Disaster Readiness and Risk

Reduction
Week no. : 9

Earthquake Hazards

Learning Targets

I can identify various potential earthquake hazards

I can recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami and other earthquake hazards
I can analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards
I can interpret different earthquake hazard maps
I can apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake

h  s
E a  r t  q u a k e   are probably the most frightening naturally occurring hazard
encountered. Why? Earthquakes typically occur with little warning. There is no escape
from an earthquake! Earthquakes have
devastating effects, resulting in hundreds to
thousands of deaths and injuries, and millions to
billions of dollars’ worth of property damage. The
earthquake's location, magnitude of the
earthquake, surface geology, and population
density are major factors contributing to
earthquake damage.

Although earthquakes can occur anywhere on

earth, most earthquakes (>90%) occur where
tectonic plates move against one another. The
boundaries along each plate are referred to as
margins. Different types of stresses are
associated with each type of margin. Convergent-
plate margins have compressional stresses (come
together Þ Ü, therefore result in crustal
shortening); divergent-plate margins have
tensional stresses (move apart Ü Þ, resulting in
crustal extension); and transform-plate margins
have shear stresses (the plates slide past each
other). Each type of margin has a corresponding
fault type associated with it.

Types of faults
Earthquakes result from movement along a
fault. Faults and earthquakes are cause and effect. The sense of motion on faults
describes how the block move relative to each other. Faults may move along preexisting
fracture or may form a new one. There are 3 basic types of faults: normal, reverse, and
strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting result in vertical slip, while strike-slip faulting
results in horizontal slip. In nature, motion is seldom absolutely along one direction. There

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can be a combination of vertical and horizontal slip, which would make the movement
along the fault oblique.

Normal faults
Normal faults are associated with extension. A good example of normal faulting is the
Basin and Range topography of the western United States. The western part of the North
American plate has been pulled apart into a series of "blocks". Most Basin and Range
structures result from the tilting of these blocks. A major Basin and Range fault zone is the
Wasatch Fault zone, which is 220 miles long (360 kilometers) and extends from Utah into
Idaho.

A. Watkins diagram

Reverse faults
Reverse faults are associated with compressional forces- 2 plates or fault blocks pushing
towards each other. One side ends up on top! Thrust faults are reverse faults that move
up a shallower angle than ordinary reverse faults.

Strike-slip faults
Strike-slip faults are associated with shear stresses. One side of the fault "slides" past
the other. "Sometimes" it is fairly easy to recognize where movement on a strike-slip fault
has occurred. The photo below shows a creek located along the San Andreas Fault. The

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zigzag effect (offset) of the creek channel is the result of movement along the fault.

Compare the photo of the San Andreas Fault with the strike-slip fault diagram. The San
Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.

Earthquake processes
Rupturing rocks release huge amounts of energy. The sudden release of energy is what
is felt in an earthquake. Earthquake energy is in the form of seismic waves. The seismic
waves radiate out from a central point, called the focus or hypocenter, like ripples moving
outward from a pebble tossed into a lake. The location directly above the hypocenter, on
the earth's surface, is called the epicenter.

Seismic waves
Four types of seismic waves are generated when faulting triggers an earthquake. All the
seismic waves are generated at the same time, but travel at different speeds and in
different ways. Body waves penetrate the earth and travel through it, while surface waves
travel along the surface of the ground.

Primary and secondary waves are body waves. Primary waves (P-waves) travel the
fastest and can move through solids and liquids. The P-wave energy causes the ground to
move in a compressional motion in the same direction that the wave is traveling.
Secondary waves (S-waves) are slower and travel only through solids. The S-wave
energy causes the ground to move in a shearing motion perpendicular to the direction of
wave movement.

Rayleigh and Love waves are the two types of surface waves. Rayleigh wave energy
causes a complex heaving or rolling motion, while Love wave energy causes a sideways
movement. The combination of Rayleigh and Love waves results in ground heave and
swaying buildings. Surface waves cause the most devastating damage to buildings,
bridges, and highways.

Detecting, locating, and measuring earthquakes

Several thousand stations monitor earthquakes all over the world. Each station contains
an instrument, called a seismograph, used to detect arrival times and record seismic
waves. The seismograph consists of a seismometer (the detector) and a recording device.
The seismometer electronically amplifies wave motion.

