General Inorganic Chemistry

Chemistry
BE, Pokhara University
First Year
By: Dr. Damodar Koirala
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 Periodicity in atomic properties
The term periodicity is used to indicate that some characteristic properties occur in
the periodic table after definite intervals, however with a varying magnitude.

Thus after starting from a certain point on the periodic table, we are almost certain
that the movement in a particular direction will show steady increase or decrease of
a said property.

Atomic size

In homonuclear diatomic molecules the distance from the centre of one nucleus to the
centre of another nucleus gives the bond length and half of this bond length is atomic
radius.

The first member of each period is the largest in size. This is due to the reason that the
extra charge on the nucleus draws the electrons inward resulting in smaller size for the
atoms under reference. This trend of decrease in size of atoms, continues from left to right.

In going down the group of elements (in any particular column) the atomic size increases
at each step. This increase may be explained in terms of a new electron shell being added,
when we pass from one element to another in a group.
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 Ionization energy
Ionization Enthalpy is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron
from an isolated atom in the gaseous state for one mole of an element. It is expressed
in kJ mol–1
M(g) + IE ==> M+(g) + e–


As we move from left to right in the periodic table, there is a nearly regular increase
in the magnitude of the ionization enthalpy of elements. Similarly, on moving down a
group the magnitude of the ionization enthalpy indicates a regular decline.

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 Ionization energy
The variation in the magnitude of ionization enthalpy of elements in the periodic
table is mainly dependent on the following factors:
(a)The size of the atom: In small atoms, the electrons are tightly held whereas in large
atoms the electron are less strongly held. Thus, the ionization enthalpy decreases as
the size of the atom increases.
(b)The magnitude of the nuclear charge on the atom: When an electron is removed
from an atom, the effective nuclear charge, i.e., the ratio of the number of charges
on the nucleus to the number of electrons, increases. As a result the remaining
electrons come closer to the nucleus and are held more tightly. The removal of a
second electron, therefore, requires more energy. e.g., Mg+ is smaller than the Mg
atom. The remaining electrons in Mg+ are more tightly held. The second ionization
enthalpy is, therefore, more than the first ionization enthalpy.
(c)The extent of screening: screening is poor for f, d, p then s
(d)The type of orbital involved (s, p, d, or f): Since the orbitals (s, p, d and f) have
different shapes, the ionization enthalpy depends on the type of electrons removed.
e.g. an electron in an s orbital is more tighly held as compared to an electron in a p
orbital. It is because an s electron is nearer to the nucleus as compared to a p
electron. If all other factors are equal, the ionization enthalpies are in the order s >
p > d > f.
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 Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is defined as a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the
electron pair in a covalent bond to itself.

• The most electronegative elements have been placed on the farthest right hand
upper corner (noble gases are not included).

• The value of electronegativity decreases as we go down in any group and increases

from left to right in the period.

• Thus fluorine is the most electronegative and cesium is the least electronegative
element.

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 Electron affinity
Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released for one mole of neutral atoms in a
gaseous state when electron is accepted by each atom.


X + e – ==> X – + EA

The electron affinity increases from left to right in a period. This is because it is easier
to add an electron to a smaller atom since the added electron would be closer to the
positively charged nucleus. Halogens release maximum energy when they accept an
electron.

Electron affinity becomes decreases as we go down the group showing that the
electropositive character of the atoms increases. This is because the size of the atom
increases down the group and the electron added goes to the higher shells.

The electron affinity of chlorine is more in negative value as compared to that of

fluorine. This is due to the small size of the F atom. As the electron approaches the
small F atom, it experiences a repulsion from other electrons.

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Electron affinity

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Periodic table

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 Periodic table

• The properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic number.

• All the known elements are arranged in 18 groups in the long form of periodic table

• There are seven horizontal rows (periods) in the long from of the periodic table.

• Elements of groups 1 and 2 are known as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
respectively.

• Elements of groups 17 and 18 are known as halogens and noble gases respectively.

• s, p, d and f are the four blocks in the periodic table classified on the basis of their 

outer most electrons residing in s, p, d or f sub-shell.

• The elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the basis
of their properties and their position in the periodic table.

• The atomic size, ionic size, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and
electronegativity show regular trends along a group and a period.

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 S block elements

• Within the periodic table, the s-block is located to the far left and includes all of the
elements in the first two columns (columns 1 and 2) plus helium, which is located in
the top right corner in column 8A (column 18 on some versions of the periodic
table).

• The s-block elements are the 14 elements contained within these columns.

• All of the s-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons
(outermost electrons) are in an s orbital.

• The s orbital is spherical and can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons.

• Elements in column 1 have one electron in the s orbital, and elements in column 2
(plus helium) have two electrons in the s orbital.

• The s-block elements include hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li), beryllium
(Be), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), rubidium (Rb),
strontium (Sr), cesium (Cs), barium (Ba), francium (Fr) and radium (Ra). The
periodic table shows exactly where these elements are within the s-block.

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 Characteristic properties of S block elements
• All of the s-block elements are metals.

• Shiny, silvery, good conductors of heat and electricity and loose valence electrons
easily.

• Considered to be the most reactive elements on the periodic table.

• The elements in column 1, known collectively as the alkali metals (except

hydrogen), always lose their one valence electron to make a +1 ion. These metals
are characterized by being silvery, very soft, not very dense and having low
melting points. These metals react extremely vigorously with water and even
oxygen to produce energy and flammable hydrogen gas. They are kept in mineral
oil to reduce the chance of an unwanted reaction or worse, an unwanted explosion.

