Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RJC Vol2 - Iss2 Nov 2016 - Content
RJC Vol2 - Iss2 Nov 2016 - Content
2 (2) 2016
CUPRINS
Perspective teoretice
Andreea Szilagyi, E. Amalia Jansel, Jaimie Stickl – Counseling between
an Occupation and a Profession: Elements of Professionalization............115
Bune practici
Adriana Georgescu – The Journey to Myself ..............................................232
Adriana Georgescu – Drumul către mine însămi ........................................242
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SUMMARY
Theory
Andreea Szilagyi, E. Amalia Jansel, Jaimie Stickl – Counseling between
an Occupation and a Profession: Elements of Professionalization............115
Best practices
Adriana Georgescu – The Journey to Myself ..............................................232
Adriana Georgescu – Drumul către mine însămi ........................................242
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Abstract. Professions across the world have undergone significant changes in the
context of interconnectivity brought by globalization and increased by the rapid
technological advancement. In this context, a need has emerged to establish
counseling both internationally and within local regions as a distinct profession.
The current paper addresses the core elements of professionalization that
characterize the continuum between counseling as an occupation and a
profession. Through conducting a systematic review of the literature, authors
explore the current state of professionalization of counseling around the world.
Conclusions reveal the opportunity for professional counselors to collaborate on an
international level to implement elements of professionalization that are both
internationally and locally recognized in order to establish counseling as a unique
and highly specialized profession in today’s global society.
Keywords: counseling, professionalization, occupation, profession, globalization
The widespread of globalization throughout the 21st century has
significantly impacted professions throughout the world, and counseling is no
exception. Although it was once perceived as predominately a United States
profession, the growth of counseling is becoming a major international trend
(Hohenshil, 2010) manifested at different stages of development across countries.
1 Andreea Szilagyi, visiting professor with the Department of Psychology and Education -
University of Bucharest; European Board for Certified Counselors –
(http://www.europeanbcc.eu/)
2 E. Amalia Jansel, National Board for Certified Counselors - International
(http://www.nbccinternational.org/)
3 Jaimie Stickl, Department of Counseling and Educational Development, The University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States of America
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Andreea Szilagyi (E-mail:
Szilagyi@nbccc.org)
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countries adapt these counseling practices to the current realities, leading to the
creation of new trends, which in turn have the potential of influencing the
counseling ideologies in countries where the profession is well established.
Considering the current realities and rapid changes of the 21st century, and the
development of counseling across countries, it is crucial to consider the elements
of professionalization that can distinguish counseling as a profession as opposed
to simply a job or an occupation.
Theoretical Framework
Professionalization is emblematic for quality assurance of any given
profession, in today’s world economy market by rapidly shifting trends (Szilagyi,
2016). A number of authors have outlined the confusion and elusive nature of
what defines the terms ‘profession’ and ‘professionalization’ (e.g. Neal & Morgan,
2000, Sylvester, 2002). The current paper utilizes Klatt’s (1967) and Emener and
Cottone’s (1989) conceptualization of professionalization as a grounding
framework for the elements of professionalization.
Klatt (1967) described professionalization as a dynamic process that
includes a continuum from a job on one end to a profession on the other. In other
words, professionalization has been considered the evolution of an occupation to
a profession, with the latter being the highest form of functioning for a given
occupation (Emener & Cotonne, 1989). The process of development from an
occupation to a profession is contingent upon a number of elements: a) a body of
knowledge requiring specialized training; b) a qualifying experience or
examination; c) the establishment of a code of ethics; and d) professional
identification and practice control that include continuing education,
credentialing, self-regulation, and accreditation (Emener & Cottone, 1989; Klatt,
1967). These elements outline the various aspects of professionalization that are
necessary to establish counseling as a distinguished profession.
Body of Knowledge Requiring Specialized Training
A body of knowledge is a coherent and distinct knowledge base that is
developed, used, and maintained in a profession distinct from other professions
(Szilagyi, 2016). Moreover, a profession requires a range of skills, extensive
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knowledge, and formalized teaching that is acquired through both theory and
practice (Oliveira & Nunes, 2015; Sylvester, 2002). As previously described, the
counseling profession is distinct from other helping professions both ideologically
and in practice. As such, professional counselors have specialized knowledge that
requires specific training in order to prepare for helping clients towards health
and wellness. This is especially true in the evolving global economy as specialized
skills are more essential than ever before. As a result, education training programs
are increasingly flexible and inclusive in order to adjust to the evolving societal
demands of the labor market (Szilagyi & Petrini, 2014). This element of
professionalization is a fundamental element because it establishes the
foundation of knowledge and skills, which separates the counseling profession
from others in both theory and practice.
Qualifying Experience or Examination
In line with the specialized training required to distinguish an occupation
from a profession, it is important to establish a qualifying experience or
examination in order to evaluate the acquisition of the skills and knowledge
necessary for practice. Szilagyi (2016) described this element as an experience or
specific set of criteria that culminates the training process. This evaluation
signifies an individual’s preparation and readiness for practice. Evaluation is an
important element of professionalization because it sets the standards for the
minimum level of knowledge and training needed for an individual to implement
his/her skills in the practice of a given profession. Many established evaluations in
counseling include a combination of both theory and practice, where counselors
are required to demonstrate foundational knowledge of the theories of
counseling along with requirements to complete a minimum number of hours
engaged in helping skills.
Code of Ethics
The next element of professionalization is the establishment of a code of
ethics. A code of ethics includes an ethical framework that specifies a standard of
care (Szilagyi, 2016). Authors have argued that “ethics are the quintessential
element of professionalization because it guides the professional practice in the
right spirit toward the right ends using the right means” (Sylvester, 2002, p. 315).
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Sylvester (2002) goes on to describe that no matter how advanced a profession is,
it is crucial to have an ethical foundation in order to guide individuals in acting for
the good of those they serve. Given the highly personal and service orientated
nature of the counseling profession, the establishment of a code of ethics is a
non-negotiable aspect of the development of professional counseling. No matter
what part of the world counselors serve, it is essential to recognize the primary
responsibility of counselors to respect clients and promote the highest welfare of
those they are attempting to help (Lee & Na, 2013).
Professional Identification and Practice Control
The final elements of professionalization include aspects of professional
identification and practice control. These aspects include self-regulation,
accreditation, credentialing, continuing education, and certification. Self-
regulation is a process used within a profession to sanction individuals who
practice outside of the established code of ethics and other regulations outlined
by a profession (Szilagyi, 2016). Self-regulation is an important element of
professionalization because it helps standardize and monitor the practice of
individuals to ensure they meet the minimum ethical and professional standards.
Self-regulation can provide a safeguard to protect the integrity and values
of the profession as a whole. Similar to self-regulation is accreditation, which is a
process that ensures the quality of education and training by an agency outside of
individual universities or training programs (Szilagyi, 2016). Accreditation lays the
foundation for quality assurance and establishes standards for the preparation
necessary for individuals to enter into a profession (Sweeney, 1995; Urofsky,
2013). For example, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) is an accrediting body for counselor education
programs in the United States, which has developed minimum standards of
training for counselor education programs (CACREP, 2016).
Similar to accreditation, credentialing is a system that establishes the
minimum criteria and qualifications necessary for identifying practicing
professionals by an occupation (European Centre for the Development of
Vocational Training, 2009; Sweeney, 1995; Szilagyi, 2016). Credentialing is an
important aspect of professionalism because it distinguishes individuals with a
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specific set of knowledge and skills (Szilagyi & Petrini, 2014). Credentialing in the
counseling field is an important element to consider in the face of globalization as
professional standards must not only meet global demands and be recognized
internationally, but must also meet the needs of local practices and cultures
where counselors deliver services (Szilagyi & Petrini, 2014). In other words, given
the growing internationalization of professional counseling, the nature of
credentialing must adjust to both international standards and local needs. A
function of credentialing includes certification, which establishes the
competencies and standards necessary to obtain a specific title (Schweiger, 2010).
Credentialing and certification are essential components of professionalization
because they protect the public, ensure counselors are competent and prepared,
and safeguard the integrity of counseling as a distinct profession (Schweiger,
2010). As such, the standards developed through accreditation and credentialing
are critical to the development of counseling as a profession (Sweeney, 1995).
Finally, continuing education is the last aspect of professional identification
and practice control. Continuing education includes learning activities that
individual’s use to increase their knowledge and skills in a specific area (Szilagyi,
2016). Continuing education is often used to enhance the knowledge and skills of
professionals throughout their practice. As professional counselors move forward
in their career, they must remain up to date with the developments of research
and changes within the profession as a whole. Continuing education is an
important element to the professionalization of counseling in order to ensure
counselors are practicing in relevant, meaningful, and effective ways.
Benefits of Professionalization
As the field of counseling begins to incorporate elements of
professionalization in various societies, it begins to move beyond a role or an
occupation, to an established profession. Moreover, professionalization has a
number of important benefits as it establishes esteem, autonomy, respect,
legitimacy, and credibility among the counseling profession (Klatt, 1967; Meyers,
Sweeney, & White, 2002; Sylvester, 2002). Although the elements of
professionalization are a major undertaking that require deliberate, persistent,
and proactive efforts, they also yield extraordinary benefits (Hansen, 2010;
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Sweeney, 1992). Since counselors can be most effective as change agents when
the profession has a common identity and is recognized by policy makers and
other helping professionals (Meyers et al., 2002), the elements of
professionalization are critical to promote in the counseling field throughout the
world.
