Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016: 26: 862–874
doi: 10.1111/sms.12510
Review Article
Emotional intelligence in sport and exercise: A systematic review
S. Laborde1,2, F. Dosseville2, M. S. Allen3
1
Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, Cologne, Germany, 2UFR STAPS, EA 4260, University of Caen, Caen, France,
3
School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Corresponding author: Sylvain Laborde, German Sport University, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, Institute of Psychology, 50933
Cologne, Germany. Tel: +49 221 49 82 57 01, Fax: +49 221 49 82 83 20, E-mail: sylvain.laborde@yahoo.fr
Accepted for publication 20 May 2015
This review targets emotional intelligence (EI) in sport
and physical activity. We systematically review the avail-
able literature and offer a sound theoretical integration of
differing EI perspectives (the tripartite model of EI)
before considering applied practice in the form of EI
training. Our review identified 36 studies assessing EI in
an athletic or physical activity context. EI has most often
been conceptualized as a trait. In the context of sport
performance, we found that EI relates to emotions, physi-
ological stress responses, successful psychological skill
usage, and more successful athletic performance. In the
context of physical activity, we found that trait EI relates
Emotions permeate successful sport performance (Jones,
2012; Laborde et al., 2013) and physical activity behav-
ior (Mohiyeddini et al., 2009; Wang, 2011). There is
consensus that emotions are relatively transient in nature
(Lazarus, 2000; Scherer, 2005), but theorists have also
pointed out the existence of a more stable, overarching
level that reflects emotional dispositions of the indi-
vidual (Lazarus, 2000; Laborde et al., 2013). The
concept of ‘emotional intelligence’ (EI)1 – popularized
by Goleman (1995) in the mid-1990s – has flourished in
many research domains, largely because of its potential
to influence human performance, relationships, and
well-being (Stough et al., 2009). EI refers to individual
responses to intrapersonal or interpersonal emotional
information and encompasses the identification, expres-
sion, understanding and regulation of personal or others’
emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Petrides & Furnham,
2003). Much of the work on EI has been atheoretical in
nature, but recent efforts have begun to gain a foothold
on the theoretical underpinnings of the construct,
1
We should point out that a competing term has recently been introduced
into the literature – “emotional competence” (Brasseur et al., 2013).
Some authors consider this term more consistent with the nature of the
construct given that competencies associated with EI can be taught and
learned (Kotsou et al., 2011; Nelis et al., 2011). Throughout our review,
we have retained the more well-known label of “emotional intelligence”
as the available literature in sport and exercise has relied solely on this
term to date.
862
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons A/S.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
to physical activity levels and positive attitudes toward
physical activity. There was a shortage of research into
the EI of coaches, officials, and spectators, non-adult
samples, and longitudinal and experimental methods.
The tripartite model proposes that EI operates on three
levels – knowledge, ability, and trait – and predicts an
interplay between the different levels of EI. We present
this framework as a promising alternative to trait and
ability EI conceptualizations that can guide applied
research and professional practice. Further research into
EI training, measurement validation and cultural diver-
sity is recommended.
including its unique characteristics when compared
to more established (and somewhat overlapping)
constructs.
Sport is an environment where individuals have to
motivate themselves to achieve long-term goals through
hard training. Moreover, athletes are required to consis-
tently cope with the stress of hard training and competi-
tive pressure, and this includes understanding and
regulating their emotions and those of other individuals
(e.g., teammates, opponents, coaches, referees, and spec-
tators). In the context of leisure-time physical activity,
people require high levels of motivation to continue par-
ticipation (Kodama et al., 2013) and most forms of
physical activity involve some level of interpersonal
interaction (e.g., other gymnasium attendees, fitness
instructors). In each case, behavior might be governed, at
least in part, by emotional intelligence (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997; Petrides & Furnham, 2003). There is a
growing body of evidence to suggest that EI has an
important role in sport performance (e.g., Laborde et al.,
2014a) and physical activity (e.g., Solanki & Lane,
2010), and a critical understanding of this constructs’
operationalization in these contexts is particularly
important to practicing consultants targeting the imple-
mentation of evidence-based interventions that enhance
sport performance or exercise adherence.
