A General Introduction

to the Bible
Revised and Expanded
NORMAN L. GEISLER
and
WILLIAM E. NIX
(c)1968, 1986 by
NORMAN L. GEISLER
AND WILLIAM E. NIX
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without
written permission from the authors except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
articles and reviews.
All Scripture quotations in this book, unless noted otherwise, are from the New American Standard
Bible, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, and 1977 by The Lockman Foundation,
and are used by permission.
The use of selected references from various versions of the Bible in this publication does not
necessarily imply publisher endorsement of the versions in their entirety.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Geisler, Norman L.
A general introduction to the Bible.
Bibliography: p.
Includes indexes.
Bible Introductions. I. Nix, William E.
II. Title.
BS475.2.G39986220.6’186-57
ISBN 0-8024-296-5
1234567Printing/RR/Year99089888786
Printed in the United States of America
To our wives,
BARBARA and EULAINE,
who have been
constant sources of encouragement
and assistance
1

Contents
1
Geisler, N. L., & Nix, W. E. (1996, c1986). A general introduction to the Bible. Includes indexes.
Includes a short-title checklist of English translations of the Bible (chronologically arranged). (Rev.
and expanded.). Chicago: Moody Press.
 CHAPTER
Illustrations
Foreword to the Revised Edition
Foreword to the First Edition
Preface to the Revised Edition
Preface to the First Edition
PART ONE:
Inspiration of the Bible
1. The Structure and Divisions of the Bible
2. Definitions of Revelation and Inspiration
3. Scriptural Claims for Inspiration in General
4. Specific Claims of Inspiration in the Old Testament
5. Supporting Claims for the Inspiration of the Old Testament
6. Specific Claims for the Inspiration of the New Testament
7. Supporting Claims for the Doctrine of Inspiration to the Reformation
8. Doctrines of Inspiration Since the Reformation
9. Divergent Views of Revelation and Inspiration in the Modern World
10. Contemporary Theories of Revelation and Inspiration
11. Evidences for the Inspiration of the Bible
PART TWO:
Canonization of the Bible
12. Determination of Canonicity
13. The Discovery and Recognition of Canonicity
14. Development and History of the Old Testament Canon
15. The Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
16. Development and History of the New Testament Canon
17. The New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
PART THREE:
Transmission of the Bible
18. Languages of the Bible
19. Writing Materials
20. Manuscript Transmission, Preparation, and Preservation
21. Old Testament Manuscripts
22. New Testament Manuscripts
23. Papyri, Ostraca, Inscriptions, and Lectionaries
24. Patristic Witnesses to the Text of Scripture
25. Development of Textual Criticism
26. Restoration of the Scripture Text
PART FOUR:
Translation of the Bible
27. Translations Containing the Old Testament Text
28. Translations Containing Both the Old and New Testament Texts
29. Latin Versions of the Old and New Testament Texts
30. The Bible in English
31. Modern English Versions and Translations of Scripture
32. Modern Speech Versions and Translations of Scripture
Conclusion
Appendix
Glossary

Photographs
1. Michelangelo’s “Moses”
2. “Treasury” at Petra
3. Scholars study Dead Sea Scroll fragments
4. Skyline of Alexandria
5. Cuneiform inscription from the palace of Sargon II
6. The Moabite Stone
7. Ancient writing equipment from Egypt
8. Jewish scribe transcribing the Torah on parchment
9. Qumran caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found
10. The Qumran Community
11. The Habakkuk Commentary
12. John Rylands Fragment of John 18:3-33
13. Page of Romans from a Beatty-Michigan papyrus
14. First page of Ephesians from a Beatty-Michigan papyrus
15. John 1:1-4 from the Bodmer Papyrus
16. Codex Sinaiticus
17. Monastery of St. Catherine of Mount Sinai
18. Codex Alexandrinus
19. Papyrus 532
20. A seventh-century lectionary
21. Samaritan high priest and Samaritan Pentateuch
22. Statue of Jerome in the courtyard of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem
23. Alcuin’s ninth-century revision of the Vulgate
24. A page from the Wycliffe Bible
25. Title page of the Coverdale Bible
26. Participants in the Zambia Translators Institute

