CI/SfB q

Delayed ettringite IP 11/01

formation:
in-situ concrete
information

Keith Quillin
BRE Centre for Concrete Construction

Ettringite is commonly Its gradual formation in the This Information Paper,

formed at early ages in cooled, set concrete can which is mainly concerned
concrete cured under lead to expansion and with in-situ concrete,
paper

ambient conditions; this is cracking in a process identifies circumstances in

not damaging to the known as ‘delayed which DEF may cause
concrete. But if the ettringite formation’ (DEF). problems.
concrete was subjected to It can take up to 20 years
high temperatures during for cracking to become
curing, ettringite formation apparent.
may be delayed.

The mineral ettringite is commonly formed at
early ages in Portland cement concretes that
have been cured under ambient conditions.
Ettringite formed under these conditions is not
damaging to the concrete. However, there are
circumstances where ettringite formation can
lead to expansion and cracking of the concrete.
Where the concrete has been subject to
elevated temperatures during curing, either as
a result of externally applied heating to
accelerate strength development or in large
concrete pours where significant heat
generated as a result of cement hydration
cannot readily be dissipated, ettringite
formation may be ‘delayed’. Its gradual
formation in the cooled, set concrete can lead
to expansion and cracking in a process known
as delayed ettringite formation (DEF).
Ettringite can also form as a result of the interaction
between the cement paste and sulfate ions from the
environment in a process known as sulfate attack.
Guidance on the design of concretes for exposure to
external sulfates is given in BRE Digest 363.
DEF-induced damage is not a common
phenomenon in in-situ concrete. There have
been relatively few confirmed instances in the
UK, and these have been linked to high peak
temperatures and high alkali levels in the
cement. However, it can take up to 20 years for
cracking to become apparent.
This IP is mainly concerned with DEF in in-
situ concrete. It draws on available research
findings and practical experience to identify
circumstances under which DEF may be a
problem and provides guidance on the
avoidance of DEF-related problems.