• The elements in column 2, known as the alkaline earth metals (except helium),
always lose their two valence electrons to make a +2 ion. Like the alkali metals,
the alkaline earth metals are silvery, shiny and relatively soft. Some of the elements
in this column also react vigorously with water and must be stored carefully.
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 P block elements
• The p-block is on the right side of the periodic table and includes elements from the
six columns beginning with column 3A and ending with column 8A (or columns
13-18 on some versions of the periodic table).

• Helium, which is in the top of column 8A, is not included in the p-block.

• P-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost
electrons) are in the p orbital.

• The p orbital consists of six lobed shapes coming off a central point at evenly spaced
angles.

• The p orbital can hold a maximum of six electrons, hence why there are six columns
in the p-block.

• Elements in column 3A, the first column of the p-block, have one valence electron.
Elements in column 4A, the second column of the p-block, have two valence
electrons. The trend continues this way until we reach column 8A, which has six
valence electrons.

• There are 35 elements that live in the p-block.

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 Characteristic properties of P block elements
Only block that contains all three types of elements: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
Properties of P-Block Metals
• P-block metals have classic metal characteristics: they are shiny, they are good
conductors of heat and electricity, and they loose electrons easily.
• Generally, these metals have high melting points and readily react with nonmetals to
form ionic compounds.
• Of the p-block metals, several have fascinating properties. Gallium, in the 3rd row
of column 3A, is a metal that can melt in the palm of your hand. Tin, in the fourth
row of column 4A, is an abundant, flexible, and extremely useful metal.
Properties of P-Block Metalloids
• All of the elements that are commonly recognized as metalloids are in the p-block:
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antinomy, and tellurium.
Properties of P-Block Nonmetals
• Most of the p-block elements are nonmetals. These elements generally have low
boiling points, are poor conductors, and do not lose electrons easily. Some
nonmetals are solids at room temperature, while others are gases. One nonmetal in
the p-block, bromine, is a liquid at room temperature.
• Carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, selenium and iodine regularly occur as solid.
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 Characteristic properties of transition metals
Transition elements have partly filled d- orbitals.

1. Electronic Configuration: The electronic configuration of transition elements may

in general be represented as
(n-1) d 1-10 ns1 or 2

The (n-1) means penultimate or next to the outermost shell and d- orbital may have 1 to
10 electrons and the s- orbital of the outermost shell (n) may have 1 or 2 electrons. The
electronic configurations of all the four series of elements are given in a table above.

2. Atomic and ionic radii: The atomic and ionic radii of the elements of a particular
transition series decreases from left to right. In the first series, the atomic radii become
almost constant for chromium, because of two factors-Increase in nuclear charge and
increase in the screening effect which just balance each other.

Atomic radii of Chromium is 117pm. Mn, the next element has an atomic radii of
117pm. The next three elements, Co, Ni and Cu has 116, 115 and 117 respectively.
To summarize, atomic and ionic radii decrease with increase in atomic number, due to
increase in nuclear charge.
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 Characteristic properties of transition metals
3. Magnetic Properties
Those which are attracted by the magnetic field are termed as paramagnetic and those
repelled by the magnetic field are diamagnetic. Transition elements and their
compounds are paramagnetic in nature, they conduct electricity.
Paramagnetism is due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the d- orbitals of the
transition metal atoms, ions or molecules. The greater the number of unpaired
electrons, the greater will be its magnetic behavior. So, all transition metals with at
least one unpaired electron are paramagnetic.
4. Color
Most d- block compounds are colored in the solid or in solution Color
Ions
states. The color of the transition metal ions is due to the presence observed
Fe2+ Green
of unpaired or incomplete (n-1) d orbitals and the ability to promote
Ni2+ Green
an electron from one energy level to another. In these ions d-
Cu2+ Blue
electrons are promoted to the higher energy levels within the same
d- sub-shell. The color exhibited depends upon the complementary Fe3+ Yellow

color of light observed by these ions. Mn2+ Pink

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 Characteristic properties of transition metals

5. Complex formation
Complex formation or complexation is a typical behavior of transition metals. In
these complex compounds, the transition metal ions form co-ordinate bonds with a
number of neutral or negatively charged ions which are capable of donating
electrons to the metal atom. A few examples are [Fe(CN)6]3-, [Fe(CN)6]4-,
[Cu(NH3)4]2+, etc.

6. Catalytic behavior
Most of the transition elements and their compounds are good catalysts. Platinum,
cobalt, nickel, chromium, manganese, vanadium pent-oxide, etc are good examples.
They are used as catalysts since they have incomplete d- orbitals and can form
unstable intermediates which can then change into products.

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 Characteristic properties of transition metals
Variable oxidation number
Variable oxidation state or variable valency is one of the most striking features of the
transition elements. All transition elements, except the first and last member of each
series exhibit variable valency, related to its electronic structure. These elements lose
both the 's' and the 'd' electrons and thus have a lot of valencies. Consequently, all
transition elements in general exhibit variable valencies.Valencies of first transition
series are:
Element Oxidation state/valency
Sc +2, +3
Ti +2, +3, +4
V +2, +3, +4, +5
Cr +1 to +6 (+4 and +5 are unstable)
Mn +2 to +6(+4, +5 and +6 are unstable)
Fe +2 to +6 (+4, +5 and +6 are unstable)
Co +2 to +6 (+4 is unstable)
Ni +2, +3, +4
Cu +1, +2
Zn +2
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