Charts
A Comparative Chart of the Names of Bible Books
Theories of Revelation and Inspiration
History of the Old Testament Canon
Major English Bible Translations
The New Testament Canon During the First Four Centuries
History of the Old Testament Text
Map A: The Biblical World
Map B: The Roman Empire c. A.D. 395
History of the New Testament Text
Reliability of the New Testament Documents
Early Citations of the New Testament
Map C: The Rise of Christianity
Distribution of New Testament Manuscripts by Family
A Chart of the Major Indo-European Languages
 Foreword to the Revised Edition
This book is a lifetime investment. It is one of the top fifteen books that ought to be in
every Christian’s library. For nearly two decades and twenty printings this work has been
the standard in the field. It has had a significant influence in my own life, as well as the
lives of scores of thousands who have purchased the book. What is now even better is that
General Introduction has been thoroughly revised, expanded, and updated.
There is really no book like this one on the market that covers the whole gamut of
topics in bibliology, including inspiration, Apocrypha, the process of copying, and the
multitude of Bible translations. If you want to know how we got our Bible, how we know
which books belong in it, how we can be sure it was copied accurately, and the history of
modern translations of the Bible,then this book is a must.
Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix combine their academic backgrounds and a
generation of teaching in Bible, history, and apologetics to put together a most
comprehensive treatment of the Bible “from God to us.” It is simply and clearly written,
with numerous illustrations and charts, glossary of terms, Scripture, author and topical
indexes, a comprehensive bibliography, and a helpful appendix listing more than 1,100
English translations of the Bible.
This revised edition of General Introduction promises to be a useful book for years to
come. It is a pleasure to commend it to all who seek to know more about the nature,
background, and history of the greatest book ever written, the infallible and inerrant Word
of God.
JOSH MCDOWELL
Foreword to the First Edition
This general introduction to the Bible is timely and significant. Numerous are the
questions currently being asked concerning the origin and transmission of the Bible. It is to
these inquiries and related problems that the authors of this volume devote their research
and scholarship in the following pages.
Never before has any generation had available so many versions of the Scriptures.
Faced with a variation of translations the average reader of the Bible rightfully raises
questions concerning the origin, authority, and canonicity of the books that constitute the
Bible as well as the accuracy with which they have been transmitted throughout the
centuries.
What distinguishes the Bible from other ancient literature? If the books of the Bible
were produced only by the initiative and ability of the authors, then their writings would be
primarily human productions. If these books were dictated by God—and I know of no
biblical scholar who maintains this—view then they would be primarily divine products. A
recognition of both the human and divine aspects in the writing of the Scriptures is essential
for regarding the Bible as unique in being a human-divine product.
When were the books of the Bible recognized as authoritative, and by whom? Did the
Israelites and the Christian church declare the books of the Bible authoritative, or did they
recognize them as divinely inspired and on that basis regard them as valuable and
authoritative?
How were the books of the Bible transmitted? Did scribes correct and change the
Scriptures, or did they transmit them with care and accuracy? How reliable are our present
versions when compared with the oldest manuscripts of the Scriptures available to modern
scholarship?
 Why do some Bibles include the Apocrypha and others omit them? On what basis do
the limits of the canon vary?
The authors of this book are to be commended for their consideration of these questions
so frequently discussed in regard to the Bible. Refreshingly significant is the attitude
reflected throughout these pages expressed in the assertion that Christ is the key to
canonicity.’’ Modern scholarship that gives serious consideration to the attitude and
teaching of Jesus concerning these problems related to the Bible deserves commendation.
SAMUEL J. SCHULTZ
Preface to the Revised Edition
Since the first edition of A General Introduction to the Bible (1968), significant
developments have necessitated a more thorough treatment of the questions about the
inspiration, authority, and inerrancy of Scripture. The discoveries at Ebla and Nag Hamadi
have occasioned additional discussion relating to the canon and text of Scripture.
This revised and expanded edition of General Introduction has been reorganized into
four sections: inspiration, canonization, transmission, and translation. In addition to
revising and updating all of the chapters, some completely new chapters have been added
(chaps. 8 and 9). Several chapters have been substantially enlarged (chaps. 1, 2, 3, 7, 10,
11, 12, 16, 17, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32). Numerous charts have been revised or added.
Of special interest are the new charts on the New Testament (chap. 1), on various theories
of inspiration (chap. 10), on the reliability of the New Testament documents (chap. 11), on
the genealogy of the English Bible (chap. 16), on the history of the Old Testament text
(chap. 21), on the history of the New Testament text (chap. 22), and on the language
families (chap. 30). The new Appendix, “A Short-Title Checklist of English Bible
Translations,” contains more than 1,100 entries. The emergence of the debate among
proponents of various textual traditions that incorporate the “majority” text and “eclectic”
text methodologies is an important new topic of analysis in this edition as well.
Since the first edition, numerous new translations of the Bible have been produced,
including those from almost every major private group and religious body. Hence, the
section on Bible translations has been separated and significantly expanded.
In all the various areas of general introduction to the Bible, efforts have been made to
offer a comprehensive survey and critical evaluation of representative positions. The result
of more than thirty years of study in this area has deepened our conviction that the
committee translations of the English Bible are careful renditions of the Hebrew and Greek
texts that accurately transmit the infallible and inerrant Word of God.
Preface to the First Edition
This book on general biblical introduction covers the three main areas of the general
field: inspiration, canonization, and transmission of the biblical text. It is not concerned as
such with the problems of authorship, date, and purpose of the individual books of the
Bible, as these are the subjects of special biblical introduction. This work is designed to
give a general survey of the process of the transmission of the Bible from God to man. It
expounds the claim that God inspired the biblical books, that men of God wrote them, and
that the Fathers (Hebrew and Christian) collected and transmitted them to future
generations. The bulk of the material considered here deals with the transmission of the
Bible from the earliest centuries to the present time. It attempts to answer in the affirmative
the all-important question: Is the Bible used today (and the Hebrew and Greek texts upon
which it is based) a faithful representation of the text as originally written by the authors of
the Old and New Testaments?
 Part One
—————————

