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Ecv 401 Highway Engineering 1 - 2014
Ecv 401 Highway Engineering 1 - 2014
Ecv 401 Highway Engineering 1 - 2014
Course outline
Intersection design: at-grade junctions, roundabouts, conflict points, kerbed and Ghost
islands, lane separation, acceleration and deceleration lanes, intersection site triangle.
References
3. Principles of highway Eng and traffic analysis by Fred L. Mannering and Walter P.
CHAPTER ONE
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Highway engineering is the process of design and construction of efficient and safe highways
and roads. Concepts such as grade, surface texture, sight distance and radii of horizontal
bends and vertical slopes in relation to design speed and in addition to road junction design
(intersections and interchanges) are all important elements of highway engineering
Design is the process of selecting the elements that once combined will make up an end
product. In engineering, these elements are primarily features, dimensions and materials.
Highway geometric design is selection of a road's visible features and dimensions (lane or
shoulder width, for example). These have important bearing on how the road will function, its
capacity, driver behaviour and safety.
HIGHWAY DESIGN
OBJECTIVES;
*To provide facilities which are safe, efficient, comfortable, of adequate capacity
economical (in the long run) and structurally sound.
4. Road function.
- The functional classification of roads must be considered in the determination of
geographical design standard.
- Directional distribution.
6. Design speed.
- Is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a section of road when design
or ideal or favourable operation condition exists.
A&B C D&E
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
- Basic roads system; Basic urban classification and Basic rural classification.
- Functional classification.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
These are roads linking centres of international importance and crossing international
boundaries or terminating in international points.
These are roads linking nationally important centres (Principle towns) or urban centres.
Are roads linking provincially important centres to each other or to a higher classes roads
(Urban or rural centres)
Are roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more important centres or to a
higher class road (Rural or market centres)
These are any roads linking minor centres. (Market or local centre)
Roads of the highest classes are A&B,have there major function to provide mobility, while
the function of class E road is to provide access. The roads class C and D have for all
practical purpose to provide both mobility and access with emphasis on mobility for primary
roads and access for secondary roads.
7. Design vehicle;
This is a selected motor vehicle whose physical characteristics in terms of its weight and
dimensions (used in determination of highway design element) will accommodate all vehicles
within a designated class. Vehicle dimensions that influence design includes:
I. Road cross-section.
II. Junction layout.
III. Road widening and horizontal alignment.
Categories of design vehicles include:
Asst 0ne
Using relevant examples discuss how Roads have been classified in Kenya according to:
b) Structural classification
CHAPTER TWO
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Geometric design elements are
1. Sight distance.
2. Horizontal alignment.
3. Vertical alignment.
4. Cross-section
SIGHT DISTANCE
This is defined as minimum distance required by a driver travelling under the designed speed
of road to bring a vehicle to a safe stop on sighting on an unexpected object on the road ahead
of him. This includes
Time between sighting of the hazard and the first application of brakes
Usually dependent on the condition of the tyre, roads, vehicle speed etc.
V2
For horizontal roads braking distance d Vt
254 f
V2
For sloppy roads braking distance d Vt
254 f G
= Brake efficiency.
Example
Calculate the braking distance for a vehicle moving at 80km/h on a road with coefficient of
friction of 0.4 and grade of 1:40 for a perception time of 2.5 sec.
Soln
V2
d Vt
254 f G
Given
V = 80 km/hr
f =0.4.
= 1.
G = 1:40
80 x 2.5 80 2
So for Down slope, d =55.56+67.19=122.75=123m
3.6 1
2540.4 1
40
80 x 2.5 80 2
For Up slope d =55.56+59.27=114.85=115m
3.6 1
2540.4 1
40
This is a requirement for a two lane, two way, and carriage way.
Def: Minimum distance on a two lane two way carriage way that a driver should have
ahead of him to safely overtake a slow moving vehicle in front of him without interfering
with the speed and safety of an oncoming vehicle.
d1 d2 d3 d4
Key
It`s the distance taken or moved by the fast vehicle while trailing the slower vehicle while
waiting opportunity for safe overtaking, after which it hurriedly moves to the opposite lane.
This is the distance that the fast vehicle travels as it moves on the opposite lane, passes the
slower vehicle and safely returns to its lane.