Professionalization as a Process: Current Trends
As previously stated, Klatt (1967) described professionalization as a
process along a continuum from an occupation to a profession. Through a
systematic review of the literature on the current state of professionalization of
counseling around the world, evidence confirms that professionalization is in fact
a process. Although countries have unique histories that reflect very distinct
cultures and sociopolitical contexts, a common trend can be seen in the
movement toward professionalization along the continuum of the
professionalization elements (e.g. Ayyash-Abdo, Almuddin, & Mukallid, 2010;
Dixon & Hansen, 2010; Korkut, 2007; Lim, Lim, Michael, Cai, & Schock, 2010;
Portal, Suck, & Hinkle, 2010; Remley, Bacchini, & Krieg, 2010).
Training and counselor education programs widely vary from country to
country with some countries having very little or no training programs, and others
having graduate programs that include very specific and distinct standards
(Hohenshil, 2010). Moreover, standardization efforts for counseling have begun in
many different countries and regions (Korkut, 2007), and are at different stages
depending on the developmental context of the counseling profession. For
example, researchers have identified that Italy is in the early stages of
professionalization as counseling is starting to emerge as an established
profession (Remley, et al., 2010). Botswana has a history of vocational guidance
counseling and a more recent emergence of mental health counseling, with a
significant need for formalized training and professional development programs
(Stockton, Nitza, & Bhusumane, 2010).
Romania has taken initial steps toward professional identity with
researchers calling for the next steps of credentialing, a code of ethics, and
standards (Szilagyi & Paredes, 2010). In addition, Turkey has taken a number of
strides in the development of professional counseling, with a current need for
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Dixon, A. L., & Hansen, N. H. (2010). Fortid, nutid, fremtid (past, present, future):
Professional counseling in Denmark. Journal of Counseling & Development,
88, 38-42.
Emener, W. G., & Cottone, R. R. (1989).Professionalization, deprofessionalization,
and reprofessionalization of rehabilitation counseling according to the
criteria of professions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 67, 576-581.
European Board for Certified Counselors.(2014). Global career development
facilitator. Retrieved from http://www.europeanbcc.eu/gcdf/gcdf-
credential/
European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. (2009).
Professionalising career guidance: Practitioner competences and
qualification routes in Europe (CEDEFOP Panorama series, 164).
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Hansen, J. (2010). Ideas on the margins: Professional counseling and ideological
insularity. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 32,
214-224.
Hohenshil, T. H. (2010). International counseling: International counseling
introduction. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88, 3.
Klatt, L. (1967). The professionalization of everyone. Personnel Journal, 46, 508-
510.
Korkut, F. (2007). Counselor education, program accreditation, and counselor
credentialing in Turkey. International Journal for the Advancement of
Counselling, 29, 11-20.
Lee, C. C., & Na, G. E. (2013). The global context of counseling in the 21st
century. Journal of Asia Pacific Counseling, 3, 1-7.
Lim, S., Lim, B. K., Michael, R., Cai, R., & Schock, C. K. (2010). The trajectory of
counseling in China: Past, present, and future trends. Journal of Conseling
& Development, 88, 4-8.
Meyers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., & White, V. E. (2002). Advocacy for counseling and
counselors: A professional imperative. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 80, 394-402.
National Board for Certified Counselors-International. (2012). About professional
counseling. Retrieved from
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http://www.nbccinternational.org/Who_we_are/ Professional_Counseling
Neal, M., & Morgan, J. (2000). The professionalization of everyone? A
comparative study of the development of the professions in the United
Kingdom and Germany. European Sociological Review, 16, 9-26.
Oliveira, A. L., & Nunes, E. D. (2015). Physiotherapy: A historical analysis of the
transformation from an occupation to a profession in Brazil. Brazil Journal
of Physical Therapy, 19, 286-293.
Portal, E. L., Suck, A. T., & Hinkle, J. S. (2010). Counseling in Mexico: History,
current identity, and future trends. Journal of Counseling & Development,
88, 33-37.
Remley, T. P., Bacchini, E., & Krieg, P. (2010). Counseling in Italy. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 88, 28-32.
Schwab, K. (2016, January 14). The fourth industrial revolution: What it means,
how to respond. Retrieved from
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth- industrial-
revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond
Schweiger, W. K. (2010). The importance of counseling certification [PowerPoint
Slides].
Schweiger, W. K., Henderson, D. A., McCaskill, K., Clawson, T. W. & Collins, D. M.
(2011). Counselor preparation: Programs, faculty, trends (13th ed.). New
York: Routledge and the National Board for Certified Counselors.
Stockton, R., Nitza, A., & Bhusumane, D. B. (2010). The development of
professional counseling in Botswana. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 88, 9-12.
Sweeney, T. J. (1992). CACREP: Precursors, promises, and prospects. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 70, 667-672.
Sweeney, J. T. (1995). Accreditation, credentialing, professionalization: The role
of specialties. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 117-125.
Sylvester, C. (2002). Ethics and the quest for professionalization. Therapeutic
Recreation Journal, 36, 314-334.
Szilagyi, A. (2016). Counseling: Elements of professionalization [PowerPoint
slides].
Szilagyi, A., & Paredes, D. M. (2010). Professional counseling in Romania: An
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de-a lungul anilor sub influența realităților locale și globale, ducând, în anumite
țări, la discuții legate de profesionalizare.
În același timp, experții din țările în care consilierea a fost reglementată ca
profesie au trebuit să considere necesitatea adaptării domeniului și ideologiei
profesiei la schimbările rapide din lume (Lee & Ma, 2013). În acest context,
considerăm că este important să distingem elementele profesionalizării care
caracterizează drumul parcurs de la ocupație la profesie. Scopul acestui articol
este de a scoate în evidență elementele ce ghidează dezvoltarea consilierii ca
profesie și de a identifica noile curente în profesionalizarea domeniului în lume.
Începem cu o scurtă introducere a caracteristicilor consilierii ca profesie, urmată
de curentele globale care influențează traiectoria dezvoltării sale.
Consilierea ca profesie distinctă
Fundamentele teoretice și ideologiile de bază sunt aspecte importante care
disting profesiile unele de altele (Borman, 1995; Vollmer & Mills, 1965). Borman (1995)
susține că profesiile sunt ocupații care nu presupun doar un training specializat, dar
sunt și ancorate într-un fundament teoretic care se aplică în practica de zi cu zi. Acest
fapt se aplică și domeniului consilierii, care este o profesie teoretic și practic distinctă
între alte profesii legate de oferirea de ajutor. Din acest motiv este vital pentru consilieri
să fie capabili să distingă diferența dintre ceea ce fac ei si ceea ce fac alți profesioniști
(Lee & Ma, 2013). Chiar dacă în diverse culturi consilierea este definită diferit, ca
urmare de diverselor contexte in care consilierii profesează, aceștia au anumite
caracteristici care îi disting de alți practicieni din domeniul profesiilor de sprijin (Dixon &
Hansen, 2010; National Board for Certified Counselor-International, 2012).
Consilierea ca profesie are rădăcini într-o abordare proactivă care include
intervenții legate de educație și de promovarea unei stări de bine holistice. Spre
deosebire de ea, psihologia are o abordare bazată pe evaluare ce se concentrează
pe testare și diagnosticare, iar psihiatria are o abordare reactivă bazată pe
modelul medical care vede clienții drept pacienți cu patologii (Szilagyi, 2016). În
consecință, indiferent de context, consilierii sunt profesioniști care au o abordare
proactivă în vedearea sprijinirii persoanelor care au diverse probleme (de exemplu
stres, carieră și relații), care suferă de boli mintale sau care trec prin schimbări
obișnuite ale vieții (Schweiger, Henderson, McCaskill, Clawson, & Collins, 2011).
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Cadrul teoretic
În condițiile pieții economice mondiale prin schimbări rapide ale
tendințelor, profesionalizarea este emblematică pentru asigurarea calității oricărei
profesii (Szilagyi, 2016). Un număr de autori au subliniat confuzia și natura evazivă
a ceea ce definește termenul de "profesie" și cel de "profesionalizare" (de ex. Neal
& Morgan, 2000, Sylvester, 2002). Prezentul articol folosește conceptele lui Klatt
(1967) și ale lui Emener și Cottone (1989) privind profesionalizarea ca și cadru
stabil al elementelor profesionalizării.
Klatt (1967) a descris profesionalizarea ca pe un proces dinamic
reprezentat de uncontinuum care începe cu locul de muncă și se finalizează cu
profesa . Cu alte cuvinte, profesionalizarea a fost considerată evoluția de la
ocupație la profesie, cea din urmă fiind cea mai înaltă formă de funcționare
pentru o ocupație dată (Emener & Cotonne, 1989). Procesul de dezvoltare de la
ocupație la profesie este condiționat de un număr de elemente: a) un corp
cunoștințe acumulate prin training specializat; b) o experiență de calificare sau
examinare; c) stabilirea unui cod etic; d) identificarea profesională și controlul
practicii incluzând educare continuă, certificare, auto-reglementare și acreditare
(Emener & Cottone, 1989; Klatt, 1967). Aceste elemente subliniază aspecte
diferite ale profesionalizării necesare stabilirii consilierii ca profesie distinctă.