INSPIRATION OF THE BIBLE

1
The Structure and Divisions of the Bible
THE BIBLE AND ITS TESTAMENTS: DEFINITIONS
MEANING OF “BIBLE”
The word Bible can rightfully claim to be the great-grandson of the Greek word biblos,
which was the name given to the outer coat of a papyrus reed in Egypt during the eleventh
century B.C.. The plural form of biblos is biblia, and by the second century A.D. Christians
were using this latter word to describe their writings. Biblia gave birth to the Latin word of
the same spelling, biblia, which was in turn transliterated into the Old French biblia by the
same process. The modern English word Bible is derived from the Old French, with the
Anglicized ending. The word is thus the product of four stages of transliteration and
transmission. The term Bible is often used synonymously with “Scripture” or “Word of
God” (see chap. 3).
“MEANING OF TESTAMENT”
Next to the fact that the Bible is a biblos, or one book, the most obvious fact is that it is
divided into two parts called testaments. The Hebrew word for testament is berith, meaning
a “covenant, or compact, or arrangement between two parties.” The Greek word diathēkē is
often translated “testament” in the King James Version.1 This is a poor translation, and is
one of the corrections made in newer versions of the Bible that regularly translate it as
“covenant.”2 The Greek version of the Old Testament, the Septuagint (LXX), translates the
Hebrew word berith as diathēkē, thus showing the derivation of the Greek term. The Old
Testament was first called the covenant in Moses’ day (Ex. 24:8). Later, Jeremiah
announced that God would make a new “covenant” with His people (Jer. 31:31-34), which
Jesus claimed to do at the Last Supper (Matt. 26:28, cf. 1 Cor. 11:23-25; Heb. 8:6-8).
Hence, it is for Christians that the former part of the Bible is called the “Old” Covenant
(Testament), and the latter is called the New Covenant.3