constructing the future

2
Background
Large pours/mass concretes
According to Neville [1] the term ‘mass concrete’ can be
applied to any concrete member in which the thermal
behaviour, arising as a result of the dimensions of the
member, may lead to cracking if appropriate action is not
taken. Concrete Society Digest No. 2 [2] considers a mass
pour to be one of sufficient size to demand special
attention to logistical and technical considerations, such
as:
● concrete supply;
● casting sequence;
● cold joints;
● plastic settlement;
● heat of hydration;
● early age thermal cracking.
Although it is not generally realistic to define large
volume pours in terms of dimension or volume , special
considerations may be required in relation to heat of
hydration for pours thicker than 500 mm [2].
Using large volume pours can lead to savings in cost
and time arising from the reduction in the number of
joints. The elimination of joints also removes potential
cracks and zones of weakness and can therefore improve
durability.
Technical issues that should be considered for large
pours are discussed in detail in CIRIA Report 135 [3].
Thermal crack control is discussed in CIRIA Report 91[4].
There is also a series of reports produced under the
Hetek research programme of the Danish Road
Directorate [5] dealing with the control of early age
cracking in concrete.
Causes of temperature rise during hydration
The hydration of Portland cement (PC) and of other
hydraulic cements is an exothermic process (see Box 1)
causing a temperature rise in the concrete dependent
upon the cement type, content and fineness [6].
Other factors contributing to the temperature rise in
mass concrete include:
● size and geometry of the pour;
● type of formwork and insulation;
● initial mix temperature;
● ambient temperature;
● the presence and temperature of existing adjacent
pours;
● cement and addition* content.
Harrison [4] and Bamforth [2] discuss these factors in detail
and give guidance on the control of temperature.
* eg pulverized fuel ash (pfa) and
ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs)
Delayed ettringite formation
Theory
Although research conducted into DEF has, in general,
focused on heat cured concrete, much of this work can
also be applied to mass concretes. Ettringite , C6AS3H32,
is a normal product of the early stages of cement
hydration under ambient conditions but does not form in
concretes where the temperature (either as a result of
applied heat or from heat evolved internally from the
hydration process) exceeds about 70°C. Such
temperatures may also destroy any ettringite already
present. Ettringite will, however, slowly form after
cooling provided sufficient water is available. Ettringite
formation leads to an increase in the total solid volume of
the cement and can be an expansive process. If there is
insufficient space within the paste structure for ettringite
to form, internal stress, expansion and cracking may
occur. However, the actual mechanism for DEF is not
clearly understood (see Box 2).
Factors leading to DEF-induced damage
The delayed formation of ettringite is likely to occur in
most Portland cement concretes that have been
subjected to elevated temperatures (irrespective of the
source) and where water is available. However,
expansion and cracking due to DEF occurs only rarely
and can take several years to become apparent. There
appear to be a number of conditions that must be satisfied
for expansion to occur as a result of delayed ettringite
formation in concrete. These are summarised as follows:
Box 1 Heat generation through cement hydration
The main reactions can be simplified and summarised as follows*:
Reaction Enthalpy of hydration
kJ/kg pure clinker material
2 C 3S + 6 H → 3 C H + C 3S 2H 3 520
2 C 2S + 4 H → C H + C 3S 2H 3 260
C 3A + 6 H → C 3A H 6 910
C 3A + C H + 1 8 H → C 4A H 19 1160
C 3A + 3 C S H 2+ 2 6 H → C 6A S 3H 32 1670
C 3A + C S H 2+ 1 0 H → C 4A S H 12 1140
C 4A F + 2 C H + 4 H → 2 C 3 ( A , F ) H 6 420
The total heat output on hydrating a given cement will therefore
depend on its phase composition and the availability of water. The
main phase in Portland cement, and consequently the one
contributing most to heat evolution, is C3S.
About 50% of total heat evolution can occur within three days of
hydration under normal conditions although the rate of hydration will
also depend on composition. C3S and C3A can hydrate comparatively
quickly; C2S and C4AF hydration is slower.
The rate of heat evolution from hydrating cements in which PC has
been blended with additions such as pulverized fuel ash (pfa) or
ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) may be slower than in PC
itself as the addition components, at ambient temperatures at least,
hydrate more slowly than PC.
* Cement chemistry notation has been used:
C = CaO, A = Al2O3, S = SiO2, S =SO3, F=Fe2O3