It is usually ⅔ d2 if the speeds of overtaking and oncoming vehicles are the same (design
speed)
ROAD GRADIENT
The grade of the road is the slope in the longitudinal direction. The descending and ascending
roads are said to have –ve and +ve grades respectively.
RESISTANCE TO TRACTION
The factor that determines the traction force are various resistances which come into place
on moving traffics and includes:
I. Wind resistance.
II. Axle resistance.
III. Grade resistance.
IV. Rolling resistance.
WIND RESISTANCE
Where: Ra is Kg/m2
V is Speed in Km/h
Rolling resistance
Varies
Axle resistance
Grade resistance
On a level ground
Traction force T
fP=fW
P=W
When up an incline
Traction force T
Psinα
Psinα P
Pcosα
For small α
Hence T=PG+fP
Therefore T=fP-PG
Example
A vehicle moving at 30km/h on a level road suddenly joins a graded section and continues
moving without changing the tractive force until it stops after moving 23.6m in 5.7sec.
Soln
Recall Deceleration
1 1 30
d= at 2 ut =23.6m= aX 5.7 2 5.7
2 2 3.6
a=-1.47m/s
Force WG
T’-T=a= = = gG = 1.47
mass W
g
1.47 1.47
Then G = = =0.15
g 9.81
T
But T=Wf, hence W=
f
Therefore
T T
T’=0.17W=0.17 =0.17 =8.5T
f 0.02
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
It is an important feature in design, influencing the efficiency and safety of a highway. The
alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents which are connected by the use of
simple circular curves and transition curves. The design is dependent on the radius of the
curve and super elevation of the carriage way. Proper design leads to.
i. Improved speed
ii. Higher highway capacity
iii. Lower accidents
SUPER ELEVATION
This is the provision of a transverse inclination of the carriageway i.e outer edge being raised
with respect to the inner edge to overcome the effect of centrifugal force due to curvature.
This has the advantage of
P WV 2
gR
N
WV 2 cosα
gR
WV 2
gR
P
WV 2 sinα
α gR
Wsinα W
Wcosα
b. Super elevated
WV 2
Centrifugal force
gR
Friction
W (Weight)
C) PLAN
Fig (a) illustrates the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves about a horizontal curve on a flat
carriage way (non super elevated).
WV 2
P where P = lateral frictional force resisting the centrifugal
gR
WV 2
But P μN=μW= P
gR
V2 P
Hence μ= =
gR W
P
=Centrifugal ratio for velocity in km/h
W
g=9.81m/s2
V=kph
1000 2 V 2 V2
μ= =
(60 x60) 2 gR 127 R
Therefore for non limiting value of μ, the minimum curve radius can be calculated for any
given design speed. The centrifugal force causes an overturning moment through the centre
of gravity of the vehicle and the carriage way surface. The moment is resisted by a righting
moment caused by the weight of the vehicle acting thro’ its centre of gravity.
For equilibrium
WV 2 d
xh W
gR 2
d d
h W =
V 2
2
2
gR
Where
When the carriage way is super elevated, the forces acting on the vehicle are as in Fig b.
At equilibrium
WV 2 Eqn i
N=Wcosα+ sin
gR
WV 2 Eqn ii
μN=P= cos -Wsinα
gR
V 2 Eqn iii
cos sin
gR
μ=
V2
cos gR sin
V2
Since R is big, the effect of sinα (which is very small almost equal to zero) on sin
gR
makes it =0
V2
Since R is big, the effect of cosα (which is almost equal to one) on cos makes it remain
gR
the same.
Hence
V2
μ= -tanα
gR
For an angle of super elevation where α is usually small, the term tanα is called super
elevation and denoted by e.
Therefore
V2
μ= -e
gR
V2
μ= -e
127 R
V2
μ+e=
127 R
for a case of no lateral friction and the centrifugal force is counteracted by the super elevation
i.e μ=0, we have a phenomenon of “hands off speed” (self steering).
V2
Hence e=
127 R
In a case where the super elevation takes 40% of the centrifugal force
V2
e= 0.4
127 R
Example
If super elevation for R is equal to 450m is e and it balances 45% centrifugal force estimated
the value of e for a velocity of 85km/h. If the above e and R balances the hand off speed,
estimate the design speed.