1
1. Thirteen of the thirty-three times diathēkēoccurs in the New Testament it is translated “testament” in
the King James Version (Englishman’s Greek Concordance, p. 144). Technically, however, the English term
“testament” requires action on the part of one person only (the one making the testament or will). The
heir’s agreement is not necessary to the disposition of the testament. That is not true of a covenant.
2
2. Except in Heb. 9:6-7, where the context indicates that the wider sense of diathēkē is demanded, namely,
“will,” or “testament.” See Preface, The Holy Bible, American Standard Version (1901).
3
3. Cf. Heb. 8:3: “When He said, ” A new covenant,’ He has made the first obsolete."
 The relationship between the two covenants is well summarized by the famous
statement of St. Augustine: “. . . the Old Testament revealed in the New, the New veiled in
the Old. . . .”4 Or, as another has put it, “The New is in the Old contained, and the Old is in
the New explained.”5 For the Christian, Christ is the theme of both covenants (cf.Heb. 10:7;
Luke 24:27, 44; John 5:39), as may be seen from the accompanying chart.
In the Old Testament In the New Testament Christ is:
Christ is:
in shadow in substance
in pictures in person
in type in truth
in ritual in reality
latent patent
prophesied present
implicitly revealed explicitly revealed
THE BIBLE AND ITS ANCIENT FORMS
HEBREW FORM
Probably the earliest division of the Hebrew Bible was twofold: the Law and the
Prophets.6 That is the most common distinction in the New Testament and is confirmed as
well by Jewish usage and the Dead Sea Scrolls. 7 However, from less ancient times the
Jewish Bible was arranged in three sections totaling twenty-four books (twenty-two books
if Ruth is attached to Judges and Lamentations is attached to Jeremiah).8 This Old
Testament contains all thirty-nine of the books of the Protestant Old Testament in English.
The basic difference is that the books are grouped differently (see discussion in chap. 15).
THE HEBREW OLD TESTAMENT
ARRANGEMENT*
The Law The Prophets The Writings
(Torah) (Nevi’im) (Kethuvim)
1. Genesis A. Former A. Poetical Books
2. Exodus Prophets 1. Psalms
3. Leviticus 1. Joshua 2. Job
4. Numbers 2. Judges 3. Proverbs

4
4. Augustine, Expositions on the Book of Psalms, Ps. 106:3 in Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, 2d series, vol. 8.
5
5. W. Graham Scroggie, Know Your Bible, 1:12.
6
6. See discussion in chap. 14.
7
7. R. Laird Harris, Inspiration and Canonicity of the Bible, pp. 146 ff.
8
8. According to Roger Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament Church and Its
Background in Early Judaism, p.256, The numeration 22 arose not from a smaller canon but from the
number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. It is to that extent artificial, while the numeration 24 is more
straightforward. . . . If so, the numeration 24 must be older not younger than the numeration 22, and must
likewise go back at least to the first century BC." Also see the discussion in Sid Z. Leiman, The Canonization of
Hebrew Scripture: The Talmudic and Midrashic Evidence,especially 53-56.
 5. Deuteronomy 3. Samuel B. Five Rolls (Megilloth)
4. Kings 1. Ruth
B. Latter Prophets 2. Song of Songs
1. Isaiah 3. Ecclesiastes
2. Jeremiah 4. Lamentations
3. Ezekiel 5. Esther
4. The Twelve C. Historical Books
1. Daniel
2. Ezra-Nehemiah
3. Chronicles
*This is the arrangement in the New Jewish Version of the Old Testament based on the Masoretic Text (MT). See
TANAKH: A New Translation of THE HOLY SCRIPTURES According to the Traditional Hebrew Text; Rudolf Kittel and
Paul E. Kahle, eds., Biblia Hebraica and K. Elliger and W. Rudolph, eds., Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. This is not the
arrangement as it appears in Alfred Rahlfs, ed., Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes.
Some believe a threefold division may be implied in the words of Jesus in Luke 24:44:
“All the things which are written about Me in the law of Moses and the Prophets and the
Psalms must be fulfilled.”9 Philo, the Jewish philosopher at Alexandria, alluded to a
threefold division of the Old Testament, and Flavius Josephus divided the twenty-two
books of the Hebrew Scriptures into three sections, saying that the twenty-two books
“contain the records of all the past; . . . five belong to Moses, . . . the prophets, who were
after Moses, wrote down what was done in their times in thirteen books. The remaining
four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human life.”10
Perhaps the earliest testimony to a threefold division, however, comes from the
prologue to Ecclesiasticus, which reads, “. . . my grandfather Jesus, after devoting himself
especially to the reading of the law and the prophets and the other books of our fathers. . .
.”11 The modern threefold classification, with eleven books in the Writings, stems from the
Mishnah (Baba Bathra tractate), which in its present form dates from the fifth century A.D.
It is possible that this threefold division is based on the official status of the writers in a
descending order: Moses the lawgiver appeared first, with his five books; next came the
prophets, with their eight books; finally, the nonprophets, or wise men, kings, and princes,
appear with their books. In light of that it would seem that the older breakdown of books
was twenty-two rather than twenty-four. The books of Ruth and Lamentations were
probably written by the authors of Judges and Jeremiah respectively and only later removed
from their original position to form, with Ecclesiastes, Esther, and Song of Songs, the five
books to be read during the festial year. That feature would also leave a more symmetrical
arrangement of books in the canon, with three books in each of the three subsections of the
Kethuvim, namely, the poetical books, the five rolls, and the historical books.The overall
number (twenty-two) would thus correspond with Josephus’s count, as well as the number
of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, indicating that the leaders of Israel considered twenty-two