Box 2 Theories for expansion through DEF
There are currently two main theories for the processes causing
expansion through DEF:
● Ettringite recrystallises at aggregate-paste interfaces or at other
defects within the microstructure and expansion occurs due to the
resulting pressure of crystal growth.
● Ettringite formation in the paste leads to (weak) expansion. This
causes spaces to be formed around aggregate grains. Ettringite then
recrystallises in these spaces, although this process in itself is not
considered to cause expansion.
Based on the available (sometimes conflicting) information, it is
impossible to determine if either of these theories is correct: both
have support. The second theory is supported by the observation of
empty peripheral cracks around aggregate particles in field
samples [7]. Cement pastes have also been found to expand slowly [8].
However, in other cases cracks around aggregates have formed part
of a continuous network of cracks running across the paste with
localised ettringite formation in cracks and air voids, supporting the
first theory [9]. It is possible, however, that both mechanisms could
cause expansion with the relative importance of the two processes
depending on the extent of existing cracks and defects and on the
nature of the cement - aggregate interface.
A backscattered electron image and an X-ray map showing relative
levels of sulfur in a rapid hardening Portland cement (RHPC) concrete
that showed DEF-induced expansion under laboratory conditions
(cured at 100°C for 10 hours followed by 5 years in water at 20°C)
are shown in Figure 1. The sulfur map shows enhanced
concentrations following lines of cracking around aggregate particles
due to the presence of ettringite.
Composition
● DEF-induced expansion may be initiated (or
accelerated) by some initial cause of expansion or
weakness (particularly at the paste-aggregate bond).
The aggregate type and grading is important in this
respect. For example, concretes made using alkali-
reactive aggregates, where ASR can initiate cracking,
may be more susceptible to DEF-induced damage
than those made using limestone aggregates (although
DEF-induced damage can occur where limestone
aggregates have been used). The strength of the paste
aggregate bond may be a crucial factor.
● The use of pfa, low alkali sulfate resisting Portland
cement, ggbs or silica fume may mitigate or prevent
the adverse effects of DEF.
● Air content and porosity of the concrete can affect the
degree of expansion: susceptibility falls as the air
content and porosity increase (although this may be
offset if the permeability to water also increases.
● The chemical composition of the cement is a key
factor (see Box 3).
3
Temperature
● The maximum temperature during hydration is
probably the single most important parameter in
determining susceptibility to DEF. The risk of DEF-
induced expansion increases with temperature. The
temperature must generally exceed about 70°C for
DEF-induced expansion to occur, although more
conservative temperatures of 65°C or even 60°C have
also been given. However, the critical temperature is
dependent on the nature of the cement and in many
cases expansion does not occur unless the peak
temperature exceeds 80°C – 90°C. In mass concretes
the temperature in the core will exceed that at the
surface. There will, therefore, be a potential for DEF-
induced damage if the core temperature exceeds the
critical temperature and if water or moisture is
available, even if the surface temperature does not.
● Thermal gradients during hydration may lead to fine
cracking that could accelerate the rate of DEF-induced
deterioration. Other mechanisms leading to fine
cracking, such as freeze-thaw damage, could also be
contributory factors.
● The risk of DEF-induced damage is reduced as the
time taken to reach the peak temperature increases.
● The risk of expansion will increase with the length of
time (for a period of up to a few days) during which the
temperature exceeds the critical temperature.
Exposure conditions
● Water or moisture from an external source is required
for the reactions to occur, both as a medium for ion
transport and as a reactant in the formation of
ettringite. The availability of water will affect both the
rate and the extent of expansion. Concretes that have
been exposed to elevated temperatures and
subsequently stored in water or in saturated air in
laboratory experiments have been found to expand
and crack over a period of months. However, a
continuous source of water is not required. Longer
timescales occur in field concretes than in laboratory
concretes and these may, at least in part, be due to the
concretes only being intermittently wet.
● Time is an important parameter; the expansion caused
by DEF shows an initial dormant phase followed by a
period of accelerating expansion, then a deceleration
stage, leading to an S-shaped expansion curve. The
rate of expansion is strongly dependent on the
availability of water.
Figure 1
Backscattered electron image and X-ray map
(showing enhanced sulfur concentrations
following lines of cracking around aggregate
particles) for RHPC concrete cured at 100°C for
10 hours followed by five years in water at 20°C
4
● The average ambient temperature. The formation of
ettringite after heat cure is temperature-dependent
and is accelerated by an increase in temperature [7].
However, there is no data to quantify the temperature
dependence.
Box 3 Cement compositional factors
The susceptibility to DEF-induced expansion has been linked to a
number of cement compositional factors. However, these are by no
means clear cut and are based on broad correlations between the
extent of expansion after heat treatment under laboratory conditions
at 90°C – 100°C. The following points summarise the cement
compositional factors affecting the risk of damage due to DEF and
are mainly from papers by Taylor [10], Lawrence [8] and Kelham [11].