Our aim in this narrative is to systematically review
the current evidence base of EI in sport and physical

activity, and introduce an elaborated theoretical perspec-
tive of EI that is gaining momentum in other perfor-
mance and health related contexts – the tripartite model
of EI (Mikolajczak, 2009; Nelis et al., 2009). This theo-
retical underpinning is presented as a useful alternative
to the traditional conceptualization of EI as either a trait
or an ability, and has several practical advantages that
might be of value to consultants working in applied
settings. Our systematic review focuses broadly on the
measurement instruments currently being used by
researchers in sport and physical activity settings, the
correlates of EI for different actors (i.e., athletes,
coaches, officials, spectators) in sport, and the correlates
of EI in health-related physical activity. The scope of our
review is restricted to EI and therefore excludes overlap-
ping constructs such as emotions (McCarthy, 2011) and
emotion regulation (Friesen et al., 2012) that have been
reviewed elsewhere.
Literature review
Our systematic review targeted all empirical studies of
EI in sport and physical activity. The following inclusion
criteria were used to identify relevant articles: The study
was empirical in nature, had assessed EI in a sport or
physical activity context, and was subjected to peer
review prior to publication in an English language
journal or book. Non-peer-reviewed works such as doc-
toral dissertations and published abstracts (without a full
methods section) were excluded. The search was con-
ducted on December 1, 2014 and included different com-
binations of the following keywords: “emotional
intelligence,” “emotional competences,” “sport,” “physi-
cal activity,” and “exercise.” Four search engines were
used: SPORTDiscus; Psychology and Behavioral Sci-
ences Collection; PubMed; and Web of Science.
The search identified 227 unique results. After title
and abstract screening, 55 potential articles were
retained, and after detailed analysis of the full texts, 36
articles targeting EI in a sport or exercise context were
retained for the review. In addition, the reference lists of
all 36 articles, in addition to the references lists of all
studies that cited these articles (n = 231), were screened
for further relevant articles using the related functional-
ity option available in Scopus and Web of Science search
engines. No additional works were identified at this
stage. Table 1 lists the articles included in the review,
including their conceptualization of EI (ability or trait),
the instrument used to measure EI, and the target sample.
Of the 36 studies, 30 were targeted toward sport perfor-
mance and six were targeted toward health-related physi-
cal activity.
Conceptualization and measurement
Table 1 shows that most research (33 studies) in sport
and physical activity has conceptualized EI as a trait. In
Emotional intelligence
the three studies that conceptualized EI as an ability
(Dunn et al., 2007; Crombie et al., 2009, 2011), the
assessment measure of choice has been the Mayer-
Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT;
Mayer et al., 2002). The MSCEIT is a computer-based
assessment that targets four branch levels of EI that
reflect individual abilities to perceive, use, understand,
and manage emotions. The psychometric properties of
the MSCEIT, and derivative scales, are generally sup-
ported (see, for example, Rivers et al., 2012; Curci et al.,
2013), but others have noted some potential limitations
including difficulties in interpreting the MSCEIT’s
scoring system (Maul, 2012) and a large overlap with
other constructs including personality trait dimensions
and general intelligence (Fiori & Antonakis, 2011).
Other concerns include the usage of items that contribute
little EI information and that MSCEIT items are often
too easy to challenge individuals high in EI (Fiori et al.,
2014). In short, further validation work is needed on this
scale in athletic populations.
Contrary to ability EI, trait EI has been assessed using
self-report questionnaires. Of the 33 studies included in
our review, the most common assessments were the
Schutte EI Scale (Schutte et al., 1998; n = 12), the
Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i, Bar-On,
2004; n = 10 (long form), n = 1 (short form)), and the
trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue,
Petrides, 2009b; n = 5). Other assessments include a
modified version of the Schutte EI Scale (Austin et al.,
2004), a revised version of the Schutte EI Scale for
athletes (Lane et al., 2009), the Wong and Law EI scale
(Wong & Law, 2002), the trait meta-mood-scale
(TMMS; Salovey et al., 1995), the self-rated emotional
intelligence scale (SREIS; Brackett et al., 2006), and the
Greek emotional intelligence questionnaire (GEIS;
Tsaousis, 2008; Table 1). The variety of assessment mea-
sures is thought to reflect the conceptual and method-
ological confusion that accompanied the development of
trait EI.