Corp de cunoștințe pentru care este necesar trainingul specializat
Un corp de cunoștințe este o bază distinctă și coerentă de cunoștințe care
este dezvoltată, folosită și menținută într-o profesie și care face diferența față de
alte profesii (Szilagyi, 2016). În plus, o profesie cere abilități, cunoștințe extinse și
o predare sistematizată care este obținută prin teorie și practică (Oliveira &
Nunes, 2015; Sylvester, 2002). Așa cum a fost descrisă anterior, profesia de
consilier este diferită de alte profesii care au ca scop oferirea de ajutor atât în
ideologie, cât și în practică. Astfel, consilierii au cunoștințe specializate pentru a
putea să ajute clienții să obțină starea de bine și sănătatea. In contextul economiei
globale, aceste abilități specializate au căpătat o importanța din ce în ce mai
mare. Ca urmare a acestui fapt, programele de training sunt tot mai flexibile și
inclusive pentru a se adapta la cerințele sociale ale pieții muncii (Szilagyi & Petrini,
2014). Acest element al profesionalizării constituie o bază fundamentală pentru că
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Ramona I. Grad1
(Brown, Gourdine, Waites & Owens, 2013). The rise of technology as well as
abundant resources and opportunities that are now available to families may also
bring added pressure to measure up, leading families to be inclined to keep up the
pace with the rising expectations and increased standards of success imposed by
society.
Children of 21st century are presented with challenges and pressures that
20th century counterparts likely never did. Can all these pressures trickle down
into expectations placed upon children? Is it possible that expectations placed
upon children to keep up could have a negative impact on a child’s emotional and
behavioral development as well as academic performance? Do children learn at an
early age that it is important to be perfect in the way that they perform, in order
for them to find acceptance and approval from adults and peers? Moreover, is
perfection to be considered a problem - a potential detriment to mental health
and academic performance - or can it be regarded as a strength that assists the
child keeping up with the challenges of life?
The purpose of this article is to address these questions through a review
of the literature in order to shed some light on the relationship between
perfectionism and children’s academic performance. The nature of perfectionism
will be discussed, and the research into the relationship between it and mental
health and academic performance will be presented. Finally, additional factors
that might contribute to the development of different types of perfectionism,
including the child’s level of social interest, the perception of parental support,
and the child’s level of self-efficacy will be described. The possibility of examining
these factors as mediating influences on the relationship between perfectionism
and academic performance will also be proposed, with consideration to the
implications for school counselors.
Defining and Understanding Perfectionism
From the beginning of modern psychology, perfectionism has been viewed
from both positive and negative perspectives. Freud considered perfectionism a
type of "obsessional neurosis" that helped to defend the individual from intra-
psychic conflict when one's idealistic standards could not be reached (Freud,
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to be flexible and adaptable under circumstances in which they fall short of their
goals and are capable of deriving a sense of pleasure from their accomplishments.
On the flip side, maladaptive (or neurotic) perfectionists are incapable of
experiencing satisfaction from their efforts or accomplishments because they
never seem to be good enough (Hanchon, 2011). These individuals tend to have
excessive concerns about making mistakes and a disabling self-doubt, are highly
critical of themselves and are preoccupied with worries that such high, self-
imposed standards will not be met (Rice et al., 2005). So, in short, adaptive
perfectionists have the goal of pursuing excellence, but their effort towards this
goal is not limited by their self-esteem. Maladaptive perfectionists are more likely
to equate success with personal acceptance and/or recognition from others.
Research Relating Perfectionism to Mental Health and Academic
Performance
Research has supported many of the differences between adaptive and
maladaptive perfectionists (Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001; Stolz &
Ashby, 2007). Slaney et al. (2001) concluded that perfectionists may be
distinguished from nonperfectionists on the basis of the very high standards for
personal performance they endorse, while adaptive and maladaptive
perfectionists may be differentiated by the degree of discrepancy they perceive
between their standards and their actual performance. Stolz and Ashby (2007)
suggest that the maladaptive perfectionists have a strong desire to outperform
others while adaptive perfectionists are more focused on mastery of tasks and do
not feel a sense of needing to prove one's self to others.
In fact, the research has repeatedly found associations between
maladaptive perfectionism and negative mental health indicators, including the
probability of developing anxiety disorders (Egan, Wade, & Shafran, 2011; Frost &
Martin-DiBartolo, 2002), depression (Kawamura, Hunt, Frost, & DiBartolo, 2001;
Hewitt & Flett, 1991), and impaired interpersonal relationship (Slaney, Pincus,
Uliaszek, & Wang, 2006; Chang, 2000;). In addition, maladaptive perfectionists
appear to be more likely to have feelings of inferiority (Ashby & Kottman, 1996)
and neurotic narcissism (Watson, Varnell, & Morris, 1999) than their adaptive
counterparts.
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separately for boys and girls, and were found to be statistically significant (.20 for
girls, and .22 for boys p < .05, one-tailed test). The results showed that boys with
high levels of self-esteem and a positive self-concept had lower sensitivity to
making mistakes. Also, boys who scored lower in emotional stability had a higher
need for admiration. This seems to support the notion that performance-based
perfectionism may be related to emotional instability and low self-confidence,
particularly among boys. Results also showed that girls who scored higher on
contingent self-esteem also scored higher on each of the PHSCS sub-scales, except
for popularity (Rice et al., 2004).
In a similar study, Rice et al. (2007) examined perfectionism in 145 middle
school adolescents in a mid-western school using the AMPS scale and correlated
this assessment with the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS; Reynolds,
1987). For boys, the AMPS scores did not account for significant variation in RADS
scores, R² = .01, F(3,47) = 0.22, p = .885. For girls, AMPS scores did account for
significant variance in RADS scores, adjusted R² = .21, F(3,67) = 5.96, p = .001. For
girls, two of the three AMPS predictors were significantly associated with
depressive symptoms: Sensitivity to mistakes (β = .47, p = .001) and
Compulsiveness (β = −.36, p = .004). The researchers stated that "girls benefit
directly from compulsive attention to tasks and performance and they suffer
directly when they have higher concerns about making mistakes" (Rice et al.,
2007, p. 151).
Some studies have found relatively comparable academic performance, as
determined by grade point average (GPA), between adaptive and maladaptive
perfectionists (Grzegorek, Slaney, Franze, & Rice, 2004; Mobley, Slaney & Rice,
2005; Rice & Dellwo, 2002), while other studies have found significant differences
between these groups (Accordino, Accordino, & Slaney, 2000; Nounopoulos,
Ashby, & Gilman, 2006; Rice & Slaney, 2002).
Nounopoulos et al., (2006) investigated the relationship between
perfectionism, coping resources, and academic achievement in a sample of 166
middle-school students. The researchers administered the Coping Resources
Inventory Scales for Educational Enhancement (CRISEE; Curlette et al., 1993), the
Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney et al., 2001), and they collected the
self-reported GPA scores from the participants. Results from this study indicated a
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adaptive perfectionism (Craddock et. al, 2009). In another study, Rice et al. (2005)
examined 241 students in a Southern institution. They used three scales to
measure perfectionism: The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MDS; Frost
et al., 1990), the Hewit and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HF-MPS;
Hewitt et al., 1991) and the APS-R (Slaney et al., 2001). Using these scales, the
researchers conducted a regression analysis to predict scores on the Experiences
and Close Relationships measure (ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998), which
assesses adult attachment orientation. The results revealed that parental and
social expectations significantly predicted scores for adult attachment orientation.
Specifically, the researchers found that parental criticism and socially-prescribed
perfectionism together predicted attachment avoidance (ΔR² = .02, p < .035) while
parental expectations and parental criticism together predicted attachment
anxiety ((ΔR² = .02, p < .015).
The results also revealed that adaptive perfectionist perceived their
parents as having high expectations from them but as not being critical of them,
whereas maladaptive perfectionist reported high level of parental criticism and
viewed their acceptance as being conditional upon their pursuit of success and
perfection. Chang (2006) also suggested that there is a developmental aspect
involved in the assimilation of an individual's cognitive representations of socially
prescribed expectations for performance. In other words, individuals may start off
feeling obligated to live up to standards that have been set by others, but that
later on they may come to internalize these standards for themselves.
Bandura (1977) proposed that an individual's self-efficacy impacts one’s
motivation for performing a behavior. A large body of research has found that
adaptive perfectionists generally had higher self–esteem, self–efficacy, and good
academic adjustment (Brown et al., 1999; Parker, 1997; Frost et al., 1990).
Conclusion and Future Research
A wide array of research has supported the multidimensional construct of
perfectionism (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Parker, 1997; Rice & Mirzadeh, 2000).
Adaptive perfectionism dimensions have been correlated with self-efficacy,
aptitude, and academic performance, whereas self-critical or otherwise negative
aspects of perfectionism have been negatively correlated with self-efficacy, and
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level of perfectionism, and more specifically whether the gender of the parent is a
contributing factor to the perceived parental support and the child’s level of
perfectionism. Also, the researchers may want to explore whether there is a
significant relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and a child’s academic
success. The answer to these core questions would likely help mental health
professionals and parents determine whether parental strategies for solving
problems and relating to others might have a greater likelihood of influencing
children’s behavior and their motivation for pursuing tasks.