0.45 x85 2
e= 0.057
127 x 450
Tulatia Mungathia ©2014 Page 17
ECV 401 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I KU-CIVIL/WATER ENG
V2=127Re
V=57.075km/h
i. Climatic conditions
AASHTO
– Urban - 6%
UK
– Urban - 4%
– Rural - 7%
Kenya
– Urban - 6%
– Rural - 6%
CURVES
Circular Curves
A circular curve joining two road tangents is described either by its radius or its degree of
curvature. The degree of curvature , is defined as the central angle subtended by 100m arc
of the curve.
PI=Point of intersection
PI
PC=Point of Curvature
PT=Point of tangency
T E
=External Angle=
D=Degree of curvature
R 2 2
R T=Length of tangent
R=Radius of Curvature
E=External distance
T R tan
2
Lc 2 R sin
2
L 100
D
E R sec 1 T tan
2 4
m R1 cos
2
5730
D
R
50
R
sin
2
R 2 X 2 R m
2
R 2 X 2 R 2 2mR m 2
2
S
but X m 2
2
2
2
S
R 2 m 2 R 2 2mR m 2
2
2
S
2mR
2
S2
m
8R
X
DCE=L
L
C
D E
m
A X B
M
R-m R
R
d d
m
O
In the above situation where the required sight distance is greater than the available length of
curve, L, and the sight distance overlaps the tangent to the curve for a distance, , on either
side of the curve , then S =L + 2
SL
2
2
S
By geometry X 2 m 2
2
while d S L R 2
2
And X d R m
2 2 2 2
2
2
S
Hence X 2 m 2 = d 2 R m +m2= d 2 S L R 2 R m +m2
2
2 2
2 2
S2 1 2
4
S 2 LS L2 R 2 R 2 2 Rm m 2 m 2
4
S2 1 2
4
S 2 LS L2 2 Rm
4
L2S L
m
8R
The rear wheels of the vehicle follow a path of a shorter radius than front wheels and have an
effect of increasing effective width of carriage way to maintain the safety clearance between
opposing vehicles on curves sections. This is more so necessitated due to tendency of drivers
moving away from the edge of carriage way hence increasing the potential of accident on the
curved sections.
w = Distance to be increased.
The extra width W may be estimated from
Direction
w= R – (r+d)
w
d n r d R2 2
r R
Hence w R R 2 2
TRANSITION CURVES
Enable vehicles moving at a high speed to make a change from tangent sections to the curve
sections and to the next tangent sections of a road in a safe and comfortable fashion (way).
Therefore a transition curve provides:
ii. Enough length of roads on which the full super elevation required on the circular
curve may be applied.
iii. Smooth aesthetic that matches or harmonises with terrain and removes any kinky
appearance that would otherwise occur as intersection point.
Transition curves are generated from lemniscates spiral or clothoid or cubic parabola curves.
The spiral transition curve is widely accepted due to the ease in which it can be set out in the
field.
= Spiral angle
E
Ls= Spiral length=Transition curve length
X
DCE=L
Ls R = Radius of the circular curve
yc C
Xc K SC CS Xc and yc = Coordinates of SC
p
s m s
X ST P = Shift
TS M
R Ls
R
R-m K Approximately
2
d d
O
Ls 57.3Ls
Radians = degrees
2R 2R
E R P sec R
2
L2 s
P
24 R
2
X c Ls 1
10
3
y c
3 42
1. Shortt’s method
Uses the rate of change of radial acceleration in relation to safety and comfort. Radial
V2
acceleration changes from 0 to over the length of the transition curve.
R
Time taken to travel the transition length is given by.
Ls
t
V
For rate of gain of radial acceleration C:
V 2 Ls V3
C m/sec3
R V RL s
V3 V3
Ls when V is in m/sec or Ls when V is in km/h
CR 3.6 3 CR
Y2
Y1
Ls
1
Y1 Wx2.5%
2
1
Y1 Wxemax
2
Y1 Y2
Ls
Slope
Where
W=Width of carriage way
2.5% is the transverse slope
Example
For a two lane single carriage with lane width of 5.65m, cross fall on tangent of 2.5 percent
and super elevation on circular curve of 6 percent, determine Ls an R, V=85km/h and C=
0.45m/s3.