Importantly, researchers have explored whether the
questionnaires used to measure trait EI can be validated
in athletic populations. Confirmatory factor analyses
have supported the factor structure of the TMMS
(Martin-Albo et al., 2010) and the TEIQue (Laborde
et al., 2014a) in sport performers. Some concerns were
raised regarding the factor structure of the Bar-on EQ-I
(Stanimirovic & Hanrahan, 2012), as well as in relation
to particular items of the Schutte EI Scale (Lane et al.,
2009), but a short version of the scale (BEIS-10) dem-
onstrated adequate fit indices in a student–athlete sample
(Davies et al., 2010). These psychometric issues have
been raised in previous narrative reviews arguing that, in
comparison to other measures (i.e., Bar-on EQ-I, Schutte
EI Scale, TMMS, Wong and Law EI Scale) the TEIQue
has the strongest theoretical foundation, a better cover-
age of the trait EI sampling domain, and is the only scale
where psychometric shortcomings are absent (Petrides,
863
Laborde et al.
Table 1. Synthesis of studies included in the review according to EI conceptualization, instrument, and target sample (n = 36)

Reference Conceptualization Instrument Target sample

Sport performance
Barlow and Banks (2014) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Costarelli and Stamou (2009) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Crombie et al. (2009) Ability MSCEIT Athletes
Crombie et al. (2011) Ability MSCEIT Athletes
Davies et al. (2010) Trait BEIS-10 Athletes
Dunn et al. (2007) Trait and Ability MSCEIT and SREIS Spectators
Filaire et al. (2011) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Filaire et al. (2012) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Hwang et al. (2013) Trait Schutte EIS (1) Coaches
Kajbafnezhad et al. (2011) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Kajbafnezhad et al. (2012) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Laborde et al. (2011) Trait TEIQue Athletes
Laborde et al. (2014c) Trait TEIQue Athletes
Laborde et al. (2015) Trait TEIQue Athletes
Laborde et al. (2014b) Trait TEIQue Athletes
Laborde et al. (2012) Trait TEIQue Athletes
Lane and Wilson (2011) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Lane et al. (2010) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Lane et al. (2009) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Lane et al. (2009) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Lu et al. (2010) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Magyar et al. (2007) Trait Wong & Law EIS Sport leaders (coaches)
Malinauskas and Vazne (2014) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Martin-Albo et al. (2010) Trait TMMS Athletes
Perlini and Halverson (2006) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Stanimirovic and Hanrahan (2012) Trait Bar-on EQ-i Athletes
Szabo and Urban (2014) Trait Wong & Law EIS Athletes
Thelwell et al. (2008) Trait Schutte EIS Coaches
Tok et al. (2013) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Zizzi et al. (2003) Trait Schutte EIS Athletes
Physical activity
Li et al. (2009) Trait Bar-on EQ-i University students
Magnini et al. (2011) Trait Schutte EIS Hotel workers
Saklofske et al. (2007) Trait Bar-on EQ-i (short) University students
Saklofske et al. (2007) Trait Schutte EIS University students
Solanki and Lane (2010) Trait Schutte EIS (2) Gymnasium attendees
Tsaousis and Nikolaou (2005) Trait GEIS Mental health institution employees

Bar-on EQ-i, Bar-On Emotional Quotient-Inventory (Bar-On, 2004); BEIS-10, Brief Emotional Intelligence Scale (Davies et al., 2010); EI, Emotional
Intelligence; GEIS, Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (Tsaousis, 2008); MSCEIT, Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer et al., 2002);
Schutte EIS, Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998); Schutte EIS (1), modified version by Austin et al. (2004); Schutte EIS (2), modified
version by Solanki and Lane (2010); SREIS, Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale (Brackett et al., 2006); TMMS, Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al.,
1995); Wong & Law EIS, Wong & Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (Wong & Law, 2002).

2009a,b). In order to develop the theoretical foundations
of trait EI, it is important to also consider the predictive
validity of the various scales. In nonathletic contexts, the
aforementioned reviews found that the TEIQue was
most strongly related to behavioral outcomes (Petrides,
2009a,b). Currently, research in sport and physical activ-
ity has not directly compared the predictive validity of
different scales. Nevertheless, the TEIQue is the only
scale that has been linked to neurophysiological param-
eters (Laborde et al., 2011; Laborde et al., 2014b;
Laborde et al., 2015) supporting the predictive validity
of the scale in this context.
We should note that a new questionnaire has
recently been developed – the profile for emotional
competences – with long (Brasseur et al., 2013) and
short (Mikolajczak et al., 2014) versions based on the
TEIQue and the four dimensions of the MSCEIT. This
instrument targets five emotional competences (emotion
identification, expression, understanding, regulation, and
use) but, as yet, has not been validated or used in a sport
or exercise context. An important direction now is for
researchers to solve the current measurement chaos
regarding the use of self-report EI scales in sport and
exercise. To date, seven different scales have been used,
using various EI conceptualizations, and this compli-
cates research syntheses targeting common findings.
