parlors.
• More effective to have a trough of water
behind the cows.
• Dip the bucket into the trough and water
thrown to remove cow pat easily.

68
 Floors for pig houses:
• It should be so constructed that the dunging
passes will stand up to the hard traffic of constant
cleaning, either by hand or mechanically.
• The floor should not be insulated.
• Width of floor: not less than 3 ft.
• Drainage should be arranged for each pen.
• Each pen should be insulated.
• Feeding passes should not be less than 3 ft with a
general slope towards doors so that draining
water used for cleaning is easy.
• It makes the building far from too damp and cold.
69
 Mangers and Troughs:
• These are the two main internal fittings which for integral parts of
farm buildings.
• Increased use of bulky food for cows does not change so much
the internal measurements of the cowshed mangers.
• If the shed site is firm, 4 to 5 inches of PCC is enough; 6 inch thick
PCC is needed for the buildings used for heavy machineries.
• Floor slope: 1 inch in 12 ft length.
• Concrete mixture: 1:2:4 can be placed in position by barrow or
mounted mixture.
• Then the floor is tempered down.
• Curing the PCC for 1 week in summer.
• Curing is avoided in cold weather (frost).
• Hardening is done by a solution of Tironal - Dur mixed with water
(2.5 lbs to 1 gallon) and is poured, spread or brushed over surface
at an interval of not less than 8 hrs.
• Hardened floor is impossible to scratch with nail or sharp
instrument.
70
 Slatted floors:
• Calves were often reared on slats in the west
countries.
• The area below slats must be sealed to prevent
draughts blowing up.
• No reduction in milk yield.
• Concrete slat is the best.
• There is doubt that narrower the width of slat the
cleaner it keeps.
Disadvantage of slatted floors:
• Damage to teats
• Cows seem reluctant to lie down
• Cows do not keep quite so clean
71
 Size of slat:
• Roosting hens: tapering 1 to ¾ inch with 1 in. gap
• Pigs (dung passage): ,, 2.5 to 1.5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Calves upto 5 months: ,, 2 to 1.5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Cows of yearlings: ,, 4-8 to 3-5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
Slat Area required:
• Roosting hens: 1 sq. ft per bird
• Calves : 10 – 15 sq. ft per animal
• Yearlings : 15 – 25 ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Cows : 40 ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Sheep :4 ,, ,, ,, ,, 72
 Dung removal: slat
• Use of removable slats is satisfactory for calves, but,
difficult for large stock.
• For cattle, it is ideal to have the floor at a height which
enables a front mounted fork or scoop to clean out under
the slates.
• Wide feeding trough is best used to prevent food spilling
and wastage.
• In winter, 4 ft build-up of dung is expected from a cattle.
• For pigs, dung passage having a fall of 1 in 50, then pump
the dung out.
• In dry weather, some water may be needed and no
bedding straw should be used.
• Using rubber faced slats would reduce the risk of damage
to teats or feet and make the stock more comfortable. 73
 Floors and fittings: steps for laying
• The area must be roughly leveled.
• Any hollows need making up.
• The leveled area needs rolling.
• A garden roller will be sufficient, but, tractor will do the job
faster with good results.
• Forms of wood will be set up.
• Timber flats 1.5 to 2 inch thickness of required depth is
needed for the frame.
• If the site is firm 4 to 5 inches of PCC is enough, 6 inches
thick PCC is needed for buildings to be used for heavy
machinery.
• Floor slope: 1 inch in 12 ft
• Concrete mixture: 1:2:4 can be placed in position by
barrow or mounted mixture.
• Then, the floor will be tempered down 74
 Contd…
• Curing of the PCC for a week in summer.
• PCC curing is avoided in cold weather (frost).
• Hardening is done by a solution of Tironal –
Dur mixed with water (1.5 lb to 1 gallon) and
is poured, sprayed or brushed over surface at
an interval of not less than 8 hrs.
• Hardened floor is impossible to scratch with
nail or sharp instrument.

75
Insulated floors:
• Concrete floors, where animals lie, are best
insulated. Hollow bricks are expensive.
• Jam jars, bottles, card-board, tubes, or
corrugated asbestos sheets can be used. In
each case.
• In each case insulating materials will be placed
on hardcore and then covered with a thin
layer (1.5 inch) of concrete.
• Air space should be sealed.

76
 Simple way of insulating floors:
• Make the soil loose by hand or machinery.
• Spread paper on the whole area. Cement bags
opened out will do.
• Make “carrot holes” by driving an iron bar through
the paper into the soil.
• Cover the whole area of paper with concrete to a
depth of 2 inch working it well into the holes.
• When the concrete sets, the earth under the paper
will dry and shrink leaving the concrete supported
on the concrete carrots. These need to be about 6
inch apart in each direction.
• Care should be taken not to tread the loose earth
too much while making the holes and filling with
concrete.
77
 Use of electric heating for floors:
• Floors can be insulated and electrically heated.
• The current is supplied through a transformer
and goes into the wire at 6 volts.
• Similar to the soil heating wires used in green
houses for propagation work.
• Ordinary wires are not used.
• Put Figures here.