● A significant sulfate content is required and there is a broad
correlation between expansion and the sulfate level. Expansion is
particularly marked at sulfate levels of about 4% although it has been
suggested [7] that cements with sulfate levels in excess of 2.5% SO3
may be susceptible. There may also be a pessimum SO3 (at about 4%)
above which the expansion falls with increasing SO3.
● Alkalis play a major role. They may act through weakening the
bond between the cement paste and a siliceous aggregate, or by
affecting the chemistry of ettringite formation or both. A threshold
level for Na2Oeq of about 0.83% has been proposed [10] although
other work [7] has suggested that there is no minimum level of
equivalent Na2O required for expansion. Increasing the alkali level also
increases the pessimum sulfate level.
● There is some correlation between the degree of expansion and the
MgO level of the cement where the peak temperature has exceeded
90°C. MgO (periclase) hydration may lead to some initial expansion
which could act as an initiator for subsequent expansion due to DEF.
The threshold value for MgO has been reported to be as low as 1%.
● For cements that differ only in fineness, expansion increases with
the specific surface area (SSA) of the cement.
● The degree of expansion depends on the levels of C3A and C3S.
Since C3A is the main source of alumina in Portland cements, it is to
be expected that the formation of ettringite, and any subsequent
expansion, will depend on its availability (sulfate resisting cements do
not appear to be susceptible to DEF). C3S is thought to influence the
stability of ettringite at high temperatures although the mechanism for
this is unclear.
The following expression has been suggested [11] as a means of
estimating DEF-induced expansion as a function of cement
composition following curing at 90°C for 12 hours:
Exp(90°C) = 0.00474 SSA + 0.0768 MgO + 0.217 C3A + 0.0942
C3S + 1.267 Na2Oeq – 0.737 ABS[SO3
– 3.7-1.02 Na2Oeq] – 10.1
where ABS is the absolute value of the term in square brackets.
Note: Na2Oeq = Na2O + 62/94 x K2O
Most studies on the effects of alkalis on DEF-induced expansion
have been carried out on small-scale specimens stored in water
and some loss of ions from the pore solution could have
occurred. The apparent threshold values observed under these
conditions may therefore be too high when applied to
circumstances in which leaching is not likely to be significant.
However, it has been suggested [12] that DEF may be triggered
by a reduction of the alkali hydroxide concentration in the pore
solution of the concrete. In small-scale water-stored laboratory
specimens, this could occur as a result of leaching. But, as
significant leaching is unlikely in mass concrete, ASR may
reduce the alkali hydroxide concentration and trigger DEF. The
equivalent alkali threshold level given in this IP is consistent with
limited data from field concretes.The role of alkali hydroxides in
DEF needs further investigation.
UK incidences of DEF in large concrete pours
Hobbs [13] gives details of isolated UK cases of expansion
and cracking in in-situ concretes owing to DEF; 23 cases,
including abutments, wing walls, bridge beams and
foundations have been identified. They are of large
section (at least 600 mm) and were made using a high
cement content (~500kg/m3). Hobbs has estimated that
the peak temperature in these concretes was between
85°C and 95°C. Equivalent Na2O levels were at least
0.9%. They were cast during the summer months and
were subject to moist or wet exposure. The cracked
sections were often placed on concrete pours cast 24
hours earlier. In some cases it had previously been
concluded that ASR was the cause of cracking, with DEF
being diagnosed only on re-examination.
In general, cracking occurs when the periphery band
width around more than about 70% of the coarse
aggregate particles is greater than 15 µm [14]. DEF-
induced expansions in excess of about 0.3% are required
to produce visible cracking [14].
Pre-testing and diagnosis
Pre-testing to determine the potential for DEF
The Duggan test, in which the expansion of a concrete is
measured after a thermal cycling, has been proposed as
an accelerated test for concrete durability [15]. This test
involves several thermal-drying and re-wetting cycles
followed by expansion measurements. DEF has been
identified as the major cause of expansion in the test [15].
However, the test has been criticised on the grounds that
the conditions involved are too severe and that it
indicates that concretes that have not demonstrated any
expansion over long periods in service have the potential
to be highly expansive. Further validation is therefore,
required to establish the viability of this technique in
determining the risk of DEF-induced expansion.
It may be possible [16] to determine the potential for
expansion from microanalysis of the C-S-H gel. If certain
threshold levels for SO42- and aluminate ion
incorporation into the C-S-H gel are exceeded, it is likely
that the potential for expansion will be high. This
method, which was developed using mortars rather than
concrete, uses the average Al/Ca and S/Ca ratios of the
C-S-H gel one day after heat curing to identify samples in
which expansion will occur. The results are plotted on a
graph of S/Ca against Al/Ca – see Figure 2. Mortars
giving points above the dotted line (in the shaded area)
were generally found to be expansive. Those in the
unshaded area generally showed no expansion.
This method may provide a means of predicting the
dimensional stability of concretes. However, further
validation is required before it can be confidently
recommended as a diagnostic tool.
The susceptibility of concretes to DEF could also be
assessed by measuring expansions of laboratory
specimens after controlled heat treatment and storage
under water. However, the time to the onset of the
expansion in these conditions may exceed a year.