Researchers should reflect carefully about the scale (and
corresponding EI conceptualization) they adopt, as this
decision will no doubt inform subsequent decisions and
current practices. Eventually, the field will achieve a
consensus regarding the most useful EI measures and
conceptualizations. The current evidence might steer
researchers toward the TEIQue (Petrides, 2009b). The
TEIQue is based on a sound theoretical foundation,

864

predicts neurophysiological outcomes (Laborde et al.,
2011, 2014b, 2015), and has demonstrated strong psy-
chometric properties in athletic (Laborde et al., 2014a)
and nonathletic (Petrides, 2009a) samples.
Sport performance
The literature search identified 30 studies that had tar-
geted EI in the context of sport performance. The target
samples included sport performers, coaches, and specta-
tors. We review each of these populations in turn.
Sport performers
Two studies compared EI between team sport athletes
and individual sport athletes and found no observable
differences (Kajbafnezhad et al., 2011; Laborde et al.,
2014a). Sex differences were also explored in three
studies (Dunn et al., 2007; Costarelli & Stamou, 2009;
Laborde et al., 2014a), two of which found that men had
higher levels of trait EI than women (Costarelli &
Stamou, 2009; Laborde et al., 2014a) – a finding that is
in line with findings in nonathletic samples (Mikolajczak
et al., 2007) – and one that found women score higher
than men on one particular dimension of ability EI –
emotion management (Dunn et al., 2007). This is also
consistent with findings on ability EI in nonathletic
samples (e.g., Extremera et al., 2006). In regard to study
objectives, the most common outcomes explored were
athletic performance, emotions, physiological stress
responses, and psychological skill usage.
Athletic performance
The relationship between EI and athletic performance
was explored in six studies using various assessments of
performance. Overall, the research demonstrates that
athletes scoring higher on EI tests are more successful. A
longitudinal study of 104 cricketers from six national
level teams found that average team ability EI scores
were related to objective team performance parameters
(Crombie et al., 2009). Cross-sectional studies of 61 bas-
ketball athletes (Zizzi et al., 2003) and 79 ice hockey
athletes (Perlini & Halverson, 2006) also found that trait
EI related to season-long objective performance scores.
In addition to objective performance parameters,
researchers have also targeted the processes through
which EI might contribute to athletic success. Using
structural equation models, it was found that EI relates to
athletic performance through the variance shared with
competition stress and coping appraisals (Laborde et al.,
2014a). The authors speculate that high EI athletes might
perform better because they appraise competitions as a
challenge and use more effective coping strategies in
response to competition stress. Interestingly, the study
also found that trait EI did not differ between athletes at
different levels of sporting expertise (Laborde et al.,
Emotional intelligence
2014a). That athletes’ competing at a high performance
level record similar trait EI to those competing at a low
performance level is intriguing given the connections
found between EI and sport performance. Longitudinal
investigations are required to explore more directly the
connection between trait EI and long-term (career)
success.
For short-term performance, new studies have tar-
geted the assessment of trait EI as it relates to athletic
movement parameters. In one study, it was found that
EI relates to athletic success through psychological and
neuropsychological processes (linked to emotion regu-
lation) rather than through changes in movement
responses (Laborde et al., 2014b). In this investigation,
the authors found that trait EI was related to anxiety
and cortisol responses but was unrelated to tennis serve
performance. A somewhat contradictory finding did
however emerge in an investigation of athlete EI and
muscular performance under stress (Tok et al., 2013). It
was found that trait EI was related to isometric
maximal voluntary contractions, both in the presence
and absence of a mental stressor. Currently, there is a
limited conceptual foundation for associations between
trait EI and movement parameters, but new develop-
ments in personality trait theory have offered evolu-
tionary (Lukaszewski & Roney, 2011) and cognitive
(Stahl & Rammsayer, 2008; Houlihan & Stelmack,
2011) explanations for observed connections between
personality traits and biomechanical variables. More
research is needed to ascertain whether EI is related
to athlete strength and movement variations under
pressure.