78
 Cattle housing:
• Dairying in East and South east Africa occurs at an altitude
of 1500 m or more.
• A good cattle housing provides favorable conditions for
good management, proper feeding, and good hygiene.
• Nomadic herdsmen graze their entire herd as one unit.
• The smaller holder with a few herd may keep his heifer
calves for replacement or sell them.
• The commercial dairy producer has about 80% of his cows
for milking and 20% waiting for calving.
• While, heifers 10 months to calving age + calves of
different ages will approx equal the number of milkers.
• Matured dairy cows are bred annually and are milked for
300-330 days after calving.
79
 Herd profile: A herd of 24 cows
• Calving be evenly distributed throughout the year.
• A 12 months calving interval.
• Two calves should born/month, on an average.
• Caves are kept in individual pen, therefore, 4-6 pens are
required.
• The need for calve pens is reduced to half, assuming 50%
of calves are male and removed or sold at 2-3 week age.
• A longer calving interval and high mortality of calves will
decrease the required number of calf-pens.
• While, a concentration of calving season in the herd will
require more number of pens (doubled).
• As cows are culled each year for reasons of low milk yield,
infertility, disease, old age etc. These cows are replaced by
young stock from their own herd which avoids risk of
disease in outside heifers.
80
 Contd…
• Cows are culled after 3 – 5 lactations, replacement rate is 20 –
30 % per year.
• A maximum replacement rate is 40 % per year.
• First calving age of heifers is 24-27 months (European breeds)
and 36 + for Zebu cattle.
• Maturing heifers require little of no housing facilities in tropical
areas.
• Heifers are introduced to housing at least a couple of months
earlier to their calving to become adjusted.
• In loose housing systems with free stalls (cubicals) or in the tie
barns, this may slightly increase the need for stalls.
Special calving Pen:
 One special calving pen for 30 cows.
 One special calving pen for 20 cows for concentrated calving
 Size of calving pen: 3.3 m x 3.3 m
81
 Yards:
• If the space is severely limited and only 4 -5 sq.m./animal
is available then paved floor is desirable, PCC (1:2:4).
• If the available space is 40 – 60 sq. m./cow, then earthen
yard is sufficient provided feed and shade area is paved.
• Well drained yard is most desirable.
• If a farmer can not afford paving and improved structure,
then earthen mounds in the yard with good drainage
ditches will be satisfactory.
• The soil in the mounds can be stabilized by chopped straw
+ manure.
• Spacing of 20 -30 sq.m./cow will keep them free from
mud.
• Fig. here.
82
 Deep Bedded Shades:
• In a deep bedded system, straw, sawdust, shavings
or other bedding material is periodically placed in
the resting area so that a mixture of bedding and
manure builds up in a thick layer.
• Although, this increases bulk of manure, but, it is
easier to handle than wet manure alone.
• This method is most practical when bedding is
plentiful and cheap.
• By designing the building to be partially enclosed on
the Ease and West, the shading characteristics can
be improved. Such a building is cost effective than
shadded area with paving.
83
Area for Bedded shed and dimensions of free stalls (cubicals)
Animal Age Weight Bedded shade Free stall
(month) ( kg) area/animal (sq.m) dimension (m)
A B Length Width
Young stock 1.5-3 70-100 1.5 1.4 1.2 0.6
Young stock 3–6 100-175 2.0 1.8 1.5 0.7
Young stock 6 – 12 175-250 2.5 2.1 1.8 0.8
Young stock 12 – 18 250-350 3.0 2.3 1.9 0.9

Bred heifer & small milking - 400-500 3.5 2.5 2.1 1.1
cows
Milking cow - 500-600 4.0 3.0 2.2 1.2

Large milking cows - > 600 5.0 3.5 2.3 1.2

A- Enclosed and fully covered bedded shed

B- Bedded shed in conjnuction with exercise yard
84
 Loose Housing with Free Stall (cubicals)
 Simple yard and a shed or yard and a bedded shed systems
are quite satisfactory in warm climate, mainly in semi-arid
areas.
 Some farmers may prefer a more protection. A loose
housing yard and a shed with free stalls will satisfy this
need.
 Less bedding will be required and less manure will have to
be removed.
 Free stall must be of right size to keep the animals clean
and to reduce injuries to a minimum.
 When stalls are too small- more injuries to teats and the
cows tend to lie in other areas that are less clean than stall.
 When stalls are too large – cows get more dirty and more
labor required to clean the shed area.
85
 Contd…
 A bar placed across the top of the free stalls will prevent
the cow to move forward in the stall for comfortable lying
down movements, and encourage her to take step
backwards when standing so that manure drop outside the
stall.
 Floor should be non-slippery.
 Young stock may be held in yards with shed or in sheds
with either free stalls or deep bedding.
 Water requirement for cattle- depends on temperature
and dry matter content in ration.
Calf: 4.6 lit/45 kg body weight.
Cows: 5:1:: water:milk production
Dry cow(friesian): 36.5 – 45 lit/day to 70 lit/day during
last part of pregnancy.
On Dry matter intake (DMI) basis in thermal zone (15 – 20
deg C): 4.1 lit/kg DMI + 0.87 lit/kg milk produced.
86
 Poultry housing:
• Poultry, including chicken, turkey, ducks, and
geese are the best sources of animal protein,
both meat and egg sat a cost most people can
afford.
• Chicken are most commonly raised and are
suitable for small holders who keep a few birds
that need minimum protection.
• At the other hand, commercial farming may have
highly mechanized system housings and
thousands of birds supplying meat and eggs to
the city market.
87
General housing requirements for chickens:
• Proper planning of chicken housing facilities
requires the knowledge of management and
environmental needs in the various stages of
their life.
Fertile
Incubation Day Brooding
old Pullet
egg
(3 weeks) Chick (4-5 weeks)
Growing
(6 – 15 weeks)
Culling Laying
Laying Point
(45 – 60 weeks) of lay
88
 Contd…
• The laying period is up to 16 months, but, in
commercial egg production, the hens are culled
after 11 – 12 months or when the egg collection is
dropped to 65% of the total hens in the flock.
• The hens will come to production again after a
couple of months, but, the egg quality is not like
earlier.
• Where the prices of poultry meat are reasonable,
it is economical to cull after one year egg
production, all hens.