9
9. Psalms was the first and largest book in this portion of the Hebrew Scriptures and may have become the
unofficial nomenclature for the entire section; hence, it could be used here as a reference to the section as a
whole.
10
10. Josephus, Against Apion 1.8, William Whiston, trans.
11
11. “The Prologue of the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach,” in Apocrypha (RSV), p. 110.
books to be a complete collection, as twenty-two letters formed the complete Hebrew
alphabet.12
GREEK FORM
The Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek at Alexandria, Egypt (c. 250-15
B.C.). This translation, known as the Septuagint (LXX), introduced some basic changes in
the format of the books: some of the books were reclassified, others regrouped, and some
were renamed (see the chart at the end of this chapter). The Alexandrian tradition divided
the Old Testament according to subject matter, which is the basis of the modern
classification of five books of Law, twelve books of History, five books of Poetry, and
seventeen books of Prophecy.
The order of the books varies in the early canonical lists, but the grouping of the books
remains the same throughout.13 The accompanying chart illustrates this arrangement, which
contains the same content but a different total than its Hebrew counterpart.
The Law (Pentateuch)— Poetry—5 books
5 books
1. Genesis 1. Job
2. Exodus 2. Psalms
3. Leviticus 3. Proverbs
4. Numbers 4. Ecclesiastes
5. Deuteronomy 5. Song of Solomon
History—12 Prophets—17 Books
books
1. Joshua A. Major B. Minor
2. Judges 1. Isaiah 1. Hosea
3. Ruth 2. Jeremiah 2. Joel
4. 1 Samuel 3. Lamentations 3. Amos
5. 2 Samuel 4. Ezekiel 4. Obadiah
6. 1 Kings 5. Daniel 5. Jonah
7. 2 Kings 6. Micah
8. 1 Chronicles 7. Nahum
9. 2 Chronicles 8. Habakkuk
10. Ezra 9. Zephaniah
11. Nehemiah 10. Haggai
12. Esther 11. Zechariah
12. Malachi
To that arrangement the early Christian Fathers added the books of the New Testament,
which were classified in four groups: Gospels (four books), History (one book), Epistles

12
12. This is the general consensus, as held by Joseph Angus, The Bible Handbook; Edward J. Young, An
Introduction to the Old Testament; The Jewish Encyclopedia; et al.
13
13. For example, the Gospels were sometimes placed in other sequences, and on some occasions the
General Epistles appeared before the Pauline. Cf. Brooke Foss Westcott, General Survey of the History of the
Canon of the New Testament; also see his The Bible in the Church, Appendix B, pp.302-11.
(twenty-one books), and Prophecy (one book). Further, the twenty-one Epistles were
subdivided into the Pauline (thirteen)14 and the General (eight).
GOSPELS—4 books HISTORY—1 book
1. Matthew 1. Acts
2. Mark
3. Luke
4. John
EPISTLES—21 books B. General—8 books
A. Pauline—13 books 1. Hebrews
1. Romans 2. James
2. 1 Corinthians 3. 1 Peter
3. 2 Corinthians 4. 2 Peter
4. Galatians 5. 1 John
5. Ephesians 6. 2 John
6. Philippians 7. 3 John
7. Colossians 8. Jude
8. 1 Thessalonians
9. 2 Thessalonians
10. 1 Timothy
11. 2 Timothy
12. Titus
13. Philemon
PROPHECY—1 book
1. Revelation
LATIN FORM
The grouping of books in the Latin Bible (the Vulgate) follows that of the Septuagint
(LXX), or Greek version. Jerome, who translated the Latin Vulgate (c. 383-405), was
familiar with the Hebrew division, but Christendom had come to favor (or be associated
with) the Greek version; thus it was only natural for him to adopt its fourfold classification.
In fact, any other classification would no doubt have been unacceptable to Latin
Christians.15
THE BIBLE IN ITS MODERN FORM
THE HISTORICAL REASON FOR THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE
After the Vulgate had reigned for a thousand years as the standard Bible of
Christendom, it is to be expected that Wycliffe’s first English Bible would follow the
timeworn divisions of its Latin precursor. As a matter of fact, the fourfold division of the
Old Testament and the similar division of the New Testament have been the standard ever
since. As a result, the divisions of the modern English Bible follow a topical rather than an
official order (i.e., by rank or office of the writer), in contrast to the Hebrew Bible. Yet,