Emotions
Three studies have targeted EI as it relates to competition
day emotions (Lane et al., 2010; Lu et al., 2010; Lane &
Wilson, 2011). In an investigation of ultra-endurance
runners, it was found that those recording greater EI
reported more pleasant (and fewer unpleasant) emotions
during a six-stage endurance event (Lane & Wilson,
2011). Similarly, an investigation of Taiwanese track and
field athletes found that high EI related to a lower
reported intensity of anxiety (an unpleasant emotion)
before a competition (Lu et al., 2010). Importantly, EI
has been found to relate to competition day emotions
irrespective of competition outcome (Lane et al., 2010).
In this investigation, student athletes completed a
measure of EI and reported the emotions they had expe-
rienced prior to a good and bad athletic encounter. In
both conditions, it was found that a high EI score related
to a greater occurrence of pleasant emotions. Taken
together, the findings of these studies provide some
initial evidence that EI has an important connection
to the emotions athletes experience on the day of
competition.
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Laborde et al.
Physiological stress response initial findings indicate that athletes with a high EI
engage in more adaptive behaviors during and outside
In addition to athlete emotions, EI has also been
competitive situations.
explored in relation to athlete neurophysiological
responses to stress. Two major neuroendocrine
systems have been shown to adapt the organism to Individual functioning
stressful encounters: (a) the hypothalamus-pituitary-
In addition to competition day outcomes, researchers
adrenocortical-axis (with cortisol secretion as a
have targeted outcomes of EI that relate to individual
biomarker); and (b) the autonomic nervous system,
functioning. One such outcome is eating behavior. In
divided into two branches: the parasympathetic nervous
many sports where weight is a criterion (either for per-
system (with heart rate variability as a biomarker) and
formance or for inclusion into a weight category), the
the sympathetic nervous system (Charmandari et al.,
emergence of athlete eating disorders can be common
2005). Both cortisol (Lautenbach et al., 2014) and heart
(Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). Investigations
rate variability (Laborde & Raab, 2013; Laborde et al.,
outside of athletic samples have found that EI can protect
2014c) are important for sport performance and three
against several negative health outcomes (Schutte et al.,
studies have explored trait EI as it relates these
2007; Martins et al., 2010) and two studies included in
biomarkers. The first – an investigation of 30 male hand-
our review found that athletes with disordered eating
ball athletes measured heart rate variability before and
attitudes had lower trait EI (Filaire et al., 2011, 2012).
after a stress exposure (Laborde et al., 2011) – found that
However, an investigation of 20 national and interna-
athletes low in trait EI recorded a lower heart rate vari-
tional taekwondo and judo athletes did not support an
ability post-manipulation than those high in trait EI. The
association between trait EI and disordered eating atti-
authors concluded that high EI can benefit athletes
tudes, but did find that a higher trait EI related to a
through a protective role against stress. In the second, the
healthier body image (Costarelli & Stamou, 2009).
relationship between trait EI and heart rate variability
A second (noncompetitive) outcome that might relate
was investigated before and during a visual search task
to EI is athlete academic performance. In most sporting
(Laborde et al., 2015). The study found that trait EI
nations, the athletic career is embedded through educa-
(well-being factor) was positively related to baseline
tion and requires athletes to successfully manage their
HRV, while trait EI (emotionality factor) was positively
academic qualifications in order to improve their career
related to task HRV, indicating a protective role of trait
prospects. Our review did not identify any studies that
EI in resting and acute stress phases. In the third inves-
had targeted academic performance in sport performers,
tigation, 28 tennis players performed a series of tennis
but two studies from a physical education context did
serves before and after a stress manipulation (Laborde
explore EI and academic performance. The first – an
et al., 2014b). It was found that those with a low EI
investigation of 219 sport science students – found that
recorded a greater cortisol response to the stressor. Taken
trait EI was positively related to exam performance
together, these studies indicate that EI has an important
(Laborde et al., 2010). The second, however – an inves-
role in athlete physiological stress responses.
tigation of 295 fourth grade physical education teacher
candidates – found that trait EI was unrelated to student
Psychological skills
grade point average (Tok & Morali, 2009). This is a
We identified three studies that had explored EI as it surprising finding given the general body of literature
relates to psychological skill usage (Lane et al., 2009; that has found that a positive association between trait EI
Kajbafnezhad et al., 2012; Laborde et al., 2012). In each and academic success (e.g., Petrides et al., 2004;
case, a higher trait EI was found to relate to a more Sanchez-Ruiz et al., 2013). Studies targeting elite youth
frequent use of psychological skills. In one study, high athletes are needed that explore EI as it relates to athlete
trait EI was related to a greater use of task-oriented capabilities to successfully balance academic and ath-
coping strategies (Laborde et al., 2012) and task- letic commitments.