89
 Site selection: Location
• The best site is the one that is
- Well drained,
- Elevated and fairly leveled.
- Adequate drinking water supply.
• Irrespective of type and size of housing system, the
construction site should be selected for
- Adequate ventilation,
- Protection from strong wind,
- Cooler area with low growing crops.
• High trees providing shades and increasing ground level
breezes.
• Bushes on windward corner and also at diagonally opposite
corner which will induce air currents within the buildings.
• As the buildings tend to produce odors, they should be located
down wind from nearby dwellings.
90
 Contd…
• The poultry houses should be separated by 10-15
m to avoid disease spreading.
• Brooding house should be separated from other
poultry houses by 30 m or more and they should
be self contained for feed supplies and
equipments.
• Disinfectant foot bath should be kept at the
entrance of the brooding house.
• The roads near the building should not be muddy
during rainy seasons.
91
Environmental requirements for poultry:
• The birds of the flock must be kept cool in tropical areas. They
should be provided with:
- Shade
- Good ventilation with natural breezes
- Freedom from roof radiation and
- Indirect radiation from ground
• In the temperate area, they should be protected from wind
and low temperatures.
• Very low humidity causes objectionably dusty condition, while,
very high humidity with temperature above 27 deg C interfere
the physiological cooling mechanism and increases mortality.
• Day old chicks require 33 -35 deg C and is maintained for a
week and is lowered gradually to ambient temperature by the
end of 5 weeks.
• The house should be protected from predators, theft, rodents,
and birds.
92
 Contd…
• The rodents and birds will consume the feed up to economic losses.
• A 40-watt electric bulb is needed per 15 sq. m. floor area in a
position 2.2 m above floor level.
• 14 hrs of light/day throughout the laying period is optimum.
• Gradually decreasing lighting hrs may be used in windowless houses
for maturing pullets. This postpones laying, but, results in bigger eggs
production.
• In warm climates near the equator, houses are open for natural
ventilation. The pullets start to lay at 14-18 weeks of age and the egg
size is smaller at first, gradually increases during the first 3 months.
• Broiler houses are provided light for all 24 hrs a day.
• Proper designing and management is needed for prevention of
diseases in the flocks.
• Dry and dust free litter is better to be used.
• Floor surface should be kept cleaned. 93
 Construction Details:
• In hot climate: cool breeze is required rather than
protection from chilling wind.
• Wall:
- Construction of solid base for protection from indirect
radiations from ground.
- An open space covered with wire mesh above it on all four
walls.
- A hessian or reed curtain can be dropped on windward
side, if installed on east and west side protect from direct
sunlight.
- In high altitude areas, off-cuts may be used on the gable
ends, but, 15 -20 mm space is left between them for
proper ventilation.
- Width of wall: not more than 9 m.
- Lower wall design up to 1 m: of solid masonry units. 94
 Contd…
• Bag washing gives smooth cleaned finish
• Adobe blocks require extra protection of plastering to
prevent wall pecking
• Upper wall design: the total wall height should be 2 m
including the solid base
• Gum posts/poles: treated with preservative and set 0.5 m
deep in concrete sufficient for roof and upper wall
structure supporting
• Wire mesh: 18 mm sufficient for rodent and bird control.
• Door: tight fitting essential
• Floor: PCC, gravel, or well drained soil. PCC is the best
(1:2:4 or 1:3:5)
• Floor thickness: 8 – 10 cm
• Floor foundation thickness: 15 cm above ground level.
95
 Recommended minimum floor, feed, and water space requirement
for chicken
Floor space stocking density Feeding space Water
Low High Trough Tube space
(birds/sq.
(birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.)
m.)
Chicks and Pullets
1 -4 weeks age 15 - 20 25 - 30 40 40 150
5 -10 weeks age 8 – 11 12 - 15 15 - 20 25 75
11 – 15 weeks age 5-6 7-8 9 - 10 12 50
16 weeks age 3 -4 5-7 7-8 10 40
Brooders 3-4 5-6 6-8 9 15
Layers 6 -7 8 10 - 20 - -
Semi-intensive
House-run
House 3 4 -5
Run 0.04 – 0.08 0.1 – 0.13
96
 Floor space stocking density Feeding space Water
space
Low High Trough Tube (birds/sq.
(birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.)
m.)
Straw yard:
Straw 3 4 -5
Yard 1.5 2.5
Fold system 2 2
Intensive system:
Deep litter floor 3-4 5 -7
Wire floor 7-8 9 – 10
Combination floor 5-6 7–8
Cage incl. alleys 8 - 12 15 - 25 7 - 10

97
 Roof structure: with span
• Roofing material : CS sheet.
• Insulation below roof: wooven mat.
• Thatch roof: for better cooling.
• Roof overhang: 0.5 m.
• Ventilation opening: along the ridge supplied in
layer house, but, not in brooder house.
• Transfer pullets from rearing to laying
accomodation: 17 – 18 weeks age.
• Egg laying age: 20 -24 weeks old.
98
Design considerations for housing system
1. Comfort
2. Protection
3. Efficiency
4. Production
5. Labor efficient
6. Reasonable investment
7. Easy manageable

99
 Types of housing of Layers:
1. Semi-intensive
2. Deep litter
3. Slatted or wire floor
4. Combination of slatted and deep litter
5. Cage or battery system

100
101
Open House Type

102
 1. semi-intensive system:
• Used by the small scale producers and are characterized by one or more pens in
which the birds can forage on natural vegetation and insects to supplement the
feed supplies.
• It is desirable to provide atleast two runs for alternating use to avoid build up of
disease and parasites.
• Each run should allow at least 10 – 15 sq.m. per hen and fence.
• But, area requirement will be 40-80 sq.m./hen where they acquire substantial
part from forage.
• A simple and small house which allows 0.3 – 0.4 sq. m./hen with thatched roof
and littered earth floor and slatted or chicken wire walls on at least 3 sides will
provide protection from inclement weather, from predators at night and shade
in the day time.
• For convenience, the house should be situated so that access to each of the
runs can be provided with small outlet “ popholes”.
• The shelter should be large enough to enter to collect eggs and be equipped
with nest boxes, feeders, drinkers, and perches.
• Advantages: low cost, run provided with fencing, have rat guards and ant
protection legs, equipped with skids or wheels for movement as one unit.
• Disadvantages: Egg production and growth of bird is lesser thancloser
confinement, loss of bird by predators, lesser eggs and losses due to laid in
bushes.
103
 2. Deep Litter System:
• To confine the birds in a house, deep litter system is used.
• If well designed with low masonary walls set on a concrete floor
and wire mesh completing upper parts of the walls, the house
will exclude rats and birds.
House dimension:
Width: 9 m
Length: any length
Bird density: 4 – 5 birds/sq.m.
Solid walls: prevailing wind
• Merits: easy access of feeding, watering, and egg gathering,
good protection, and reasonable cost.
• Demerits: Needs high quality litters, litters and manures must
be removed periodically, if produced by the owner, it is of little
significance.
• Figure here
104
 3. Slatted or Wire Floor System:
• Alternatively wire mesh is used for the floor.
• Treated wooden piers provided above 0.8 – 1 m above the ground.
• Ventilation and manure removal facilities are provided.
• No litter required.
• Bird density: 6 – 8 birds/sq.m.
• Feeding, watering, and egg collection is done from outside.
• Gaveled thatched roof or single pitch CI sheet may be used with the eaves of 1.5 m
above the floor.
• In CI sheet, insulation is needed below the roof.
• Deed troughs equipped with hinged covers.
• Rat guards are installed at the top of the each pier.
• House dimension:
Width of house: 2 m
Building orientation: E – W
Length of house: any, needed
Slatted floor: strong for a person walk.
If length > 5 m: nests needed to be put on sides
Floor is removable for cleaning.
• This type of house is cooler.
• Cost is higher with difficult management ;
• Figures here
105
 4. Combination of Slatted Floor and
Deep Litter System:
• Half of the floor area is covered with small gun
pole slats or with wire mesh.
• This area is raised by 0.5 m.
• Cleaning and manure under the slatted portion is
done from outside without disturbing the birds.
• Feeders and waterers can be handled from the
litter area.
• Width of floor: 3 to 4 m
( Figure here) 106
 Merits and Demerits of combination of slatted and deep
litter system:
Merits Demerits