14
14. In the Eastern church the tendency was to classify them as fourteen Pauline Epistles (including
Hebrews) and seven General; the Western church tended to follow the classification as presented above.
15
15. For a brief discussion of the acceptance of the LXX by Christians and the rejection of it by Jews see
chaps. 27 and 28; F.F. Bruce, The Books and the Parchments, pp.50-52.|
within that overall topical structure, there is a semichronological listing of the books from
Genesis through Revelation.
THE TOPICAL REASON FOR THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE
Because the present structure of the English Bible has been subject to several historical
variations, it would be too much to assume that it is God-given. The order as we have it is
not, however, purely arbitrary. In fact, the order shows evidence of being purposefully
directed, at least insofar as it falls into meaningful categories, because it presents the
historical unfolding of the drama of redemptive revelation.
Because redemption and revelation center about the Person of Jesus Christ, it may be
observed that the several sections of Scriptures form a Christocentric structure (Luke 24:27,
44; John 5:39; Heb. 10:7). That is, Christ is not only the theme of both Testaments of the
Bible, as mentioned above, but He may also be seen as the subject in the sequence of each
of the eight sections of the Scriptures.16
Section Name Christocentric Aspect Viewpoint
1 Law Foundation for Christ Downward Look
2 History Preparation for Christ Outward Look
3 Poetry Aspiration for Christ Upward Look
4 Prophecy Expectation of Christ Forward Look
5 Gospels Manifestation of Christ Downward Look
6 Acts Propagation of Christ Outward Look
7 Epistles Interpretation and Upward Look
8 Revelation Application of Christ Forward Look
Consummation in Christ
STRUCTURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE BIBLE
In the Old Testament, the books of the law lay the foundation for Christ in that they
reveal how God chose (Genesis), redeemed (Exodus), sanctified (Leviticus), guided
(Numbers), and instructed (Deuteronomy) the Hebrew nation, through whom He was to
bless all nations (Gen. 2:1-3). The historical books illustrate how the nation was being
prepared to carry out its redemptive mission. In order for the chosen nation to be fully
prepared for the task, it had to conquer its land (Joshua-Ruth), to be established under its
first king, Saul (1 Samuel), and later to expand its empire under David and Solomon (2
Samuel – 1 Kings 10). After Solomon’s reign, the kingdom was divided (1 Kings 11ff.) and
later deported to Assyria (721 B.C.) and Babylonia (586 B.C., 2 Kings). However,
redemptive hopes were not lost, for God protected and preserved His people (Esther) so He
could cause them to return (Ezra) and their holy city to be rebuilt (Nehemiah).
In the law the foundation is laid for Christ; in the historical books the nation takes root
in preparation for Christ; in the poetical books the people look up in aspiration for Christ;
in the prophetical books they look forward in expectation of Christ. The law views the
moral life of Israel, history records their national life, poetry reveals their spiritual life, and
prophecy depicts their prophetical or Messianic life and expectations.
The gospels of the New Testament bring that prophetic expectation to a historical
manifestation in Christ. There the promised Savior becomes present; the concealed