Figure 2 Plot of S/Ca against Al/Ca for C-S-H in mortars one day
after heat treatment.
From Lewis, Scrivener & Kelham [16]
Identification of DEF in deteriorated concrete
DEF-induced damage can occur slowly in comparison
with other degradation processes – see Box 4. The rate of
damage depends, amongst other factors, on the availability
of water. Concrete in which expansion through DEF has
occurred often contains uniform bands which often
contain ettringite around the aggregate particles
(although the generality of this observation has been
questioned). These ettringite bands increase in width
with the size of the aggregate particle. Cracking may be
very limited where DEF has occurred and surface
concrete may still appear to be strong [8].
It has been suggested that cases of DEF have been
wrongly attributed to the alkali-silica reaction [17].
However, the pattern of internal cracking induced by
ASR is very different from that induced by DEF.
Box 4 Time to first cracking
The time before visible cracking occurs depends on a number of
factors associated with the type of cement, concrete mix design,
curing conditions, design detailing and level of workmanship and
exposure environment. However, Hobbs has given the following ages
before cracking first appears for different deterioration processes
based on site investigations:
Delayed ettringite formation: 2 – 20 years (8 – 20 years in the UK)
for field concretes. Expansion and
cracking can occur within months
under laboratory conditions.
Plastic cracking: A few hours
Thermal contraction cracks: 1 day – 3 weeks
Drying shrinkage cracks: < 1 year
Freeze-thaw: 1 year or 10 – 20 years
Cracking due to
moisture-sensitive aggregate: <1 year
Cracking due to steel corrosion: 8 years or more
Alkali-silica reaction: 1 – 6 years
5
Avoiding DEF-induced damage
Approaches
It is clear from the discussion of the causes of DEF that
there are a number of possible approaches to minimising
expansion and cracking arising through DEF.
● Controlling the peak temperature (and the length of
time during which the concrete remains at or close to
this temperature) during hydration.
● The use of pfa, low alkali sulfate resisting Portland
cement or ggbs may be effective means of preventing
DEF. Silica fume may also be effective. (However, only
a limited amount of research has been carried out and it is
possible that expansion is delayed rather than prevented due
to the reduced rate of water ingress arising from the low
permeability of pfa, silica fume and ggbs concrete.)
● Limiting cement composition (see Box 3).
It may also be possible to limit or prevent DEF-induced
expansion in susceptible concretes that have been
subjected to elevated temperatures by limiting or
preventing the ingress of water through the use of
appropriate coatings.
Secondary factors which affect the rate or ultimate
extent of expansion
A number of factors appear to affect the rate of DEF-
induced expansion and which may, under some
circumstances, initiate expansion. (These factors may
influence the rate of DEF – and consequently the risk of
damage within a given timescale).
● The nature of the aggregate. There is evidence to
suggest that, for given conditions, concretes made
using alkali-reactive aggregate may expand more
rapidly than equivalent concretes made using non-
alkali-reactive aggregates and cement pastes [18]. This
may be due to the occurrence of initial expansion
through alkali silica reaction.
● Other processes leading to cracking, such as freeze-
thaw cycles may accelerate DEF-induced expansion.
● An increase in ambient temperature on exposure can
accelerate the rate of ettringite formation and may
consequently increase the rate of expansion and
cracking [7].
● Specific surface area of cement (this may also affect the
ultimate degree of expansion and possibly whether
expansion occurs at all).
● w/c ratio.
● The relative humidity of the concrete, and the
frequency and duration of periods of wetness. Water is
required for DEF to occur.
● Carbonation (this will affect only the outer layers of a
mass pour).
● The use of air entrainment may reduce expansion.
6
Controlling DEF-induced damage
No risk of DEF
There should be no risk of DEF-induced damage if one or
more of the following applies:
● The concrete is not exposed to external water or
moisture at any stage.
● The peak temperature in the concrete is below 60°C.
● The SO3 content of the cement is less than 2.5%
Rationale
● Water is an essential ingredient of ettringite formation so expansion
will not occur without the concrete being intermittently or