1. More birds/unit area ( 5 – 7 /sq. m. ) 1. Added expense for material and labor
cost

2. Saves on litter 2. Limited width of the house make difficult

operation

3. Increases litter life 3. Need for more litter

4. Reduces contact between birds and

manure

5. Allows manure removal without

disturbing hens

6. Ventilation is improved due to slatted

floor.
107
 5. Cage or Battery System:
• It is well insulated windowless housing used for colder
areas and is very large structure.
• Complete mechanization for feed, water, and egg
collection.
• Manure removal and environmental control easy.
• Two-three people can care for the thousands of birds.
• This is simple and may work well for commercial purpose.
• This consists of stair-step cages in long narrow shelters.
• The thatch roof or metal insulated roof can be completely
open from all sides with hessian curtains in areas where
cold wind is experienced.
• Orientation: East-West and designed to provide shade for
cages near the ends.
• Very large investment required.
108
Contd…
• Width: 3.4 m allow 4 cages.
• Alley length: 0.9 m.
• Floor: concrete or soil.
• Manure collection: loose sand + spread litters
easy.
• Building posts: strong and treated with
preservatives.
• Rat guards provision at 0.8 m to 1.0 m height
from floor.
• Feeding: manually.
• Watering: manually or automatically system.
• (Figure here) 109
Structures of Poultry feeding and watering:
• The cumulative feed consumption from one day to the point of
laying ay 20 – 24 weeks is 1012 kg/ bird.
• The rearing of broiler from one day to marketable weight (2 kg
live weight) at 9 – 12 weeks of age requires 4- 6 kg of feed.
• Feeders:
- Either trough or tube feeders are used for one-day old chicks,
growing birds, and layers.
- No of feeders should be such that the distance of nearest
feeder should not be more than 2 m from any point in the
house.
- Trough should not be too wide, easily cleaned, and where the
hens can not leave droppings in it.
- Small trough feeders are placed on floor, while, the layers are
mounted on the stand to prevent the chickens from kicking
litters into them.
- ( Figures here)
110
 Drinkers:
• An ordinary bucket of 10 – 15 lit serves well for
layers.
• If it is sunk in to the ground, it should be 10 cm
out for chicks.
• Shallow bowls supplied with water from n upside
down bottle.
• Like feeders, they are put on floor for chicks and
on stands for older birds.
• The number of drinkers should be such that each
birds have access to two nipples as clogging of a
nipple is not always readily detected.
111
Feed and water requirement for pullets and layers
Chicken Feed requirement ( kg/week-bird) Water requirement
(lit/day/bird)

Pullets Broiler

1 – 4 weeks of age 0.07 – 0.2 0.1 – 0.4 0.05 – 0.15

5 – 8 weeks of age 0.26 – 0.36 0.5 – 0.9 0.16 – 0.25

9 – 12 weeks of age 0.4 – 0.49 1.0 – 1.1 0.20 – 0.35

13 – 20 weeks of age 0.51 – 0.78 - 0.25 – 0.4

112
 Low Cost /Cost Effective Housing
• The structure should be:
 Strong
 Functional
 Durable
 Cheaper/Affordable by the targeted groups

• Aim of Low Cost House

 Efficiently utilize available resources like land,
material, and labor (LML)
113
 Chapter -8
Rural Energy (Nepal)
Rural Population (% of total population) 80 (2018)

GDP (current US$) 29,040,398,982.35

(2018)
GDP Per Capita (current US$) 1,033.91 (2018)

Access to Electricity (% of population) 95.51 (2019)

Energy Imports Net (% of energy use) 16.68 (2014)

Fossil Fuel Energy Consumption (% of 15.48 (2014)

total)
Source: World Bank
Peak energy demand in Nepal (2014)
 Solar Power (Gham power)

Solar powered pump for improved irrigation

 Solar power
• Nepal has great potential for at least four types of
solar energy technology:
a. grid-connected PV,
b. solar water heaters,
c. solar lanterns and
d. solar home systems.
• Nepal receives 3.6 to 6.2 kWh of solar radiation
per square meter per day, with roughly 300 days
of sun a year, making it ideal for solar energy.
• The country also has a large market for solar
water heaters, with 185,000 units installed and
operating as of 2009.
 Solar power
• 943 medium-size solar PV units provide 1.2
MWp of electricity for the communications
sector.
• Solar lanterns, popularly known as solar tuki,
with 1,55,000 units are in use (2010)
constituting 737 kWp of capacity.
• 2,25,000 of solar home systems are used
throughout Nepal across 2600 villages with an
output of 5.36 MWp.
Solar dryer
 Bio-energy
• Biomass is the most important primary energy source in Nepal.
• Biomass comprises wood, agricultural residues and dung.
• 95 % of the biomass is used for cooking and heating purposes in
households.
• According to estimates by WECS the national biomass balance is
in deficit: From 2000 to 2005 the deforestation rate was 2.1 %.
• The estimated wood consumption in 2005 was about 17 million
tons. Over-exploitation of wood resources is approximately 10
million tons.
• About 40 % of the firewood comes from the sustainable supply.
• In the Terai region, only 19 % of consumption can re-grow
sustainably, while this value reaches between 60 % and 80 % in
the mountain regions.
• Land Area Covered by Forest: 25.4%
 Bio-gas
• At least 1.2 million households owning cattle and buffalo,
• Technical biogas potential for at least one million
household-size plants, 57 percent located in the Terai
plains, 37 percent in the hills and 6 percent in remote hills.
• According to the Alternative Energy Promotion Center
(July 2011), 2,41,920 biogas plants were installed in more
than 2,800 then Village Development Committees and in
all 75 Districts under their Biogas Support Program.
• In addition, 2,907 biogas plants were installed under the
Gold Standard Biogas Project (GSP).
• Still, other estimates of Nepali biogas utilization have
calculated that potential for family-sized biogas plants,
operating on agricultural residues could fuel at least
another 200,000 units.
 Micro hydro power
• MH is a small-scale hydropower that can generate
up to 100 KW of electricity. The abundance of fast-
flowing streams, requirement of less infrastructure
and investment compared to larger power plants,
minimal government involvement, and limited
impact on environment have made MH plants one
of the best options for rural electrification.
• A list of installed and planned hydro power
plants has been published by Federation of Nepalese
Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI):
 Hydro power