Implications for School Counselors
Perfectionism, as the term implies, is the desire to be perfect, to be
flawless. In the context of family relationships and academic performance, this
desire often causes distress in children. True perfection can never be achieved,
however, many individuals possess aspects of perfectionism. Thus, they must
learn to manage their perfectionistic tendencies. In order to truly help clients
manage their perfectionism, professional counselors need a clear understanding
of what perfectionism is and the impact it has on children’s mental health and
academic success.
As noted above, the purpose of this article is to provide a clear definition
of the types of perfectionism, give a compilation of data from other studies as to
how perfectionism relates to mental health and academic performance and to
present factors that might contribute to the development of perfectionism in
children. According to Adler (1956) a child’s personality is formed in the first five
or six years of life, often as a direct response to family situations. Naturally this is
because a young child tries very hard to please parents and avoid feelings of
inferiority. In addition to the effect of parents’ level of social interest on a child’s
perfectionistic tendencies and/or the effect of a child’s perfectionism on their
academic success, other factors might also play a role including child’s own level
of social interest, and the child’s personality.
This article is intended to encourage future research of additional
contributors on the child’s perfectionism and academic performance. This may
help professional counselors provide a more informed approach when addressing
perfectionism in parent-child relationships. Furthermore, it may also encourage
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Ramona I. Grad1
1
Ramona I. Grad, Department of Counseling and Psychological Services. Georgia State
University, Statele Unite ale Americii.
Articolul a fost tradus în limba română de către Anda Pacurar.
Corespondența referitoare la acest articol poate fi adresată către Ramona Grad (E-mail:
rgrad1@student.gsu.edu)
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parentală și schimbă relațiile dintre părinți și copiii lor (Brown, Gourdine, Waites &
Owens, 2013). Dezvoltarea tehnologiei, precum și abundența resurselor și
oportunităților care sunt acum la dispoziția familiilor pot, de asemenea, să creeze
presiune, confruntând familiile cu provocarea de a concilia creșterea așteptărilor
cu cea a standardelor de succes impuse de societate.
Copiii secolului 21 se confruntă cu provocări și presiuni pe care cei din
secolul 20 nu le-au avut. Este posibil ca plasarea acestor așteptări asupra copiilor
să aibă un impact negativ asupra dezvoltării lor emoționale și comportamentale,
precum și a performanței lor academice? Învață oare copiii, încă de timpuriu, că în
viață este important să fii perfect în modul în care performezi pentru a putea
obține aprobarea din partea semenilor și adulților? Mai mult, poate fi considerată
perfecțiunea o problemă cu efect dăunător asupra sănătății mentale și
performanței academice sau poate fi văzută ca un punct forte, care ajută copilul
să întâmpine provocările vieții?
Scopul acestui articol este de a analiza aceste întrebări pentru a putea
clarifica relația dintre perfecționism și performanța academică a copiilor. Vor fi
prezentate natura perfecționismului și cercetările care au investigat relația dintre
perfecționism și sănătatea mentală și performanța academică. Apoi, vor fi descriși
factori suplimentari care pot contribui la dezvoltarea diferitelor tipuri de
perfecționism, inclusiv nivelul de interes social al copilului, percepția legată de
suportul parental și nivelul de auto-eficiență al copilului. În final, vom examina
influența acestor factori în medierea relației dintre perfecționism și performanța
academică, în speranța utilității pe care o astfel de analiză o are pentru consilierii
școlari.
Definirea și înțelegerea perfecționismului
Încă de la începuturile psihologiei moderne, perfecționismul a fost văzut
atât în termeni pozitivi, cât și negativi. Freud înțelegea perfecționismul ca fiind un
tip de "nevroză obsesională", care îl ajută pe individ să se apere de conflictul
intrapsihic generat de standardele idealiste care nu pot fi atinse (Freud, 1959). Pe
de altă parte, Alfred Adler concepea perfecționismul sau ceea ce el numea
"stăruința spre perfecțiune" ca un indicator pozitiv al sănătății mintale (Adler,
1956).
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aceste grupuri (Accordino, Accordino, & Slaney, 2000; Nounopoulos, Ashby, &
Gilman, 2006; Rice & Slaney, 2002).
Nounopoulos și alții (2006) au investigat relația dintre perfecționism,
resursele de coping și rezultatele academice într-un eșantion de 166 elevi de
școală medie. Cercetatorii au administrat Coping Resources Inventory Scales for
Educational Enhancement (CRISEE; Curlette et al., 1993), Almost Perfect Scale-
Revised (APS-R; Slaney et al., 2001), și au colectat mediile școlare obtinuțe
anterior, raportate de către participanți (scoruri GPA). Rezultatele de la acest
studiu au indicat o asociație semnificativă între perfecționismul adaptativ și
maladaptativ și mediile elevilor (R² = .12, F(2,151) = 10.18, p < .001). Mai specific,
amândouă relațiile dintre perfecționismul adaptativ și cel maladaptativ cu
scorurile GPA au fost semnificative doar în cazul în care încrederea academică a
fost controlată (β = −.28, t(150) = −3.60, p < .001; respectiv β = .18, t(150) = 2.37,
p < .05). Cu alte cuvinte, predicția scorurilor GPA a fost mediată de nivelul de
încredere al studentului cu perfecționism adaptativ și maladaptativ pe care l-a
avut în propriile abilități academice (Nounopoulos et al., 2006).
În studiul condus de Rice și Ashby (2007), cercetătorii au adunat datele a
1.537 studenți dintr-un set de date nepublicate și colectate din două universități
publice din sud-estul Statelor Unite. Scopul lor a fost să identifice empiric grupuri
de perfecționiști și nonperfecționiști pe baza scorurilor obținute de ei la APS–R
(Slaney et al., 2001). In completare, studenților din două seturi mai mici de date li
s-a solicitat să raporteze scorul cumulativ GPA (combinat n = 310). Acest indicator
servește ca măsurătoare pentru performanța academică. Rezultatele au arătat
diferențe semnificative între la GPA, F(2, 307) = 4.58, p < .05. Perfecționiștii
adaptativi (M = 3.41, SD = 0.45) au avut un GPA semnificativ mai mare față de cei
maladaptativi (M = 3.22, SD = 0.63) și de nonperfecționiști (M = 3.22, SD = 0.54);
diferențele între maladaptativi și nonperfecționiști nu au fost semnificative.
După cum am putut constata, până acum cercetările au putut să sprijine
constructul multidimensional al perfecționismului și relația dintre tipurile de
perfecționism și variate măsurători ale sănătății mintale și ale performanței
academice la copii. Și alți factori, precum nivelul de interes social al copilului,
suportul parental perceput și nivelul de eficiență personală, trebuie luați în
considerare ca fiind importanți pentru performanța academică și pentru
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priorități de bază ale vieții care influențează alegerile cuiva asupra stilului vieții.
Aceste cinci priorități sunt: a face pe plac, a realiza, a fi deschis social, a fi detașat,
și a evita. Folosind prioritățile personalității ale Kefir, Ashby, Kottman și Stolz
(2006), au analizat potențialele diferențe dintre stilul vieții perfecționiștilor și al
nonperfecționiștilor. Rezultatele studiului au arătat diferențe semnificative între
perfecționiști și nonperfecționiști la Realizare (F = 83.49, p < .001) și Deschidere (F
= 15.18, p < .001). Scala Realizării îi identifică pe cei ce se străduiesc să obțină
realizarea și satisfacția personală, în timp ce scala Deschiderii îi descrie pe cei care
au ca prioritate să-i depășească pe ceilalți în performanță. Analizând
perfecționismul ca întreg, în privința celorlalte trei scale de măsurare a
priorităților nu au fost identificate diferențe semnificative. Cercetătorii au
examinat și diferențele dintre cei identificați ca fiind perfecționiși adaptativi și cei
maladaptativi. Rezultatele au arătat că perfecționiștii adaptativi și cei
maladaptativi sunt foarte diferiți unii de alții la scala Deschiderii sociale (F = 4.49;
p < .05) și Detașării (F = 9.14, p < .005). Aceste rezultate susțin ideea că
perfecționiștii maladaptativi se văd pe ei în competiție cu alții și de fapt nu doresc
colaborarea cu alții.
Pe lângă interesul social, un alt factor care poate influența tipul de
perfecțiune ce va fi dezvoltat și care va produce efecte asupra comportamentului
copilului și succesului său academic este percepția copilului asupra relației cu
părinții și în special a sentimentului de suport primit din partea părinților
(Hamacheck, 1978). Hamacheck a afirmat că perfecționiștii maladaptativi pot
crește în medii în care copilul trebuie mai întâi să îndeplinească anumite condiții
ca să poată mai apoi să beneficieze de aprobarea părinților și asta poate să-l facă
pe copil să-și valorizeze mai mult sinele. Autorul a descris două medii în care se
poate dezvolta perfecționistul maladaptativ: un mediu non-aprobator sau
inconsistent aprobator (unul în care copiii nu primesc feedback în legătură cu
performanța lor) și un mediu aprobator condiționat pozitiv (în care copiii primesc
aprobare doar după ce îndeplinesc anumite condiții de performanță). Astfel, pare
probabil ca dezvoltarea timpurie a unor indicatori pentru potențialul copilului de a
dezvolta fie un perfecționism adaptativ, fie unul maladaptativ poate fi cauzată,
parțial, de anumite caracteristici ale părinților sau ale stilului lor de parenting.