continuously wet.
● No expansions have been observed after exposure to temperatures
of below 60°C but expansion can be induced by heat cycling [19]
● No expansions are observed where the cement SO3 < 2.5% [7].
Very low risk of DEF
There will be a very low risk of DEF-induced expansion
where the temperature of the concrete remains below
70°C irrespective of the cement composition.
Rationale
● 70°C is the generally quoted lower temperature required for DEF to
occur. No expansions have been observed at 70°C or below based
on available laboratory data and field studies in the UK. Expansions
resulting from temperatures below this are unlikely to occur
(although the risk may increase if cement fineness and the levels of
SO3, Na2Oeq and MgO are exceptionally high).
Low risk of DEF
There will be a low risk of DEF-induced damage where
the peak temperature remains below 80°C and where
Na2Oeq in the cement is less than 0.85%.
Initial research results suggest that the use of low alkali
SRPC, pfa at addition levels of above 20% or ggbs at
addition levels above 40% will prevent DEF-induced
expansion in concretes subjected to peak temperatures of
up to 100°C. However, further work is required to
confirm that expansion is prevented and not merely
delayed and the use of these materials has consequently
been categorised as providing a low risk of expansion.
Rationale
● Studies with UK cements have not, in general, shown expansion
after heat treatment below 85°C. However, there is some evidence
of concrete expansion after heat treatment at 75°C [13].
● Heinz et al [20] observed limited expansion after heat treatment at
75°C. The time to the onset of expansion increased as the
temperature was reduced from 100°C to 75°C.
● Kelham [11] found that the addition of extra alkali led to expansion at
80°C where expansion did not otherwise occur. The Na2Oeq level for
the onset of expansion was comparable with the threshold level
discussed below.
● Expansions have not been observed in any concretes with pfa or
ggbs at the stated levels irrespective of the curing conditions [11][21].
BRE studies have shown expansions with 20% ggbs [21].
● Expansions have not been observed with low alkali SRPC.
Increasing risk of DEF
Temperatures of above about 85°C may be sufficient to
cause DEF-induced damage in concretes made using a
wide range of cements. The risk of expansion occurring
will increase:
● As the peak temperature increases above 85°C.
● As the time increases for which the temperature
exceeds 85°C .
● As the specific surface area of the cement increases
(particularly above 350 m2/kg).
Where the temperature exceeds 85°C, the risk of
expansion will increase with SO3, MgO and Na2Oeq
levels in the cement (as well as other parameters) and
there will be a high risk of expansion where one or more
of the following thresholds are exceeded (see Box 5).
● SO3 > 3.6%
● MgO>1.6%
● Na2Oeq>0.85%
The risk of expansion can be assessed using the empirical
relationship derived by Kelham [11] and given in Box 3.
Rationale
● Lawrence [8] concluded that 16 hours heat curing at 85°C led to
similar long term expansions as 3 hours at 100°C.
● A significant number of mortars show expansion after 16 hours heat
cure at 85°C.
● Expansion can be induced in most concretes if exposed to 100°C
for up to 16 hours.
● Cement compositional risk factors are summarised in the separate
box below.
● Other factors such as aggregate type and specific surface area also
need to be considered. Kelham’s data [11] suggests that expansion
increases significantly as the SSA is increased above 350 m2/kg.
Box 5 Cement compositional thresholds
In general terms the expansion (and risk of expansion) increases with
SO3, MgO and Na2Oeq. Taylor [10] has suggested the following
thresholds:
SO3 = 3.6%
MgO = 1.6% (Thaulow suggests 1%)
Na2Oeq = 0.83% (a value of 0.85% has been used in the main text).
These thresholds were based on Lawrence’s data after heat cure at
100°C.
Above these thresholds virtually all the cements studied produced
damaging expansion.
Below them a substantial proportion did not produce expansion.
The likelihood of expansion increases with the number of thresholds
exceeded (after heat curing at 100°C):
● if no thresholds are exceeded there is a 10% risk of expansion
(based on limited data);
● if one threshold is exceeded there is a 90% risk of expansion;
● if two or all are exceeded there is a 100% risk of expansion.
Other compositional factors are also important. For example the C3A
content shows a positive correlation with expansion.