16
16. It should be noted that a similar Christocentric structure has been presented in many works, e.g.,
Norman L. Geisler, Christ: The Theme of the Bible; W. Graham Scroggie, Know Your Bible.
becomes revealed; the Logos enters the cosmos (John 1:1,14) as Christ is made manifest in
the flesh. The gospels give a fourfold manifestation of Christ: He is seen in His sovereignty
(Matthew), ministry (Mark), humanity (Luke), and deity (John). The manifestation was
limited in Jesus’ day for the most part, “to the lost sheep of the house of Israel” (Matt.
10:6). After Christ died and rose again, the disciples were commissioned to carry the
account of His manifestation “to the end of the earth” (NKJV) as told in the book of Acts.
There is recorded propagation of faith in Christ as He had commanded: “And you shall be
My witnesses both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and even to the remotest part
of the earth” (Acts 1:8).
The gospels give the manifestation of Christ, Acts the propagation of faith in Him, and
the epistles the interpretation of His person and work. The gospels and Acts record the
deeds of Christ and His disciples, but the epistles reveal His doctrine as it was taught by the
apostles. The former give the historic foundation for New Testament Christianity; the latter
give the didactic interpretation and application of it.
The climactic chapter of Christocentric revelation comes in the final book of the New
Testament, Revelation, where all things are brought to a consummation in Christ. The
“Paradise Lost” of Genesis becomes the “Paradise Regained” of Revelation. Whereas the
gate to the tree of life is closed in Genesis, it is opened forevermore in Revelation. All
things are to be summed up in Him (Col. 2:9), for all things were made by Him, redemption
was accomplished through Him, and it is only fitting that all things should be consummated
in Him (Eph.1:10).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The Bible is a biblos, a single book. It has two Testaments, better called covenants or
agreements between God and His people. Those two parts of the Bible are inseparably
related: the New Testament is in the Old concealed, and the Old is in the New revealed.
Down through the centuries the Bible has been subdivided into sections and has had
several different arrangements of its books. The Hebrew Bible came to have a threefold
division (Law, Prophets, and Writings), so categorized according to the official position of
the writer. However, beginning with the Septuagint and continuing in the Latin and modern
English translations, the Old Testament has been given a fourfold topical structure. The
New Testament was also given a fourfold topical arrangement of Gospels, Acts, Epistles,
and Revelation.
When viewed carefully, those sections of the Bible are obviously not arbitrarily put
together. Instead, they form a meaningful and purposeful whole, as they convey the
progressive unfolding of the theme of the Bible in the person of Christ. The law gives the
foundation for Christ, history shows the preparation for Him. In poetry there is an
aspiration for Christ and in prophecy an expectation of Him. The Gospels of the New
Testament record the historical manifestation of Christ, the Acts relate the propagation of
Christ, the Epistles give the interpretation of Him, and in Revelation is found the
consummation of all things in Christ.
 A COMPARATIVE CHART OF THE NAMES OF
BIBLE BOOKS
OLD TESTAMENT
HEBREW (WITH GREEK LATIN ENGLISH
TRANSLATION)
Ber˒ēshı ̂th (In Genesis Genesis Genesis
[the] beginning)
Shemōth Exodus Exodus Exodus
(Names)
Wayyigrā (And Leuitikos Leviticus Leviticus
he called)̄
Bemı ̂dbar (In the Arithmoi Numeri Numbers
wilderness)
Devārı ̂m Deuteronomion Deuteronomium Deuteronomy
(Words); ˓Elleh Touto
ha-Dêbārı ̂m
(These are
the words)
Yehôshūa˒ Iesous Neue Iosua Joshua
(Joshua)
Shōphêtı ̄m Kritai Iudicum Judges
(Judges)
Rūt (Ruth) Routh Ruth Ruth

Shemû-ēl A Basileon A Regum I 1 Samuel

(Asked [heard] of
God)
Shemû-ēl B Basileon B Regum II 2 Samuel
(Asked [heard]
of God)
Melchı ̄m A Basileon G Regum III 1 Kings
(Kings;
kingdoms)
Melchı ̄m B Basileon D Regum IV 2 Kings
(Kings;
kingdoms)
Dibrê Paraleiponemon A Paralipomenom I 1 Chronicles
hayyāmı ̂m A
(The affairs
[words]
of the day)
Dibrê Paraleiponemon B Paralipomenom II 2 Chronicles
hayyāmı ̂m B
(The affairs
[words]
of the day)
Edsra (Ezra) Esdras Esdras I Ezra