Părinții perfecționiștilor maladaptativi au fost descriși ca aspri, critici, controlori,
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fiecare dintre acești factori sunt asociați puternic fie cu perfecționismul adaptativ,
fie cu cel maladaptativ, fie cu amândouă și pot servi drept mediatori ai succesului
academic al copilului.
Au fost realizate foarte puține studii care să identifice factorii ce pot
contribui la dezvoltarea perfecționismului adaptativ sau maladaptativ. S-a
descoperit că acei copii care nu percep un suport parental pozitiv sunt mult mai
predispuși să dezvolte un perfecționism maladpatativ (Craddock și alții, 2009).
Totuși, cercetările se limitează la explorarea factorilor parentali ce pot influența
modelul de perfecționism al copilului cum ar fi: caracteristicile de personalitate ale
părinților, în special nivelul de interes social al părinților; relația ce ar putea exista
între nivelul de interes social al copilului și percepția sa legată de suportul
parental; relația dintre stilul vieții copilului și motivația de a atinge scopurile.
Explorarea acestor factori poate facilita înțelegerea factorilor relaționați cu
nivelul de perfecționism al copilului. Principala întrebare ar putea fi dacă există o
legătură între nivelul de interes social și stilul vieții părinților și nivelul de
perfecționism al copilului, mai specific dacă genul părintelui este un factor ce
contribuie la perceperea suportului parental și nivelul de perfecționism al
copilului. De asemenea, dacă există și cât este de semnificativă o relație între
perfecționismul maladaptativ și nivelul de succes academic al copilului. Răspunsul
la aceste ipoteze ar putea foarte probabil să ajute profesioniști in sănătatea
mintală și părinți să determince dacă strategiile parentale pentru rezolvarea
problemelor și relaționarea cu ceilalți ar putea influența comportamentul copiilor
și motivația lor de a se îndrepta către sarcini.
Implicații pentru consilierii școlari
Perfecționismul, cum sugerează cuvântul însuși, reprezintă dorința de a fi
perfect, de a fi fără greșeală. În contextul relațiilor de familie si al performanței
academice, această dorință adesea cauzează distres în rândul copiilor. Adevărata
perfecțiune nu poate fi niciodată atinsă, și totuși, mulți indivizi posedă aspecte ale
perfecțiunii. Prin urmare, ei trebuie să învețe cum să își gestioneze tendințele lor
de perfecțiune. Pentru a-i ajuta cu adevărat pe clienți să își stăpânească
perfecționismul, consilierii au nevoie de o ințelegere clară a ceea ce înseamnă
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Jaimie Stickl1
1
Jaimie Stickl, Department of Counseling and Educational Development, The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro, United States of America.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jaimie Stickl (E-mail:
jestickl@uncg.edu).
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maintained that successful students have the social skills and learning attitudes
necessary to contribute to society. In keeping with this assertion, student success
can be holistically defined as the development of both the intellectual (academic)
and interpersonal (social) skills necessary to become effective and contributing
citizens of society. The intellectual skills of students include the mastery of basic
academic skills and knowledge, which is often the emphasis in education reform
and policy (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). This would include the skills and
attitudes necessary to achieve academically and could be measured a number of
ways, such as school performance (grades and standardized test scores) or
students decision to stay in school. Interpersonal skills encompass the social and
relational skills necessary to engage in a community, which includes the behaviors
and mindsets requisite to interact and connect with others (i.e., listening,
leadership, communication, cooperation, demonstration of empathy) (ASCA,
2014). In order to reach the broad goal of developing students into effective and
contributing citizens for today’s society, student success in school can thus be
determined by the development of important intellectual and interpersonal skills.
Theoretical Approach
In order to understand which factors lead to the development of the
intellectual and social skills necessary for student success, a theoretical framework
is necessary in order to help conceptualize the complexity of student
development. The bioecological model is a theoretical framework that provides a
complex and dynamic structure for studying the complexity of human
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). According to Bronfenbrenner, (1999) the
bioecological model is an attempt to provide a framework for exploring the
impact of the environment on human development.
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model provides a relevant framework to
examine the wide range of factors that have been found to influence student
success. While these factors have often been separated for individual analysis in
education research studies, it is unrealistic to conclude that the various individual
and contextual factors contributing to school related outcomes are independent
of each other, as the “multidimensional characteristics of schools require a
multidimensional assessment” (Cemalcilar, 2010, p. 261). Thus, the bioecological
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connection to the school (Loukas et al., 2006). For instance, Wentzel and Caldwell
(1997) conducted a longitudinal study examining peer variables (i.e., peer group
memberships and peer acceptance) with Grade Point Averages (GPA). They found
a positive correlation at a significance level of .001 relating GPA with peer
acceptance in both 6th and 7th grade (r = .40, r = .31 respectively). In addition, in a
study examining variables related to sense of belonging in school, Cemalcilar
(2010) used structural equation model analysis and found that sense of belonging
was predicted by satisfaction with social relationships at school for middle school
students. Cemalcilar (2010) identified that perceived quality of peer relationships
was one important factor of social relationships within the school directly relating
to belonging in school, with a standardized path value of .274 (p < .001) revealing
the significant direct relationship between student-student relationships and
belonging in school. Furthermore, relationships outside of the school setting have
also been found to be important contributors to student success. Supportive
relationships at home can influence student perceptions and engagement
(Osterman, 2000) as well as academic achievement in school (Blue, 2011).
Specifically, in a qualitative research study, Blue (2011) found that 40% of high
school students interviewed in his sample felt that family support was an
important component related to student success and retention.
Beyond the development of relationships, other interactions that have
been found to be important contributions to student success include: interactions
in the classroom, involvement in extra-curricular activities, and the inclusion of
student voice in school decision-making. Interactions within the classroom that
have been found to contribute to students’ intellectual and social development
include both the quality of instruction and methods of instruction (i.e.,
cooperative learning, dialogue) (Osterman, 2000). In addition, a student’s
involvement in extra-curricular activities has been found to be positively
associated with school attachment and achievement (Faircloth & Hamm, 2005),
engagement in school (Rumberger, 2011), and connections with others in school
(Somers & Piliawsky, 2004). Finally, involving students in the decision making
process at school can increase student engagement (Allen & Bowles, 2012),
encourage students to bond to each other and the school (Chen & Weikart, 2008),
and contribute to a positive school climate (Hopson & Lee, 2011; Voigt, 2015).
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Given the important of the various processes in the school context, school
counselors can make a concerted effort to enhance positive proximal processes
for students in a variety of ways in an effort to improve student success. This can
include encouraging positive peer relationships through running small groups,
teaching conflict resolution skills, or classroom guidance lessons on social skill
development. In addition, school counselors can work towards enhancing student
teacher relationships through providing training to teachers on the importance of
relationships in the classroom setting. School counselors can be creative in ways
to enhance and encourage positive processes for each and every student in the
school setting.
Person. The next component of PPCT is person. A number of intrinsic
person characteristics have been found to be important factors in the
development of student success (i.e., intellectual and social skills). The following
factors will be delineated based on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of
force, resource, and demand characteristics.
Force or disposition characteristics. There are a number of behavioral
dispositions that are related to student success. Resiliency, motivation,
engagement/participation, and sense of belonging are force characteristics that
have been found to be associated with the intellectual and/or interpersonal skill
development of students. Resiliency has been found to be an important
characteristic especially important for the academic success of students
considered ‘at-risk’ or living in poverty (Borman & Rachuba, 2001; Finn & Rock,
1997; Hopson & Lee, 2011). Motivation is another force characteristic that has
been connected with both intellectual and social skill development. For example,
motivation has been found to relate to students’ sense of school as a community
(Battistich, Watson, Kim, Watson, & Schaps, 1995), academic achievement
(Osterman, 2000), and academic and social learning (Goodenow, 1992). In
addition to motivation, engagement and participation are additional force
characteristics that have been related to student success. Engagement behaviors
serve as an example and have been related to both academic achievement
(Osterman, 2000) and students staying in school; a key contributor to intellectual
skill development (Christle et al., 2007; Rumberger, 2011). More specifically,
Christle et al. (2007) found a significant negative correlation between overall
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drop-out rates of high schools with school attendance rate (r = - .679 at p < .004
level), explaining 46.1% of the variance in drop out rate. They found that
attendance rate showed the strongest relationships to drop out rate of the
variables they examined, besides academic achievement. Thus attendance, a form
of engagement, is important for student retention and ultimately student success
in school. Finally, sense of belonging, or the ability to develop and maintain
positive connections and interactions with others, is an important force
characteristic that is related to a number of educational outcomes and processes
including academic achievement (Allen & Bowles, 2012; Faircloth & Hamm, 2005;
Ma, 2003).