Total Major Hydro Grid Connected 472,994 kW

Total Small Hydro Isolated (NEA) 4,536 kW

Total hydro IPP 158,315 kW

Total Hydro -Nepal 635,845 kW

Source: FNCCI
 Nepalese hydropower potential
River Basin Number of project Economic potential
sites [MW]
Sapta Koshi 40 10,260

Sapta Gandaki 12 5,270

Karnali and Mahakali 9 25,125

Southern River 5 878

Total 66 42,133

Theoretical overall potential- 83,290 MW ; Technical feasible

potential- 45,610 MW; 42,133 MW is economically to realise.
 Improved cooking stove

• How to Achieve Inclusive Energy Access

• Reliable Affordable and Sustainable Energy
Sector in Nepal
• Production, Installation and Maintenance of
Improved Cookstoves by Women in Nepal
• Solutions to reduce Household Air Pollution
(HAP) in South Asia
• Heating - Indoor Air Temperature
 Improved cooking stove
• Improved cook stoves (ICS) particularly mud-brick ICS with and
without chimney is one of the most simple, inexpensive and
widely used technologies designed to improve combustion
efficiency of biomass and reduce exposure to indoor air
pollution.

Benefits of ICS includes:

a) increased thermal efficiency
b) conservation of forests by reducing fuel wood consumption
c) reduction in womens' drudgery
d) reduction in indoor air pollution
e) smoke-related health disorders, and
f) prevention of fire hazards.
 Improved Cooking Stove
S.No. Fiscal Year Installation Type No. of installation
1 2061/2062 Improved Cooking Stove 59243
2 2062/2063 Improved Cooking Stove 41170
3 2063/2064 Improved Cooking Stove 23767
4 2064/2065 Improved Cooking Stove 39602
5 2065/2066 Improved Cooking Stove 53595
6 2066/2067 Improved Cooking Stove 87154
7 2067/2068 Improved Cooking Stove 84168
8 2068/2069 Improved Cooking Stove 118461
9 2069/2070 Improved Cooking Stove 120364
10 2070/2071 Improved Cooking Stove 140662
11 2071/2072 Improved Cooking Stove 310289
12 2072/2073 Improved Cooking Stove 51211
13 2073/2074 Improved Cooking Stove 60555
Benefits of Improved cooking stove
• Low cost
• Fuel efficient
• Easy to transport
• Locally builtable
• Accepted technology, particularly in Terai
Water mill
 Wind mill
• Wind electricity generation in Nepal has huge
potentiality and are utilized
• It is installed in the areas where wind velocity is
high in the day-time
• Installed in Nawalpur (Rudrapur), Nawalparasi
(Dhobadi), Makwanpur (Hetauda), Mustang
(Jomsom-1.5 KW), Achham bazar
• Solar panels are installed where batteries are
charged with wind-turbines by wind power
• Wind energy is also used for pumping water out
for livestock in high hills.
 Chapter- 9: Rural Technology ( Tillage)
• Definition of Tillage: it is the mechanical
manipulation of soil to provide favorable condition
for crop establishment/production.
• It consists of breaking the compact surface of earth
to a certain depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as
to enable the roots of the crops to develop well
(vertically and laterally).
• It may be called the practice of modifying the state of
soil to provide favorable conditions for plant growth.
• It is the most energy (labor and time) consuming
operation for crop production.
 Tillage (Contd…)
• Objectives of Tillage:
i. To obtain desirable soil structure for different crops,
ii. To add more humus and fertility to soil by incorporating
vegetation and manure,
iii. To destroy prevalent weeds and prevent their growth,
iv. To provide proper aeration in the soil,
v. To break the plow-pans,
vi. To enhance water infiltration rate and water holding
capacity of the soil,
vii. To destroy soil borne insects, pests by destroying their
eggs, larvae and breeding places,
viii. To reduce the soil erosion, and
ix. To help in land leveling for irrigation.
 Tillage (Contd…)
• Types/classification of Tillage: it is classified as
a) Primary Tillage
b) Secondary Tillage
Primary Tillage:
• it is the initial operation performed to open up any
cultivable land with a view to prepare a seedbed for
growing crops.
• It is done to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials,
and rearrange aggregates.
• In general, tractor-drawn heavy implements e.g. Mould-
Board (MB) plow, Disc plow, Chisel plow, Sub-soiler are
used in flat land,
• Power-tiller operated plows and animal-drawn wooden
plow/MB plow used in the areas where tractors are not
applicable.
 Tillage (Contd…)
• Secondary Tillage: It is the soil tilling operations following
primary tillage, with an objective to make the soil
friable/pulverized for easy seed placement into the soil or
planting.
• Tractor-operated secondary tillage implements are
harrows, cultivators, levelers, clod-crushers, rotavators,
power tiller- operated are rotary-tillers, and animal-drawn
are wooden plow, harrows, and tillers.
• The secondary tillage operations may be followed by heavy
wooden planks for breaking large soil clods into finer
particles.
• The implements used for secondary tillage operations are
called secondary tillage implements.
• Tillage is done by tools, implements, or machines.
 Tillage (Contd…)
• Tool: is an individual working element.
• Implement: is an equipment generally having no
driven moving parts such as cultivators and plows
• Machine: is the combination of rigid or resistant
bodies having definite motions and capable of
performing useful works.
Changing views on tillage: A “ Conservation Tillage”
implies the following principles:
a) Minimum soil disturbance,
b) Residues retention, and
c) Crop rotation.
 B Conventional Tillage systems:
• These involve the mechanical soil manipulation of entire field
(area) by plowing followed by one or more harrowing and/or
planking.
• The degree of soil tilling depends on the type of the implement
used, number of passes, soil, and intended crop type,
Traditional/conventional tillage:
• In the humid and sub-humid regions, traditional tillage is used
by manual labor using native tools, which are few and simple,
the most important being hoes/spades and cutlass.
• The grasses are cleared with a cutlass and the trees and shrubs
are pruned.
• The cleared grass and cut biomass are either burned in situ or
removed. The root system under the soil surface give the top
soil structural stability for one or two years.
• In some cases, animal-drawn implements are used as the
traditional tools.
 Conservation Tillage