Avoid DEF by limiting and controlling temperature
CIRIA Report 91 [4] provides information to predict the
temperature rise in concrete pours for different cement
types, section thicknesses, formwork types and placing
conditions. Means of controlling the temperature of
concrete in large pours are also given. The temperature
rise in large concrete pours can be limited by:
● controlling the cement content;
● using additions such as pfa and ggbs;
● reducing the pour thickness;
● reducing the fresh concrete temperature;
● using cooling pipes within the element.
7
Temperatures can be measured in the hardening
structure using thermosensors placed at points where
extreme temperatures are expected. However, Hobbs [14]
has suggested the limits shown in Table 1 for the cement
content of in-situ PC concretes based on field
performance
Current guidance on temperature limits during
concrete curing is summarised in Box 6. If these limits are
followed there is only a very low risk of damage from
DEF.

Box 6 Temperature limits for concrete curing

Temperature controls are specified in standards and guidance
Table 1 Limiting cement contents for minimising DEF
documents and in project-specific clauses. These limits are included
cracking in-situ concrete of large section size [14]
in order to control thermal cracking or to minimise effects on the final
Maximum cement content kg/m3
strength of the concrete rather than to avoid DEF.
Ambient temperature °C DD ENV 13670-1: 2000 Execution of concrete structures Part 1:
Cement or binder 10 20 25 30 40 Common rules states the following:
Unless specified otherwise in provisions valid at the construction site,
52.5R* PC 430 360 320 280 210 the peak temperature of the concrete within the component shall not
52.5*, 42.5R* PC 480 400 360 320 240 exceed 65°C, unless data are provided to prove that, with the
42.5*, 32.5R* PC 550 450 400 360 270 combination of materials used, higher temperatures will have no
32.5* PC 550 500 460 400 300 significant adverse effect on the service performance of the concrete.
LASRPC 550 500 500 450 400 The UK Highways Agency specification for Highway Works (96/1700
PC/>20% pfa 550 500 500 450 400 CN/V1(E)) limits the concrete temperature for elevated temperature
curing of PC, RHPC and SRPC to 70°C. The formwork may be heated
PC/>35% ggbs 550 500 500 450 400
to no more than 20°C prior to placing and, once placing is complete,
* Cement strength class
the concrete should be left for four hours without additional heating.
Concrete temperature can then be raised at a maximum rate of 10°C
Limits are for wet or moist exposure, minimum section width 600 mm. per half-hour. The cooling rate should not exceed the heating rate.
Hobbs also made the following assumptions for the temperature rise Temperature controls may be incorporated in project-specific
per 100 kg/m3 of cement: clauses. The maximum core temperature is often specified. This is
52.5R PC: 14°C 42.5R PC: 12.5°C 42.5 PC: 11°C usually 70°C but 65°C or 60°C may be specified in some cases.
32.5 PC: 10°C LASRPC: 10°C The German Committee for Reinforced Concrete [22] has given
guidance on curing conditions to prevent DEF-induced cracking in
heat-cured concrete. The curing temperature should be limited to
60°C for concrete that is to be heated after being placed in formwork
Summary of approaches
and used in a wet or damp environment. For concrete that is heated
● Limiting the peak temperature attained within the concrete. The before placing in formwork, and concrete that is to be used only in dry
actual limit may depend on a number of factors ,such as the mix environments, the temperature should be limited to 80°C.
design and the composition and nature of the cement. However,
based on current knowledge the following conservative limits can be Box 7 Outstanding issues and further research needs
recommended:
There are a number of issues concerning DEF that are currently
❏ 70°C where Na2Oeq of the cement exceeds 0.85%
unclear:
❏ 75°C where Na2Oeq of the cement is below 0.85%
● The mechanism of DEF has yet to be confirmed.
The risk of DEF-induced damage will increase for SO3 contents above
● The cement compositional factors contributing to DEF-induced
about 3.6%.
cracking and damage are understood only in general terms.
● Preventing the ingress of water or moisture into the concrete.
● The extent to which data from research into DEF-induced cracking
DEF-induced damage will not occur if the concrete remains dry.
in concrete that has been heat-cured can be applied to concretes in
● Available evidence suggests that the use of ggbs at levels of over
which the source of heat is internal needs to be established.
40% or pfa at levels of over 20%, or the use of low alkali SRPC may
● Owing to the wide range of potentially contributory factors, there is
prevent DEF-induced damage under all conditions. However, further
a need for a standardised procedure to establish the susceptibility of
work is needed to confirm this.
cements and concretes to DEF. Such tests need to be correlated with
Where the temperature limits have been exceeded and where the
data from long-term performance.
concrete is exposed to water or moisture the risk of expansion will
● The role of other damage mechanisms such as ASR needs to be
increase with:
better understood.
● Increasing curing temperature and time at elevated temperatures.
● The effectiveness of the use of pfa, ggbs, or low alkali SRPC in
● Increasing SO3, Na2Oeq and MgO levels.
preventing DEF-induced damage needs to be established.
● Increasing SSA of the cement.
● The viability of using techniques such as the Duggan test and
● Increasing availability of water or moisture, and the duration of
microanalysis to assess the susceptibility of concretes to DEF-
periods of wetness.
induced damage needs to be established.
Outstanding issues relating to DEF and further research needs are
● The role of alkali hydroxides in initiating DEF needs further
summarised in Box 7.
investigation.
8