Resource characteristics. There have been multiple mental and emotional
resources that have been identified which positively contribute and/or hinder
student success including, physical health and socioeconomic status. Researchers
have found that students who have had overall good general health have had
more positive associations with sense of belonging (a construct related to other
positive intellectual and social outcomes) (Ma, 2003). In contrast, poor physical
health is a risk factor for students dropping out and disengaging from school
(Rumberger, 2011). Furthermore, having a disability is another component of
physical health and students with disabilities are at an increased risk for dropping-
out (Christle et al., 2007; Dunn et al.,2004; O’Keefe 2013). For instance, Dunn et
al. (2004) examined education data from a state transition program for students
with disabilities. Over a time span of five years, 14% of former students who
either had Mental Retardation (MR) or Learning Disability (LD) had dropped out of
school. Furthermore, they found differences between disability status, and
student’s who had LD were at a greater risk for dropping out of school (.58)
compared to students whose primary disability was MR (.37). Authors concluded
that disability status (LD or MR) may be one of the predictive factors in whether or
not a student drops out of school.
In addition to health, socio-economic status (SES) is a characteristic that
can be considered both as an individual resource characteristic and contextual
factor in Bronfenbrenner’s theory. Tudge et al. (2009) asserted that the difference
of placement for constructs lie not in the variables themselves, but their place in
the model. Thus, viewing SES as a person resource characteristic refers to the
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students have more positive perceptions of school climate (Esposito, 1999; Shann,
1999; White et al., 2014), a factor ultimately related to intellectual and social skill
development. Finally, gender is also a demand characteristic related to student
success. Girls often have developed more positive social skills and socially
acceptably means of interacting with others (Alika, 2012; Osterman, 2000; Shann,
1999). In addition, females often have more favorable perceptions of school
climate and sense of belonging than males (Ma, 2003; Osterman, 2000; White et
al., 2014). For instance, Ma (2003) found a moderate effect of gender on sense of
belonging at .294 (p < .05) for students in grade six, with girls more likely to feel
like they belong than boys. In addition, researchers have found male and female
differences in achievement. In one study among eighth grade students, Dickworth
and Seligman (2006) found significant differences among final grades with girls
earning higher final grades than boys in both Algebra II and English, with effect
sizes ranging from d =.48 (p < .01) to d = .70, (p < .001) respectively, and girls had a
higher overall GPA with an effect size of d = .66 (p < .001).
Gender differences also extend beyond primary school to higher
education. Researchers have found that there is a gender gap in higher education
with females more likely to attend college (Jacob, 2002). Jacob (2005) studied
data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study, which obtained data from
a representative sample of eighth graders from 1988 to 1994. Among a wide
variety in gender differences, Jacob (2002) found that 90% of the gender gap in
higher education may be due to greater non-cognitive skills and higher returns
from college among women. In addition, he found that men attended colleges
where students had higher math scores on the SAT, implying the tendency for
men to enroll in higher education programs focused on the math, science, and
engineering fields. It is evident, that demand characteristics are important aspects
to take into consideration when examining student success.
Person characteristics of others in the environment. As mentioned
previously, person characteristics that can influence student success are not
limited to the individual student but can also include characteristics of those in
their immediate environment. Some important person characteristics that are
related to the intellectual or social development of students include leadership
qualities of administrators, teacher/staff expectations, and parents’ education
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level. The leadership quality of the school administrator has been cited as a key
component for the development of a positive school climate (Cisler & Bruce, n.d.;
Hopson & Lee, 2011; Macneail et al., 2009; Murphy, 2007), ultimately contributing
to student success. In addition, the levels of expectations teachers/staff have for
their students are associated with student retention (Blue, 2011; Christle et al.,
2007; Rumberger, 2011) and academic achievement (Bevans et al., 2007; Borman
& Rachuba, 2012). Finally, parents’ education levels are associated with student
achievement (Hornstra, Van der veer, Peetsma, & Volma, 2015). It is clear that a
variety of person characteristics contribute in various ways to student success,
which are important aspects for school counselors to consider when
implementing interventions.
Although person characteristics at first glance may be more difficult for
school counselor’s to address, there are a number of ways counselors can
influence this aspect of the PPCT model. For example, counselors can attempt to
raise teacher and staff expectations of student success through education and
training. In addition, counselors can foster moldable aspects of person
characteristics (i.e., self-esteem, student motivation) through small groups or
classroom guidance activities. Although some person characteristics are
unalterable, such as gender, counselors can play a crucial role in targeting the
gaps and inequities that accompany student achievement. Specifically, school
counselor’s can strategically use data in a comprehensive school counseling
program to identify achievement gaps based on race, ethnicity, or gender, and
work with the leadership team to implement strategic interventions aimed at
improving student success for every student.
Context. Beyond person characteristics, the influence of a student’s
environment is one that should not be underestimated and contributes to the
processes that take place within the environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). This
can include the physical aspects of the environment as well as components of the
activities and interactions experienced within the environments. Bronfenbrenner
and Morris (2006) described various levels of Context that play a critical role in
student’s development, including the microsystem, mesosytem, exosystem, and
macrosystem.
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increase in the probability of students dropping out at the p < .001 level. While
Lee and Burkman (2003) are cautious in interpreting school size as directly relating
to drop out rate (when taking into considering various other factors related to size
such as quality of relationships), they did report that school size is an important
variable related to dropping out because of the social benefits that may come
with smaller or medium size schools. Furthermore, tracking or ability grouping is
another characteristic that has been inversely related to positive student
interactions and peer connections (Enmoto, 1999; Osterman, 2000). Finally,
physical conditions of the school environment have been positively associated
with student graduation rates (Christle et al., 2007) and sense of belonging
(Cemalcilar, 2010).
In addition to the school organizational variables, the home environment is
another microsystem context that influences a student’s intellectual and social
development. Family background and culture is related to a student’s decision to
remain enrolled in school (Blue, 2011; Bradley & Renzulli, 2011). Bradley and
Renzulli’s (2011) reported that cultural values for some students may be related
to factors influencing students to drop out of school. For example, parents may
encourage boys to work and girls to get married or contribute to family
responsibilities. In addition, lager family size can be a risk factor related to
academic achievement for students (Somers & Piliawsky, 2004). The physical
environment of the home may also impact students’ development. Old building
may pose health risks, such as lead poisoning, which can lead to learning
disabilities or attention deficit disorder (Berliner, 2006). These risk factors can be
barriers to student success in school and lead to intellectual and/or social
disadvantages.
Mesosystem. As we continue to move through Bronfenbrenner’s
bioecological model and expand outside of the microsystem, we encounter the
mesosytem. Bronfenbrenner (1999) describes the mesosystem as a “system of
two or more microsystems” (p. 17). Applying this to the students’ microsystems
would include an examination of the interrelations between the school and family
contexts. Esposito (1999) stated that the school environment is an important
context to consider, especially for students growing up in poverty. In other words,
schools may be an even more important context than the home to foster the
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success of students who live in poverty and who may have few relational supports
or resources. For instance, Battistich et al. (1995) used hierarchical linear
modeling to explore relationships between perception of school as a community,
student poverty level, and other educational outcomes (e.g., student attitudes,
motivations, beliefs, and behaviors). They found that sense of school-level
community was positively associated with student outcomes and poverty was
negatively related to student outcomes, with the relationship between sense of
community and positive student attitudes and motivation strongest among
schools with the most impoverished students. Specifically, sense of school as a
community was significantly associated with student’s liking of school (d = .67),
academic motivation (d = .60), and enjoyment of class (d = .59) at the p < .10
level. In addition, Battistich et al. (1995) found differences in outcomes when
examining interaction effects.
For instance, sense of school as a community was associated with
increased average conflict resolution skills in low and high poverty schools, with
the slope significantly steeper among low-poverty schools. Similar patterns were
found when examining school community by poverty interaction effects among
four variables including enjoying class, liking school, academic self-esteem, and
helping others. They concluded that schools may be particularly important for
students who come from poverty as some of the negative effects of impoverished
contexts have the potential to be mitigated by a school that creates a safe and
caring community for students. As a result, those students come to school with
more challenges that impact their intellectual and social development. As
mentioned earlier, students who come from environments with fewer resources
and fewer positive interactions at home enter school with lower cognitive abilities
(Calkins, Guenther, Belfiore, & Lash, 2007).
Another example of the mesosytem, is the level of family involvement in
school, which has been found to be an important factor related to students’
decision to stay in school (Christle et al., 2007). When family involvement in the
school is high, the likelihood of the student dropping out of school is lowered,
thus, family involvement is important for desired school outcomes (Jefferson,
2014). Specifically, Fan and Chen (2001) conducted a meta-analysis and examined
evidence from 25 empirical studies examining parental involvement and students’
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involved with the school board, the policy decisions they make can directly impact
students’ development.
Macrosystem. The final contextual system is the macrosystem, which
encompasses the values and beliefs of the larger culture and subcultures (Tudge
et al., 2009). Macrosystems that have been found to influence student success
include socio-economic status (SES) (described by the shared values and belief
systems) and governmental level education initiatives. As stated previously, SES
can be considered both an individual and contextual factor. SES is considered a
macrosystem contextual variable when examined from the perspective of the
shared beliefs and overarching values that often accompany the social class. SES
has been found to be strongly related to academic achievement (Battistich et al.,
1995), influence learning and behavior (Chen & Weikart, 2008), influence beliefs
regarding the value of education (Battistich et al., 1999), and impact students’
decision to stay in school (Alspaugh, 1998; Bradley & Renzulli, 2011; Rumberger,
2011). Christle et al., (2007) found that students who come from low SES families
have been found to be 2.4 times more likely to drop out of school than students
from middle-income families. Furthermore, Somers and Piliawsky (2004) reported
that external social factors for students who live in poverty often inhibit their
social and intellectual development (Somers & Piliawsky, 2004). Thus, poverty is
an important factor that cannot be ignored or considered in isolation from the
school context.