Nêhemı ̄ah Neemias Esdras II Nehemiah

(Nehemiah)
Hadassah Esther Esther Esther
(Myrtle)
˒Iyyôb (Job) Iob Iob Job

Tehillı ̂m (Praises) Psâlterion Psalmi Psalms

Mishelê Paroimia Proverbia Proverbs

(Proverbs;
parables)
Qōhelet (One Ekklesiastes Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes
who assembles)
Shı ̂r hash-shı ̂rı ̂m Asma Canticum Song of Solomon
(Song of Songs) Canticorum

Yesha˒-yāhû Esaias Iësaias Isaiah

(Jehovah is
salvation)
Yirmeyāhû Ieremias Keremias Jeremiah
(Jehovah will
raise or
lift up)
˒êkâ (Ah, how! Threnoi Threnorum Lamentations
Alas!)
Yehezqēl (God Iesekiel Ezechiel Ezekiel
strengthens)
Daniēl (God is Daniel Daniel Daniel
my judge)
Hoshea ’Osee ’Osee Hosea
(Salvation)
Yô˒ēl (Jehovah is Ioel Ioel Joel
God)
Amos (Burden) Amos Amos Amos
˒ôbedyâ Obdiou Abdias Obadiah
(Servant
[worshiper] of
Jehovah)
Yônah (Dove) Ionas Ionas Jonah

Mı ̂kāyāhû (Who Michaias Michaeas Micah

is like
Jehovah?)
Nāhûm Naoum Nahum Nahum
(Consolation;
consoler)
Habâkûk Ambakoum Habacuc Habakkuk
(Embrace;
embracer)
Sepanyâ Sophonias Sophonias Zephaniah
(Jehovah hides;
Jehovah
has hidden)
Hâggaı ̄ (Festive; Aggaios Aggeus Haggai
festal)
Zechârı ̄ah (God Zecharias Zacharias Zechariah
Remembers)
Malachiah(The Malachias Malachias Malachi
messenger of
Jehovah)
A COMPARATIVE CHART OF THE
NAMES OF BIBLE BOOKS
NEW TESTAMENT
GREEK LATIN ENGLISH
TA EUANGELIA EVANGELIA THE GOSPELS
Kata Maththaion Secundum Mathaeum According to Matthew
Kata Markon Secundum Marcum According to Mark
Kata Loukan Secundum Lucam According to Luke
Kata Ioannen Secundum Ioannem According to John
PRAXEIS ACTI ACTS
Praxeis Actus Apostolorum Acts of the Apostles
Apostolon
HAI EPISTOLAI EPISTOLAE EPISTLES
Pros Romaious Ad Romanos Romans
Pros Korinthious [I] Ad Corinthios 1 Corinthians
A
Pros Korinthious [II] Ad Corinthios 2 Corinthians
B
Pros Galatas Ad Galatas Galatians
Pros Ephesious Ad Ephesios Ephesians
Pros Ad Philippenses Philippians
Philippesious
Pros Kolosssaeis Ad Colossenses Colossians
Pros [I] Thessalonicenses 1 Thessalonians
Thessalonikeis A
Pros [II] Thessalonicenses 2 Thessalonians
Thessalonikeis B
Pros Timotheon [I] Ad Timotheum 1 Timothy
A
Pros Timotheon [II] Ad Timotheum 2 Timothy
B
Pros Titon Ad Titum Titus
Pros Philemona Ad Philemonem Philemon
Pros Hebraious Ad Hebraeos Hebrews
Iakobou Iacobi Apostoli James
Petrou A [I] Petri Apostoli 1 Peter
Petrou B [II] Petri Apostoli 2 Peter
Ioannou A [I] Ioannis Apostoli 1 John
Ioannou B [II] Ioannis Apostoli 2 John
Ioannou G [III] Ioannis Apostoli 3 John
Iouda Ioudae Apostoli Jude
APOKALYPSIE APOCALYPSIS REVELATION
Apokalypsie Apocalypsis Ioannis Revelation of John
Ioannou Apostoli