Zero-tillage Minimum Tillage

 Ridge/Bed Planting
New Beds Permanent Bed + Mulch
 Traditional/Conventional Tillage
Animals + Harrow Tractor + Cultivator
 Traditional soil puddling
Tractor + Cultivator Animals + Harrow
Traditional Puddling with wooden plow
Effect of tillage systems on physical, chemical,
and biological properties
Tillage system

Compaction of underlying
Reduction of vegetative Pulverization of soil
layer
cover Surface cover

Wind erosion
Increase in run-off Poor root
Reduction of
development
water infiltration

Flood
Low yield
Erosion
High production
cost
Inefficient use of water Environmental
and fertilizers pollution
 Primary Tillage Implements
• A mould board (MB) plough is very common implement
used for primary tillage operation.
• It is generally used in areas where there is sufficient
rainfall and is heavily weed infested and needs to be
turned over.
• It is used for incorporating manures and over turning the
green manure crops.
• This plow performs several functions at a time.
Functions of MB Plow:
 Cutting the furrow slice,
 Lifting the soil,
 Turning the furrow slice, and
 Pulverizing the soil
1. Mould Board (MB) Plow
 Mould Board Plow
Animal-drawn MB plow Tractor-drawn MB plow

Power tiller-drawn MB Plow

Tractor drawn Reversible Plow

 2 Disc plow
• It is a plow which cuts, turns and in some cases
breaks furrow slices by means of separately
mounted large steel discs.
• It is a heat treated steel, 5 -10 mm thick, 60-90 cm
diameter plough designed to reduce friction by
making the rolling plow bottom instead of sliding
plow bottom
• Works well in the conditions where a MB Plow does
not work satisfactorily
• Penetration of the disc plow depends on the weight
of the plow as a whole
• Tractor drawn disc plow weighs 180 – 540 kg/disc
and animal drawn weighs 30 kg/disc
2 Disc Plow
Disc Plow
 Adjustments of Disc Plow (Contd…)
Tilt angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting
edge of the disc is inclined to vertical plain. The tilt angle
of good plough varies between 15 – 25 deg (animal-
drawn). Increasing the tilt angle improves disc penetration
in sticky and heavy soils. Decreasing the tilt angle
improves disc penetration in loose and brittle soils.
b) Adjustment for deeper plowing:
The depth of plowing can be maintained by position draft
control levers of the hydraulic system. However, more
adjustment can be done:
a) By adding weights to the plow, penetration can be
increased.
b) The width of cut by the plow can be adjusted by
adjusting the angle between the frame and land wheel
axle.
Tractor – operated Standard Disc Plow
 3 Chisel Plow
• Deep plowing is done in between 3 – 5 years for
improved infiltration and drainage. Chisel plowing is
used for deeper plowing (14 – 18 inch) to break plow
pans formed due to frequent tractor movement with
heavy implements and soil puddling. Cutting blade is
made up by the high grade carbon steel or alloy steel
and having blade enter to the soil at 40 deg.

4 Sub-soiler
• It is also used for deeper plowing (24 -28 inch) to
overcome the problem of plow pan formation during
soil puddling.
Chisel Plow
Secondary Tillage Implements
1) Harrow
• A harrow is an implement that cuts the soil to a
shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing
the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix
amendments with soil
• It is used to break the clods formed during
primary tillage, to collect trash from the plowed
fields, and to level the seed bed
• Harrowing is secondary tillage operation which
pulverizes, smoothens and packs the soils in
seed bed preparation and/or control weeds
 Animal-drawn disc harrow
• It is drawn by a pair of bullocks
• There are six circular steel discs on two
rotating shafts
• It is provided by a beam and operator seat
• It is used for dry soil harrowing and puddling.
Animal-drawn Disc Harrow: Consists of
 Tractor drawn harrow
• Disc harrow is found suitable for hard ground, full of
stalks and grasses
• It cuts the lumps of soil, clods, and roots
• Discs are mounted on one, two or more axles which
may be set at a variable angle to the line of motion
• As the harrow moves forward, the discs rotates at
the ground
• Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows
are divided into three classes:
a) Single action disc harrow
b) Double action disc harrow
c) Offset disc harrow
Tractor drawn harrow
 Spring Tyne Harrow (contd…)
• The spring tynes are bolted staggered on the
frame to avoid clogging during operation
• Spike tooth and spring tyne harrows do not
require lubrication
• The shovels of the spring tyne are reversed upside
down when they are worn out
• Teeth may also be removed for sharpening by
grinding
• The spikes are either square or diamond shaped
and are of self-sharpening type.
Spring Tooth Harrow
Secondary Tillage Implements: Cultivator
 Rotary Tillage Tool/Rotavator
• It is an implement that cuts and pulverizes the soil by impact
forces through a number of rotary tines or knives mounted on
a horizontal shaft
• It is also called rotary tiller and suitable for weed control and
shallow cultivation
• It consists a power driven shaft on which knives are mounted
to cut the soil and trash. The shaft rotates at 200- 300 rpm
• Generally sharp edges L-shaped blades are used on the rotor
• They are classified as animal-drawn, engine operated, and
tractor drawn
• One to two operations are sufficient for good pulverization
depending upon soil type and crop condition.
• It is not meant for sandy soil
• The power from the engine to the rotor is transmitted through
chain
• A clutch is provided in transmission system for engaging or
disengaging power.
Tractor-drawn Rotavator
Power transmission system in rotavator
 Problems
1) Problem: A three-bottom, 40 cm, mould board plow
is working at a depth of 16 cm. Calculate the unit
draft, actual horsepower required and actual field
capacity if the draft is 1440 kg. Take the speed of
the tractor 4.5 km/hr and the field performance
index as 0.75.
Given: Cutting width of single bottom = 40 cm
No. of bottoms = 3
Depth of cut = 16 cm
Draft (P) = 1440 kg
Speed of the tractor = 4.5 km/hr
Field performance index = 0.75
 Solution
The cross sectional area of cut
= Depth of cut x Width of the implement x No. of
bottom
= 16 x 40 x 3 = 1920 sq. cm
The unit draft = Draft/Area = 1440/1920 kg/sq. cm
= 0.75 kg/sq. cm
Actual horsepower required (HP)
= (Draft x Speed)/(75 x 60 x 60)
= 1440 x 4500/75 x 60 x 60 kg-m/sec
= 24 HP/sec
 Contd..
Theoretical field capacity
= Width of cut x Speed
= 3 x 40/100 x 4500 m x m/hr
= 5400 sq. m/hr
= 5400/10000 ha/hr ( as 1 ha = 10000 sq. m)
= 0.54 ha/hr
Field performance index
= Actual field capacity/Theoretical field capacity, or
Actual field capacity = Theoretical Field capacity x Field
performance index
= 0.54 x 0.75 ha/hr
= 0.405 ha/hr
 Seeding and Planting Machines
• Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in properly tilled
bed, at uniform depth, at uniform spacing so that the
recommended seed rate is maintained to have good
germination
• Factors affecting seed germination and emergence are:
i. Viability of the seed
ii. Soil temperature
iii. Soil moisture availability to seed
iv. Soil aeration and soil resistance to seedling emergence
These factors are influenced by soil type, physical condition of
soil, depth of sowing, soil and seed contact, the degree of
compaction of soil, and surface crust formation after
sowing. Final field emergence stand is influenced by pre-
emergence, physical losses by birds and the post
emergence losses due to diseases, insects and adverse
environmental conditions.
 Seeding and Planting Machines (contd…)
Methods of sowing:
1) Broadcasting: It is the seed tossing on the soil
surface after land preparation. Row spacing is
not maintained and intercultural operation is
possible only with hand tools. Millets, upland
rice and other rainfed crops are broadcasted.
This system is adopted for nursery raising in the
low land rice cultivation.
2) Dibbling: It is the process of placing the seeds in
holes at definite depth made in seed bed and
covering them. The tool used is dibbler. This
method is generally used for vegetable crops.
 Seeding and Planting Machines (contd…)
Methods of sowing:
3) Seed dropping: Seed is dropped behind the plow in
furrow opened by indigenous plow. A man or
woman following the plow drops seed by hand
which is covered when the next furrow is opened.
4) Drilling: Dropping the seeds in the furrows through
send tubes. Metering of seed is either done
manually or mechanically. Accuracy of seeding
depth, spacing and amount of seed sown are much
higher than other methods. Some times the seed
may get damaged and tubes may get clogged.
Drilling can be done either mechanically or
manually.
 Seeding and Planting Machines (contd…)
Methods of sowing:
5) Hill dropping: Here row to row and plant to
plant distance are maintained. Seed dropping in
rows is not continuous.
6) Check rowing: Here, the spacing between the
rows is the same as that between the plants.
Inter culture operation is possible from both
directions.
7) Transplanting: It is done for paddy, vegetables,
and flower plants. Produces higher yields, but, is
time and labor intensive operation. Transplanter
machine is used for this operation.
Power Transmission Mechanism
Zero-till Seed-cum-Fertilizer Drill
Problem 2: A plot of 1000 x 700 m is to be drilled/planted to sow
maize at a speed of 2 km/hr. The planter is having 4 rows with a
spacing of 100 cm. Assume that the time lost in each turn is 10 sec
and time lost in filling the seed hopper and other interruptions is 10
minutes per hectare. Take an overlap of 10 cm in each run. Calculate,
the total drilling time, actual capacity for the drill, and drilling
efficiency.