In addition to socio-economic status, federal education initiatives, policies,
and trends also impact students’ success across the country. This impact can be
seen in President Obama’s 2009 increase in the amount of federal funding
through School Improvement Grants (SIG) which created an increase in the
number of schools undergoing turnover or reconstitution (Trujillo & Renee, 2014).
According to Truijjo & Renee (2014) reconstitution reduces the climate of the
school and social stability having negative impacts on student achievement. The
overarching education policies set the tone for education practice and research,
which can have wide reaching effects on students’ intellectual and social
development across the country.
In considering the different contexts involved in student’s development,
along with the interactions between them, school counselor’s can play an
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the school environment acts as a protective factor for students from low SES, but
does not have the same level of effect on students who come from higher SES
(Bradley & Renzulli, 2011).
In conclusion, using Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory to consider the
various factors and combination of factors that lead to student success does not
provide ‘answers’ as to what specific factors are related to the intellectual and
social development of students. In fact, Peterson, Baker, & McGraw (1994) stated
“the aim of the ecological approach is not to claim answers, but to provide a
theoretical framework that will lead to further progress in discovering the
processes and conditions that shape the course of human development” (p. 7).
While a number of interactions and factors have been identified that researchers
have found to relate to student success, it is important to consider the unique
inter-relations among the various domains that are different for each student and
student population.
Implications for Research and Practice
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory provides a guide to explore the
various factors that may contribute to student success. The Process, Person,
Context, Time model of the theory provides an operational research design for
researchers to investigate the various aspects of the theory (Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 2006). Given the complexity of student success, this theory provides a
fitting framework, as noted above, to empirically study the complex interactions
and factors that may contribute to a student’s intellectual and social
development. Unfortunately, the bioecological model has often been
misrepresented in empirical studies, and as a result has been inadequately tested
and misunderstood (Tudge et al., 2009). There are a few considerations that
researchers should attend to when using this model in order to empirically
examine student success. Tudge et al. (2009) concluded that research based on
Bronfenbrenner’s theory should include each component of the PPCT model as a
viable measure of ecological systems. They stated that partial aspects of the
model are possible, but should be clearly identified as such and included as part of
the limitations. They also suggested that processes are an essential component
that should not be left out of a study, as it is the driving force behind
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While this is simply one example, it serves as a guide for school counselors as they
consider the interactions of multiple components of the Bioecological Model, and
how the aspects inter-relate in order to contribute to student success, or the
outcome of interest. School counselors could also use this model as a guide for
the implementation and evaluation of the comprehensive school counseling
program. Rather than having a narrow focus on a few factors, school counselors
can broaden their impact through considering the various levels and components
of the model when implementing program initiatives. Evaluation of the
counseling program should also include the various components of the PPCT
design as well as counselors consider the interactions of various elements of
individual students, as well as the student body as a whole, that may be
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Marian Crăciun1
1
Marian Crăciun, Departamentul de Consiliere și Orientare pentru Carieră, Universitatea
din București
Corespondența referitoare la acest articol poate fi adresată către Marian Crăciun (E-mail:
marian.craciun@g.unibuc.ro)
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achieved in recent years. The analysis of the main concerns identified in the
scientific literature regarding career counselling entails a high awareness of the
addressed issue, given the emergence of the operating methodologies of career
centres at university level and the growing importance of career counselling
granted by the direct beneficiaries. Last but not least, the types of services offered
by the centres for vocational counselling and guidance, both in secondary
education and at university level, their evaluation by the beneficiaries, and the
concern of specialists to publish relevant articles and studies, can determine
changes in perception among policy makers at the public policy level.
Keywords: career, counselling, support services, students, university students
Plecând de la consultarea literaturii de specialitate existente, în raport cu
evaluarea și construirea unei argumentații solide referitoare la serviciile de
consiliere la nivel universitar, am constat că, exceptând preocupările constante ale
Institutului de Științe ale Educației, numărul de teze de doctorat și de articole
publicate în România ultimilor 15 ani, de către autori români, este destul de redus.
Necesitatea specialiștilor de a se raporta la o literatură de specialitate solid
construită și corect argumentată, s-a lovit de anumite obstacole, determinate, în
principiu, de costurile publicării, pe platforme (sau în reviste) internaționale și de
numărul mic de publicații existente la nivel național. Aceleași obstacole au
determinat existența a prea puține instrumente de evaluare în procesul de
consiliere, traduse, adaptate și validate pentru populația României, ca și a unor
instrumente de evaluare calitativă și cantitativă a proceselor și serviciilor de
consiliere.
Ca practician într-un centru de consiliere la nivel universitar, am simțit de
multe ori nevoia de a-mi confirma sau infirma, cu argumente științifice, anumite
ipoteze și metode de lucru. Cursul universitar de consiliere de carieră organizat, cu
multă vreme în urmă, de Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj, precum și publicațiile
și testele publicate de Centrului Expert, la care se adaugă studiile și formările
practice, în domeniul consilierii, ale Institutului de Științe ale Educației, au devenit
instrumente utile, din perspectivă practică, pentru un număr ridicat de consilieri
de carieră, la nivel preuniversitar sau universitar, pentru definirea și construirea
unor instrumente de lucru valide, în activitatea de zi cu zi a acestora. Prezentul
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constituie baza unei dezbateri la nivel național și suportul pentru dezvoltarea unor
modele de intervenție asupra elevilor aflați în situație de risc și asupra familiilor
acestora, cu scopul final de a ameliora problemele de acest tip care pot avea
efecte devastatoare asupra individului, în timp. Rezultatele obținute de autor
susțin faptul că activităţile de consiliere educațională a copiilor remigraţi pot
produce efecte pozitive și de lungă durată, în raport cu adaptarea psihologică şi
adaptarea educațională a acestora.
O altă teză de doctorat care atinge problematica extrem de actuală a
consilierii de carieră în România este „Școala și comunitatea – parteneriat pentru
educație“, publicată ulterior în volum (Stăiculescu, 2012). Prin analiza corelațiilor
posibile în raportul școală-comunitate, lucrarea este folositoare specialiștilor din
serviciile de consiliere în special prin analiza posibilelor relații dintre școală și
organizațiile neguvernamentale, dintre școală și agenții economici și dintre școală
și autoritățile locale. Parteneriatele enumerate mai sus pot constitui pârghii de
determinare a creșterii eficienței și impactului, dar și a gradului de acoperire a
serviciilor de suport pentru elevi și studenți. Implicarea acestor factori poate fi
vizibilă și eficientă în cazul educației nonformale și informale, obiectivele acestora
fiind, în măsură mare, congruente sau complementare. Dezvoltarea activităților
care să dezvolte alte abilități ale elevilor, care țin de ceea ce numim în mod direct
abilități transversale, constituie un alt punct comun al analizelor posibilelor
intervenții, în cadrul unui parteneriat școală-comunitate, cu atât mai mult cu cât
cerințe de acest fel vin și din partea mediului socio-economic.
O abordare psihologică a deciziei de carieră este prezentă în lucrarea
Mihaelei Apostu (Guranda), care își propune analiza „factorilor care influențează
procesul de luare a deciziei în carieră la adolescenți și la adulți“ (2011). Principala
concluzie, comună mai multor autori, din perspectiva consilierii de carieră, este
legată de necesitatea de a oferi sprijin elevilor și studenților (adolescenților, după
termenul utilizat de către autoare), în vederea definirii opțiunii profesionale, pe
baza propriului profil și a analizei pieței muncii, nu în raport cu influența familiei
sau a prietenilor: deciziile adolescenților și adulților trebuie să fie realiste și să
pornească de la o bună autocunoaștere. Pentru a ajunge la acest stadiu, este
necesară explorarea lumii profesiilor și a caracteristicilor pieței muncii. Autoarea
s-a concentrat pe cunoașterea factorilor care influențează procesul de luare a
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Adriana Georgescu1
Abstract. This case study is related to Become, a career exploration program for
youth developed by the explorerKid Association in Bucharest, Romania. The subject
of the present case study applied and was selected to participate in this program.
In Become, young people take their very first steps in career exploration: they
combine self-exploration activities with an inspiring hands-on project. In the
project, young people interview inspirational people from work areas they are
interested in and record their career stories, both for their own benefit and as
inspiration source for other youngsters (with the agreement of respondents,
stories are published online). To assist my client in the self-exploration activities, I
used vocational choice theory (Holland, 1984), the theory of the rainbow career
model (Super 1995), the theory of socio-cognitive career development (Brown,
2013) and social learning theory (Krumboltz 2010) I also used positive psychology
tools such as the VIA Character Survey (Peterson, 2016) and the Best Possible Self
exercise (Sheldon, 2006). Regarding intervention models, at some points I also
used cognitive and behavioral interventions in addition to person-centered
counseling (Rogers, 1961). I chose to present this case because I believe it can be
illustrative of how we can determine young people to become more responsible
and proactive in building their own career path.