References
[1] Neville, AM. Properties of concrete. 4th Edition, Longman, 1995.
[2] Bamforth, P. Mass Concrete. Concrete Society Digest No. 2, 1984.
[3] Bamforth, PB and Price, WF. Concreting deep lifts and large volume pours. CIRIA Report 135, 1995.
[4] Harrison, TA. Early-age thermal crack control in concrete. CIRIA Report No. 91, 1992.
[5] Pedersen, ES, Spange, H, Pedersen, EJ, Jensen, HE, Andersen, ME, Jensen, PF and Knudsen, JG.
HETEK – Control of early age cracking in concrete – Guidelines. The Danish Road Directorate Report No. 120, 1997.
[6] Odler, I. Hydration, setting and hardening of Portland cement. In Lea’s Chemistry of Cement 4th Edition,
Ed: Hewlett, PC. Arnold, London, 1998.
[7] Thaulow, N, Johansen, V and Jakobsen, UH. What causes delayed ettringite formation?
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[8] Lawrence, CD. Physiochemical and Mechanical properties of Portland Cements.
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[10] Taylor, HFW. Delayed ettringite formation. Proc. Engineering Foundation conference
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[11] Kelham, S. The effect of cement composition and fineness on expansion associated with delayed ettringite
formation. Cement and Concrete Composites, 18, 171, 1996.
[12] Diamond, S. The relevance of laboratory studies on delayed attringite formation to DEF in field concretes.
Cem. Conc. Res.30, 1987 (2000).
[13] Hobbs, DW. Expansion and cracking in concrete associated with delayed ettringite formation.
In Ettringite – The sometimes host of destruction, Ed: Erlin, B. ACI Report SP-177, 1999.
[14] Hobbs, D. Personal communication.
[15] Grabowski, E, Czarnecki, B, Gillott, J, Duggan, C and Scott, J. Rapid test of concrete due to internal
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[16] Lewis, MC, Scrivener, KL and Kelham, S. Heat curing and delayed ettringite formation.
Proc. Mats. Res. Soc. Vol. 370, 67, 1995.
[17] Hobbs, DW. World-wide durability problems with concrete and trends in prevention. Proc. Concrete Society of
Southern Africa, Concrete meets the challenge, Sun City, Sept 1994, ISBN 0-9583831-1-3-8.
[18] Taylor, HFW. Cement chemistry. 2nd Edition, Thomas Telford, 1997.
[19] Stark, J and Seyfarth, K. Ettringite formation in hardened concrete and subsequent destruction.
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[20] Heinz, D, Kalde, M, Ludwig, U and Ruediger, I. Present state of investigation on damaging late ettringite
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[21] BRE unpublished experiments.
[22] German Committee for Reinforced Concrete. Recommendation on the heat treatment of concrete.
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15 Sept 1989.

Acknowledgement
The work described was funded by the Construction Directorate of
the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions.
The author also thanks industry experts and BRE colleagues for
their valued contributions.

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