Given:
Size of the field to be drilled = 1000 x 700 m =700000 sq. m.
Speed of the planter = 2 km/hr = 2000 m/hr
No. of seeding tubes on the planter = 4
Spacing between two adjoining tubes = 100 cm = 1 m
Overlapping on coverage per run (or pass) = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Time loss in each turn (or pass) = 10 sec
Time loss for seed filling into the hopper and others = 10 min/ha
 Contd…
Solution:
Total width of coverage or seeding in each turn (pass)
= No. of seeding tubes x tube spacing
=4x1=4m
When the planter is moving into the field length-wise, the
number of turns = (700 – 1)/4 = 174.75
= 175
Actual No. of passes = (700 – 1)/3.9 = 179.23 = 180
Theoretical time needed to cover the given area,
Tt = Given Area /(tractor forward speed x seeding width per
pass)
= (1000 x 700)/(2000 x 4) sq. m/m x m x hr-1
= 87.5 hrs = 87 hrs 30 minutes
Theoretical capacity of the drill = Total Area/Theoretical time
= 70 ha/87.5 hrs = 0.8 ha/hr
 Contd…
But, the actual sowing width is (4 – 0.1 ) = 3.9 m
Therefore, actual sowing time to cover whole area
= (1000 x 700)/(2000 x 3.9) m x m x hr/m x m
= 89.75 hr
Time loss on 180 passes = 180 x 10/60 x 60 = 0.5 hr
Time loss for grain filling = 70 x 10/60 = 11.67 hrs
Therefore, total time required to plant maize on the
given fields (70 ha) = 89.75 + 0.5 + 11.67 hrs
= 101.92 hrs = 101 hrs and 55 min
Actual capacity of the planter in this situation =
70/101.92 = 0.68 ha/hr
Planting efficiency(%) = (Actual capacity/Theoretical
capacity) x 100 = (0.68/0.8) x 100 = 85 %
Problem 3 : A minimum-till seed drill is used to sow wheat
at the rate of 120 kg seed/ha on a square field of 1 ha. The
sowing width of the drill is 1.2 m with 6 rows and is
operated at a speed of 2.4 km/hr. Assume that the sowing
depth is 5 cm, overlap is negligible, and tire slippage is 15
%. Calculate the time to finish the Job.
Given:
Sowing width (w) = 1.2 m
= No. of openers x spacing between two adjoining
openers
= 6 x 20 cm = 120 cm = 1.2 m
Speed of the seed drill = 2.4 km/hr = 2400 m/hr
Seed rate = 120 kg/ha
Sowing area = 1 ha = 10000 sq. m. = 100 m x 100 m
Solution:
• No. of passes or turns the seed drill requires to cover
the field width = (100 - 0.2)/1.2 m/m = 83.17
• Time required by the drill to cover the field length in
one pass (hr) = field length (m) / travel speed (m/hr)
= 100/2400 m x hr/m = 0.0417 hrs
• Time required in 83.17 passes, theoretically = 100 x
83.17/2400 = 3.465 hrs
• Actual time required to cover the field i.e. 1 ha
= theoretical time + time loss in slippage
= 3.465 + 15 x 3.465/100
= 3.465 + 0.5197 hrs
= 3.985 hrs
= 4 hrs
 Manual Rice Transplanting:
(energy and time consuming practice)
Rice Transplanting
• Two methods are used for growing rice crop such
as: (i) Upland Rice/Direct Seeded Rice (ii) Wetland
Rice (a. Sprouted Seed Sowing and b. Seedling
Transplanting).
• Manual transplanting is time and energy
consuming, labor intensive, and tedious farm
operation.
• Attempts have been made to develop manual as
well as self-propelled transplanter for rice
transplanting.
 Components of Manual Rice Transplanter
Manual rice transplanter consists:
1) Main frame: with which all the components are attached
2) Movable tray: On which the seedling mats are placed at uses
3) Seedling pickers: 3 - 4 seedlings are picked up and transplanted in
each stroke
4) Handle: helps in pulling the machine backward and is used for
pushing the pickers downward
5) Tray: On which seedling mats are put
6) Feeding frame: helps in guiding the seedlings and pickers in
transplanting
7) Skids: help the machine in skidding
8) Row guide: helps in marking in the field for easy and straight
moving of the machine in following passes
Manual Rice Transplanter
Rice drum seeder in operation
Power rice transplanter
Jab seeder
Manual weeding
Operation of manual weeder
Technologies for rice…….