oriented coping is often identified as the most effective
coping style for successful athletic performance
(Nicholls & Polman, 2007). Further, a greater athletic Coaches
success motivation (the ability to motivate oneself effi- EI is important not only for effective athlete functioning
ciently toward sport achievement) has been found to but also for effective leadership and function of athlete
relate to a higher trait EI (Kajbafnezhad et al., 2012). A coaches. In order to help their athletes achieve optimal
more direct investigation of psychological skill usage performance, and in order to foster adaptive coach–
among athletes found that higher scores on components athlete relationships, a coach requires effective leader-
of trait EI were related to a more frequent use of self- ship skills and these are contingent on understanding and
talk, imagery, emotional control, goal setting, activation, adapting to the emotional needs of the athlete (Chan &
and relaxation techniques in practice and competition Mallett, 2011). In particular, empathy and emotional
(Lane et al., 2009). More research is required, but these contagion are considered particularly important in

866

coaching (O’Neil, 2011). The emotional climate feeds
into the relationship between coaches and athletes
(teams), and creating a positive and challenging
emotional climate is an important part of developing
successful coach–athlete relationships (O’Neil, 2011). A
reasonable hypothesis therefore is that a high EI contrib-
utes to effective coaching behavior (leadership style) and
successful coach–athlete relationships.
Our review identified three studies that had explored
EI in coaches. In one investigation of 37 youth sport
leaders, those recording higher trait EI were more con-
fident in their leadership capabilities (Magyar et al.,
2007). Two further studies explored more directly per-
ceptions of coaching capabilities or “coaching efficacy”
– defined as “the extent to which coaches believe they
have the capacity to affect the learning and performance
of their athletes” (Feltz et al., 1999, p. 765). A study of
99 coaches from various sports found that coaching effi-
cacy was higher in coaches with high levels of trait EI
(Thelwell et al., 2008). This finding was replicated in a
cross-sectional study of 323 head coaches of high school
basketball teams (Hwang et al., 2013). Moreover, coach-
ing efficacy was found to mediate a positive association
between trait EI and leadership style. This association
was such that coaches scoring highly on EI were more
confident in their capabilities to coach effectively and
reported a more effective leadership style (e.g., social
support, positive feedback). These findings suggest that
EI is important for effective coaching but we were
unable to identify any research that had explored the EI
in coach–athlete relationships.
Officials and spectators
Our systematic review also targeted the identification of
studies exploring EI in spectators and officials (umpires,
judges, or referees). No research was identified that had
assessed EI in sports officials. This is rather surprising
given the important communication and interpersonal
skills required by officials in many sports (Myers et al.,
2012) and the expectations of athletes regarding effec-
tive officiating behavior (Dosseville et al., 2014). EI
might be expected to have a role in effective officiating
behavior and the athletic climate in general. EI relates to
the regulation of personal and others’ emotions meaning
that officials better connected to these emotion processes
might be better able to foster improved relationships
with others (e.g., athletes, coaches) and in turn contrib-
ute to a more positive athletic climate (e.g., a reduction
in tension, aggression, and interpersonal conflict;
Bar-Eli et al., 1995). This could have repercussions for
several health (Goldsmith, 1993) and behavior (Rainey,
1995) outcomes of officials and athletes.
Spectators invest considerable time, money, and
resources supporting athletic events (Wann et al., 2001).
Moreover, sport spectators identify highly with their
teams (Dimmock et al., 2005) and attending a sport
Emotional intelligence
event can evoke a full range of pleasant and unpleasant
emotions (Jones et al., 2012). Our review identified one
study that had assessed EI in sport spectators (Dunn
et al., 2007). In this experiment, 38 undergraduate stu-
dents were asked to watch a basketball game and to
predict their own affective responses regarding the
outcome of the event. It was found that participants with
higher EI were able to forecast their emotions in
response to the event more accurately – an effect that
was unconditioned by team identification. Currently,
research has not explored the contribution of EI to posi-
tive (e.g., enjoyment, decisions to return) or negative
(e.g., stress, aggression) spectator responses. Research
inquiry into these connections is essential given the
pathophysiological responses observed in sport specta-
tors (Carroll et al., 2002; Wilbert-Lampen et al., 2008)
and the implications this has for health and well-being
(see Steptoe & Brydon, 2009; Schwartz et al., 2012).