Solution
1 2 x5.65 x0.025
Y1 Wx2.5% 0.14125
2 2
1 2 x5.65 x0.06
Y2 Wx6% 0.339
2 2
Y1 Y2 0.14125 0.339 0.48025 x1000
Ls 96.05m
Slope 0.5% 5
V3 V3 853
Ls hence R 304.54m
3.6 3 CR 3.6 3 CLs 3.6 3 0.4596.05
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical curves are provided whenever there is change in gradient. The curves contributes to
safety, visibility and comfort .There are two types of vertical curves, namely
- Crest or summit vertical curves
- Sag vertical curves.
GL L
a E for X and G=p-q
800 2
E At the location of crest or sag
p% q%
Lp Lp
y ₵ x
pq G
BVC x EVC
Lp 2 Lp 2
y
L 200 p q 200G
The forms generally adopted for vertical curves are a circle or a simple parabola. The latter is
however preferred and adopted in profile alignment design because of ease at which can be
set out as well as enabling the comfortable transition from one grade to another.
The above equations have been derived from parabolic curves.
d2y
The rate of change of slope in a simple parabola is constant i.e k
d 2x
dy
kx c1
dx
But
dy
p at x=0
dx
dy
And q at x=L
dx
dy
p c1
dx
dy
q Lk c1 kL p
dx
q kL p
q p
k
L
Then
dy q p
x p
dx L
q p x
2
y px c2
L 2
At X=0, y=0, hence c2=0
q p x
2
Therefore y px
L 2
The decision on whether to provide condition for L > S or L < S depends on the slope of
the two straight gradients as well as the driver’s eye height, h1, and object height, h2, (where
S = SSD)
Generally, if
p q S >h1, then design for
800
If L>S
GS 2
Lmin
200 h1 h2 2
Where G is in percentage
h1 =1.05 m
h2 = 0.26m
If L<S i.e
p q S <h1, then design for
800
Lmin 2S
200
G
h1 h2
2
B. COMFORT CONSIDERATIONS
V2 100 L
Radial acceleration, C= where Rv=
Rv G
V 2G V 2G
Substituting this value in C, C= for V in m/s or C= for V in km/h
100 L 1300 L
C. AESTHETIC CONDITIONS
D. DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
Slope taken at 50fts on either side of the road from the crest should be greater than 0.5%
>0.5% >0.5%
50fts 50fts
GRADIENTS
Long steep up hill grades have considerable effects on speeds of heavy commercial vehicles.
They reduce their speed causing difficulty in overtaking by small vehicles and subsequently
affect operating conditions along a given road section.
Where longitudinal gradients are long enough and/or steep enough to cause significant
increases in the speed differences between cars and heavy commercial vehicles, both traffic
safety and road capacity may be adversely affected. Climbing lanes are then introduced at
points where speeds fall by certain levels for a given road class. The lane is terminated when
the gain in speed reaches the original level at point of introduction. Determination should
ensure that no traffic hazard is created i.e passing sight distance should be adequate.
The introduction and termination of a climbing lane should be affected by tapers of length
60m and should not be considered as part of the climbing lane. The width of the climbing
lane shall be equal to that of the adjacent reduced single lane so as to give three traffic lanes
of equal width.
Example
A -3% grade is being joined to a -5% grade by means of a parabolic curve of length 1200m.
Calculate the vertical offset at the point of intersection of the tangent.
-3%
E
-5%
L
x
2
q p x
2
X pX
L 2
pL
E y
2
3x600 5 3 600 3
E x600 3m
100 100 x1200 2 100
p
q
The widely accepted criteria for determining the minimum length of vertical sag culves
includes
i. Safety criteria – the minimum vertical clearance e.g when passing under a bridge
v. General aesthetics
i. Comfort criteria
V2 RG
C and L v
Rv 100
RvV 2
L for V in km/h
1300C
p
q
The absolute minimum stopping sight distance is the factor controlling the criteria
GS 2
Lmin
h h2
800 1
2
h h2
800 D 1
Lmin 2S 2
G
For the two cases, the obstruction falls directly above the intersection point. However so long
as they do not differ by more than 60m, the equations are assumed valid.
Example
P=-3%
q=+4%
=4.5m
p
q S=160m (Absolute Min SSD for VD=85)
=
S=215m (Desirable Min SSD for VD=85)
G
Determine the length of the sag curve for the absolute and desirable cases
Solution
Absolute case
GS 2
Lmin
h h2
800 1
2
Desirable case
Lmin
GS 2
=
3 4215 2 105.19m
h1 h2 1.05 0.26
800 800 4.5
2 2