• Weed management
including mechanical
weeder + herbicides
 Crop harvesting methods
1) Manual harvesting- using
(a) sickle: (A) smooth edged
(B) serrated edged
(b) Droppers: (A) Small axe
(B) Gandasa
(C ) Dav
(c ) Push type harvester: developed in Japan, consists
of two serrated blades mounted at an angle of 30 deg,
to each other, a mechanism to retain harvested plants,
and lever to drop them, capacity: 0.2 ha/day, used in
standing posture.
 Crop harvesting methods (contd…)
(d) Scythe: uses single smooth edge blade of sickle
shape but bigger in size and mechanism to retain
harvested crops, attached at the end of a
wooden handle. The operator handles it with a
force from right to left and move forward. At the
end of the swath, it is tilted when the cut plants
dropped.
2) Animal drawn:
(a) Reapers: Proved successful for wheat harvesting.
But, because of small plots and high cost of
gathering harvested crops, it proved
uneconomical and unacceptable
(b) Country ploughs/cultivators: used for digging of
root crops e.g. groundnut, potato etc.
Power- tiller (PT) operated reapers
• Front mounted and riding type
• Cutting force is two elements impact action
• Depending upon the size of prime mover, the
cutter-bar width is about 1.3 m (Nepalese
context)
• Source of power: diesel engine, 10-12 hp
• Field capacity – about 0.2 ha/hr in flat,
• Diesel consumption : 1.25 lit/hr
• Minimum cutting height : 7.5 cm (adjustable)
Power-tiller Operated Reaper
 Tractor operated reapers
• Tractor front mounted reapers are suitable for harvesting of
rice and wheat crops,
• Reaping capacity: 0.6 to 0.7 ha/hr, depending on field crop
conditions
• Fuel consumption: 3 – 4 lit./hr, depending upon tractor size
• Cutting force is two elements impact action
• Principle of operation is similar to PT reapers, but, cutter bar
length varies between 1.9 to 2.1 m,
• Tractor engine power is supplied to the reaper through
tractor power take off (PTO) shaft,
• Reaper lifting and lowering is executed by tractor hydraulic
system,
• In operation, the reaper is lifted at the corners of the field,
• Harvested crops are collected manually making bundles are
carried to the threshing yard for threshing.
Tractor Operated Reaper
Tractor operated reaper
 Reaper/Harvester for Hills and Valley
• Operated by mini tiller
Harvesting capacity of reapers
Harvesting capacity varies with: (a) machine
size (b) operator skills (c ) field and crop
condition (d) weather condition
• PT reapers: 0.3-0.4 ha/hr
• Tractor reaper: 0.5- 0.7 ha/hr
 Crop Threshing
• Threshing is the removal of grain from the harvested plants by
striking, treading, or rubbing.
• Threshing is accomplished either by treading the grain under the
feet of men or the hooves of the animals, or striking the grains with
stick or peg/ loop of threshing machine or removing the grain by
rubbing between stone or wooden rollers on a threshing floor or
between the rasp bars and concave of a combine.
• Methods of threshing: are
a) Rubbing action
b) Impact action and/or
c) Stripping action or by their combinations
Types of threshers:
a) Hold-on type- where the operator grabs the shief/bundel and
holds the panicle end against the wire loops of the rotating
drum.
b) Throw-in type- where whole plants are fed into the thresher,
now, most of the threshers are throw-in type
Allowable total grain loss from a mechanical thresher: (BIS)
- not more than 5 %
- broken grains not more than 2 %
- foreign matter not more than 2 %
Major components of a mechanical thresher:
1. Feeding device/chute
2. Threshing cylinder
3. Concave
4. Blower/Aspirator
5. Sieve-shaker/Straw walker, and
6. Grain elevator (optional)
7. Fly wheel
Factors affecting thresher performance:
a) Crop factors- grain moisture, straw length, variety etc.
b) Machine factors- size, proper functioning of components
c) Operational factors- feeding rate
d) Human factors – working mood, vigor
Mechanized threshing in hills
General Purpose Thresher
Types of Threshing Cylinder
Multi-crop Thresher
 Combine harvesters:
•A combine or combine harvester is a reaper-cum-thresher put
together to harvest, thresh, and clean the grain from the straw
in one operation.
• Real beginning of the combine for harvesting, threshing and
cleaning was in 1835,
• Steam-tractor-drawn combines were introduced on a large
scale in the wheat areas during the first world war, or 1916,
• Self-propelled combine was commercially introduced in 1938.
• The size of a self propelled combine is indicated by the width
of its cut and ranges from 1.5 to 2.1 m (small size) and may be
over 4.0 m width (large size).
•The total power requirement for the pulled type combine is 2
kW per 30 cm cut and 3 kW per 30 cm cut for the self-propelled.
• The first combine owner of Nepal is Mr. Dan Bahadur
Chaudhary from Kapilvastu district.
Combine: can be classified, depending
upon source of power, as
1. Self-propelled type
2. Tractor PTO operated or trailed type
Functions of a combine, more precisely, can be stated as :
1. Harvesting.
2. Feeding of the cut crop to the threshing unit.
3. Threshing the grain from the head/panical/spike.
4. Separating the threshed grain from the straw.
5. Cleaning the grain from the chaff.
6. Storing the cleaned grain, temporarily in a tank and
delivering it in the trolley.
Combine harvester on road
Mini combine harvester
 Mini combine harvester
• Field test at AIRC, Birganj: 0.1 ha/hr rice
• Fuel consumption : 2-2.5 lit/hr
• Supply agent : ASB International,
Kathmandu
• Unit price at BIRGANJ : 5.25 lakh ???