Keywords: inspirational people, VIA character strengths, positive psychology, best
possible self, positive education
This paper is organized in two main sections, starting with the presentation
of the career development process across its stages, and continuing with an
1
Adriana Georgescu, Asociația explorerKid
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Adriana Georgescu (E-
mail: adrigeorg@yahoo.com)
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chose a moment in time (far enough in the future so that change might be
possible but still close enough to be relevant to the present) and imagined that
career wise, everything went for her as good as possible. Next, she wrote a
detailed description of that moment – her thoughts, actions and feelings, the
environment, others people’s comments about her. Raluca pictured herself
running her own business, in her hometown. She combined event organizing with
touristic services and worked in a friendly atmosphere alongside family, friends
and other people. Thus, Raluca set as objective of her counseling process to
explore tourism and events organization. She would do interviews with
inspirational people who run successful businesses in these areas. The main
objective of these interviews would be for Raluca to clarify if she wants to further
explore those areas (through volunteering, internships, employment and / or
study programs). The secondary objective of these interviews would be to develop
communication and networking skills, which are both essential in building a
career. (In addition, the client came with a supplementary reason: she felt she
needed also those skills as a future sociologist – if she would ever work as one and
do field research).
Intervention stage. At this stage, I used both behavioral and cognitive
interventions, with the aim to support her in exploring her interest areas.
a. Behavioral interventions. To explore tourism services and event
organization, Raluca researched for information on the Internet and decided who
to contact. Then, she emailed, messaged on Facebook and phoned a few
inspirational people, who ran successful businesses either in tourism or event
organizing. Then, she set up meetings with two of these people and interviewed
each of them. With their agreement, she documented these interviews audio and
in writing, both for her own benefit and as source of inspiration for other young
people.
Consistent with the secondary objective of developing communication and
networking skills, in our counseling sessions we role played telephone
conversations and interviewing. We also analyzed emails and Facebook messages
and aligned the interview questions with her exploration objectives. After each
interview, we discussed Raluca’s conclusions and how the information helps her
clarify her career options. We also analyzed audio excerpts from the interviews
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and identified both constructive and less constructive behaviors. (the client had
expressly requested this). In the more problematic situations, I firstly normalized
the situation. I discussed how some negative outcomes are caused by a particular
context and by the novelty of the situation. I pointed out that in her next
interview Raluca can influence these factors in her favor. I also provided active-
constructive feedback (Gable, 2004) and strengths-based feedback. Thus, Raluca
herself identified new strategies for more effective communication: "In this
situation, next time I would do this." This strengths-based approach proved
particularly useful. The framework had already been established when discussing
the VIA results - as mentioned before, this perspective had helped Raluca identify
the Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence, located at no. 2 in the rankings of the
VIA Character Strengths Survey, as a possible source of problems (perfectionism).
During the counseling process, by dialing down the use of this strength, Raluca
actualized an important aspect of her RIASEC profile - the Artistic ability to
improvise. Thus, the research underlying VIA Character Strengths Survey was
empirically validated in this case - using strengths in the right combination, in the
right context and in the right quantity lead the person on the path to her best
future self. "I love that here we focused on what you CAN do, not on what you
cannot", reflected Raluca regarding her freshly discovered improvisational ability.
At the same time, Raluca applied and worked temporary for an event organizing
company. She also participated in a student practicum in which she did an social
study of an isolated rural area of Romania.
b. Cognitive interventions. We discussed and dismantled various common
career myths. Those contribute to the social pressure felt by clients. Examples of
myths discussed are "once I chose a career path, I will follow it all my life", "talent
and intelligence are fixed and cannot be changed by experience" (Dweck, 2006)
"the most important thing is to earn a lot of money"," you should choose a
profession of the future", "talent is more important than self-control and
perseverance "(Ericsson, 2016; Tough, 2013) or "stereotypical jobs "- professions
known to the public: sales agent, bank worker, teacher, etc. To be able to imagine
jobs beyond those stereotypes, Raluca wrote each of her work interests on one
small paper strip. Then, she randomly extracted pairs of paper strips and imagined
for each pair a job satisfying both interests. Examples of combinations:
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at hand. This made her confident she is able to face the unexpected. Also in
concordance with her RIASEC profile, she was not satisfied with her experience in
event organizing. Although this activity corresponded to her Artistic interests, the
working environment was competitive, action-oriented and less analytic
(Entrepreneur). Therefore, her other interests (Social, Investigative) and her values
(cooperation, support) were not fulfilled. In contrast, the student practicum
offered her desired challenges – research activities (Investigative), cooperation-
based relationships (Social) and the need to be flexible and improvise in
communication –understanding and adapting to local customs etc. (Artistic).
Because Raluca interviewed people who are inspirational for her, she paid
more attention to the information they provided. Also, Raluca felt motivated,
inspired and validated in the strengths, values and interests she shared with these
people, especially those related to their passion for their work and their
perseverance. The success of those people with similar strengths, values and
interests gave her confidence that she too, can be successful. (Brown, 2013). Also,
by documenting the two interviews and working on writing the stories of each
person, she had the opportunity to interact more with the documented material.
This helped her to retain and analyze the received information and ultimately
served as a springboard in shaping her own personal career vision.
Discussion
Aiming at motivating the client and focus on her strong points, I chose to use
the VIA Character Traits Survey (Peterson, 2004). The VIA framework helped me to
discuss the fact that often, what causes us problems is excessive use or context-
inappropriate use of a strength. Secondly, in the career exploration stage, a first
effective step can be contacting and interviewing inspirational people from
professional fields the client is interested in. Successful career exploration programs,
such as the one developed by Roadtrip Nation NGO for schools, colleges and
universities in the United States, have shown that interviewing inspiring individuals
from the community is within reach for all youngsters (McAllister, 2015). The research
conducted by the Educational Improvement Policy Center in the US showed that the
Roadtrip Nation program influences youth to become more self-directed in building
their own career path (including greater engagement in academic learning).
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Adriana Georgescu1
1
Adriana Georgescu, Asociația explorerKid
Corespondența referitoare la acest articol poate fi adresată către Adriana Georgescu
(E-mail: adrigeorg@yahoo.com)
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Mitan, A. (2014). Digital Natives Coming of Age: Challenges for Managers, Volume
2 no. 2,
http://managementdynamics.ro/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/63/50
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Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy.
Houghton Mifflin.
Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive
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următoare ale lucrării vor fi prezentate fără spaţii libere. Când începe o nouă
secţiune, aceasta nu trebuie poziţionată pe o pagină nouă.
Această parte a lucrării trebuie să includă:
- Prezentarea problemei. Această secţiune prezintă problema specifică care va fi
investigată şi descrie strategia de cercetare. Această secţiune nu trebuie
etichetată ca Introducere.
- Explorarea importanţei problemei. Această secţiune prezintă motivul pentru
care problema necesită o nouă cercetare. Autorul va prezenta această
problemă în funcţie de tipul de cercetare (studiu empiric, review sistematic și
meta-analiză, lucrare metodologică sau studiu de caz).
- Descrierea literaturii relevante şi evidenţierea continuităţii logice între
cercetările anterioare şi cercetarea propusă.
- Precizarea fiecărei ipoteze formulate şi oferirea unui argument teoretic privind
modul în care a fost desprinsă din teorie sau conectată logic cu studiile
anterioare.
Metodă
Această secţiune descrie detaliat cum a fost realizat studiul, incluzând şi
definiţiile conceptuale şi operaţionale ale variabilelor utilizate în studiu. Autorul ar
trebui să includă:
- Descrierea eşantionului, prin descrierea caracteristicilor majore ale acestuia, în
special a caracteristicilor care pot conta în interpretarea rezultatelor.
- Procedura de eşantionare, prin descrierea modalității de selecţie a
participanţilor: metoda de eşantionare, procentul celor care au fost contactaţi
şi au participant la cercetare, numărul participanţilor care s-au oferit să
participe la cercetare etc.
- Mărimea eşantionului, putere şi precizie.
- Măsurătorile prin descrierea metodelor utilizate pentru a colecta datele şi a
îmbogăţi calitatea măsurătorilor.
- Designul de cercetare.
- Manipulări experimentale sau proceduri.
- Descrierea sarcinilor.
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Rezultate
Această secţiune sumarizează datele colectate şi analiza datelor realizată
pentru a testa ipotezele propuse. Autorul trebuie să raporteze analiza datelor cât
mai detaliat, astfel încât să permită justificarea concluziilor.
Discuţii
Această secţiune evaluează şi interpretează implicaţiile rezultatelor, autorii
făcând referire la ipotezele propuse. Autorul va examina, interpreta, cataloga
rezultatele şi va face inferenţe pe baza lor. Autorul va insista pe consecinţele
teoretice sau practice ale rezultatelor obţinute. De asemenea, trebuie prezentate
limitele studiului şi ale direcţiilor viitoare de cercetare.
Bibliografie
Referinţele sunt citările în ordinea alfabetică de la sfârşitul lucrării. Această
listă trebuie să includă toate lucrările citate în cadrul manuscrisului. Referinţele
trebuie scrise după următorul model:
2. Cărţi
Autor, A.A. (an). Titlul lucrării. Locaţie: Editură.
Autor, A.A. (an). Titlul lucrării. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx
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6. Sursele secundare
Când sursele originale nu sunt disponibile în format fizic, autorul trebuie să
menţioneze a doua sursă in lista bibliografică iar în text să menţioneze lucrarea
originală şi să citeze sursa secundară:
… raportul elaborat de Minnie (citat în Smith, 2011).
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