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 The graph on which seismic waves are recorded is called a seismogram. The amplitude
of the recorded seismic wave is the vertical distance between the crest and trough of the
waveform, therefore, the larger the earthquake, the greater the amplitude of the
earthquake. The key to locating an earthquake's epicenter is the difference in arrival time,
called lag time, of P- and S-waves.

Magnitude and intensity

Earthquakes are categorized in two ways- magnitude and intensity. Magnitude indicates
the severity of an earthquake using the Richter scale, a logarithmic, instrumentally
determined measurement. Magnitude rates an earthquake as a whole. The severity of an
earthquake is a rating based on the amplitude of the seismic waves. Larger amplitude
waves equals higher magnitude earthquake equals greater severity. Amplitude is the
vertical distance between the trough and crest of a waveform (sound familiar?).

The Mercalli Scale defines intensity. Intensity is rated by how much damage was caused
by an earthquake and how it affected people.

Go to the University of Nevada-Reno Richter scale page for an excellent explanation of

the Richter Scale and other earthquake quantifying tools.

The UNR Seismological Laboratory Page is full of interesting information for earthquake
enthusiasts.

Earthquake damages (secondary effects)

Effects of an earthquake can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary effects are
permanent features produced by the earthquake. Examples include fault scarps, surface
ruptures, and offsets of natural or human-constructed objects. An example you have
already seen is the creek offset produced by movement along the San Andreas Fault.
Secondary effects result when ground movement causes other types of damage.
Examples include landslides, tsunami, liquefaction and fire. The amount of damage
caused by an earthquake varies with magnitude. The greater the magnitude, the greater
the damage potential.

Landslides
Seismic vibration is a common triggering mechanism for landslides. In hilly or
mountainous regions, landslides can have particularly devastating effects. Damages can
range from debris-covered roadways to extensive property damage and numerous
casualties.

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 Tsunami
A tsunami is a sea wave triggered by a violent displacement of the ocean floor, such as
vertical displacement of the seafloor along a fault. Underwater earthquakes, submarine
volcanic eruptions or landslides can cause tsunami. Tsunami waves have very long
wavelengths (crest-to-crest) and can be enormous (as large as 60 miles/100 kilometers).
The height of a tsunami in the open ocean is very low (generally less than 1.5 feet/0.5
meters), while the speed of the tsunami is very high. As it approaches a shallow coastline,
its speed is reduced, but the height of the tsunami increases drastically, causing
devastation on land.

Liquefaction
How much can surface and subsurface material contribute to
earthquake damages? Like many other physical phenomena, the
answer is, "It depends." Thick sequences of unconsolidated
sediments, such as sand, mud, and artificial fill, greatly magnify
ground shaking during an earthquake. Ground shaking transmits
forces to building that most buildings are not designed and
constructed to endure. Ground shaking results in extensive property damage. Bedrock is
less likely to be affected by ground shaking than is unconsolidated material. Buildings
constructed on bedrock sustain far less damage than those built on unconsolidated
material. Other dangers also come from the ground during an earthquake. Buildings
constructed on sandy soil prone to water saturation have the greatest potential for
complete destruction, because water-saturated sandy soil is subject to a phenomena
called liquefaction. During liquefaction, water-saturated soil behaves as a fluid rather than
as a solid. It becomes incapable of supporting much weight. (Remember the soil module
and the section of soil strength?)

Fires
Earthquakes cause fires. Even moderate ground shaking can
break gas and electrical lines, sever fuel lines, and overturn
stoves. Water pipes rupture, making it impossible to fight the
earthquake-caused fires. The famous San Francisco earthquake
in 1906 ruptured the city's main water pipes. Extensive fire
damage was the result!

 
References:

Rimando, R., & Belen, J, Phil. (2016). Disaster Readiness And Risk Reduction: Basic Concept of Disaster and
Disaster Risk (First Edition). REX.

http://geology.isu.edu/wapi/EnvGeo/EG5_earthqks/eg_mod5.htm#:~:text=Examples%20include%20landslides%2C
%20tsunami%2C%20liquefaction,the%20greater%20the%20damage%20potential.

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