Physical activity
An active lifestyle has considerable benefits for health
and well-being. Studies have shown that physical activity
across the lifespan is associated with a lower incidence
of chronic conditions (Lee et al., 2012) and all-cause
mortality (Kodama et al., 2013), a lower incidence of
depressive symptoms (Cooney et al., 2014), improve-
ments in several cognitive functions (Diamond & Lee,
2011), and greater self-esteem (Biddle & Asare, 2011).
It is therefore unsurprising that researchers are targeting
the identification of factors associated with physical inac-
tivity. There is now good evidence that personality traits
are related to physical activity across the life span
(Rhodes & Smith, 2006; Allen & Laborde, 2014) but less
is known about the role of EI. Trait and ability EI have
been found to correlate with measures of psychosomatic,
mental, and physical health (Schutte et al., 2007; Martins
et al., 2010) – with a larger effect found for trait EI – and
based on these health outcomes, we can predict that EI
will have a positive association with physical activity.
Our review identified six studies that had assessed EI in
the context of physical activity (Table 1).
In short, the studies found that higher trait EI was
related to higher levels of physical activity and positive
attitudes toward physical activity. In a sample of 315
gymnasium attendees, those with a higher trait EI had
more positive beliefs in the effectiveness of using exer-
cise as a mood-regulating strategy (Solanki & Lane,
2010). In another cross-sectional study of 497 under-
graduate students, positive exercise attitudes were not
found to correlate with trait EI, but trait EI was positively
related to exercise behavior (Saklofske et al., 2007) – a
finding that was replicated in an independent sample of
364 undergraduate students (Saklofske et al., 2007). Two
further studies of 212 employees from a mental health
institution (Tsaousis & Nikolaou, 2005) and 210 South
Korean hotel workers (Magnini et al., 2011) found that
867
Laborde et al.
exercise frequency correlated positively with trait EI. In
a cross-sectional study of 599 Taiwan university stu-
dents, students were assessed on a number of physical
activity parameters (e.g., muscular endurance, cardio-
vascular function) and were categorized as belonging to
one of three groups: (a) recommended levels of physical
activity, (b) insufficient levels of physical activity, and
(c) inactive (Li et al., 2009). It was found that those
recording recommended physical activity levels had
higher trait EI scores than those with insufficient physi-
cal activity levels, and those with insufficient physical
activity levels had higher trait EI scores than those that
were inactive.
Taken together, these studies demonstrate that physi-
cal activity has a positive association with trait EI. One
potential limitation of the available literature is the cross-
sectional nature of the data collected meaning that cause
and effect cannot be inferred. In most instances,
researchers have proposed that a higher trait EI leads to
people being more physically active. However, it is also
possible that regular physical activity contributes to
changes in EI. Indeed, longitudinal research has demon-
strated that physical activity levels contribute to person-
ality trait development (Stephan et al., 2014), suggesting
that EI, even at the trait level, might be modifiable
through continued participation in physical activity.
Therefore, an important direction for future EI research
is to establish causality using longitudinal and/or experi-
mental methods. We now turn away from our systematic
review to consider theoretical developments in EI and
how these developments can inform research inquiry and
guide applied practice.
The tripartite model
EI theory originated with two distinct EI conceptualiza-
tions: that of EI as a (learned) ability and that of EI as a
cardinal trait (Stough et al., 2009). EI conceptualized as
an ability considers that EI varies from situation to
situation and is trainable (Salovey & Mayer, 1990;
Matthews et al., 2007). EI conceptualized as a trait con-
siders that EI is relatively stable over time and across
situations and is situated at the lower level of personality
hierarchies (Petrides, 2009a). Moreover, EI ability rep-
resents maximal performance whereas trait EI represents
typical performance. For a long time, the ability and trait
EI conceptualizations have been quite systematically
opposed and researchers have debated the best approach
to conceptualizing and measuring EI in sport and physi-
cal activity contexts. Some consider that only ability EI
is relevant given the practical advantages of EI training
(Meyer & Fletcher, 2007). This idea, however, is incon-
gruent with a body of literature that has outlined many
practical advantages of researching and understanding
cardinal traits in sport and physical activity (Allen et al.,
2013; Laborde et al., 2013). Rather than entering the
rather sterile debate regarding which perspective is best,
868
we hope to reconcile these perspectives by introducing
the tripartite model of EI (Mikolajczak, 2009; Nelis
et al., 2009) that might offer a more suitable approach to
conceptualizing and measuring EI in sport and physical
activity.
The tripartite model postulates three levels of EI orga-
nization (Mikolajczak, 2009; Nelis et al., 2009). At the
first level of the model is knowledge – what people know
about emotions. For example, an athlete that is feeling
anxious might be aware that cognitive reappraisal tech-
niques can be used to evaluate the situation as a chal-
lenge. At the second level of the model is ability – the
degree to which people are capable of performing a
particular emotion regulation strategy. For example,
after several unsuccessful attempts to integrate cognitive
reappraisal into their competition day routine, an athlete
might begin to use particular cues (such as body lan-
guage) to implement the technique when it is most
required. At the third level of the model is trait – what
people usually do during emotional situations. To con-
tinue our example, even if an athlete has become profi-
cient in several emotion regulation techniques, they
might infrequently implement the technique when
required. In this instance, an athlete might know that
using a challenge reappraisal technique before a compe-
tition would help them (knowledge level) and can
perform the technique efficiently (ability level), but does
not often incorporate the technique (trait level). In this
example, we can see that the three levels are loosely
connected and an understanding of all three would
be most useful for the practicing sport psychology
consultant.
The tripartite model might offer a practical alternative
framework in which to contextualize EI. Using this
model can help bring together findings at the trait and
ability levels. From a research perspective, the distinc-
tion between maximal (ability EI) and typical (trait EI)
performance could help achieve more precise predic-
tions regarding the contribution of EI to sport perfor-
mance and leisure-time physical activity. For example,
we might predict that ability EI has a greater contribution
to sport performance in a single competition given that
short-term success is related to maximal performance.
We might then also predict that trait EI has a greater
contribution to factors related to chronic sport perfor-
mance (e.g., performance over a whole season). Given
that success requires managing both peak (e.g., major
competitions) and sustained (e.g., season-long training)
events, both components of EI can be considered critical
for success. In terms of exercise adherence, the tripartite
model would predict a greater role for trait EI (in com-
parison with ability EI) given that physical activity is
generally measured over a sustained period of time.
We recommend that researchers incorporate ability
and trait measures into their investigations of EI and, in
addition to validating current available measures of trait
and ability EI, scale developers might consider the

development of EI measures that target all three levels of
the tripartite model. By integrating the three levels of EI
in research designs – associating knowledge tests,
maximal performance tests, and self-report tests –
researchers are provided a more rounded appreciation of
the role of EI in sport performance and leisure-time
physical activity. A diverse focus also allows researchers
to identify the best approaches to intervention and can
assist theorists in understanding how the different levels
of EI might feed into one another. This information is
valuable because it offers information on the best
approaches to effectively transfer knowledge into
maximal performance (ability EI), and then maximal
performance into typical performance (trait EI). These
questions are critical to sport-related competition and to
leisure-time physical activity adherence.
The tripartite model offers alternative possibilities for
EI training. For example, a practical recommendation
might be to target EI knowledge before beginning an EI
training intervention that aims to develop EI ability. The
goal here is to increase maximal performance, for
example, by introducing pressure-laden environments at
practice sessions in an attempt to transfer maximal per-
formance into typical performance. This can help ensure
that the behavior trained and achieved in practice ses-
sions can be utilized when most needed – during com-
petitions. We now consider in a little more detail the
practical advantages of EI theory and research, and the
possibility of EI training.
Emotional intelligence training
Our systematic review shows that it is beneficial for
athletes and exercisers to have a high EI. Therefore, an
important question is whether EI can be trained. To date,
two studies have explored EI training in sport (Crombie
et al., 2011; Barlow & Banks, 2014) and no studies have
explored EI training in physical activity.
In the first study, 24 cricketers were randomly
assigned to either a control or experimental group and
ability EI was measured before and after the intervention
(Crombie et al., 2011). The experimental group received
10 3-h EI training sessions that targeted the four
branches of Mayer and Salovey’s EI model – namely
emotion perception, facilitation, understanding, and
managing. The control group did not receive any form of
EI training. The investigation found that EI training was
associated with greater increases in ability EI than a
control condition. In the second study, 20 netballers were
randomly assigned to either a control or experimental
group (Barlow & Banks, 2014). Those assigned to the
experimental group completed a measure of trait EI and
subsequently took part in a 30-min one-to-one coaching
session that consisted of feedback and discussion of EI
scores. The control group did not complete a measure of
trait EI and did not take part in any formal intervention.
Both groups completed measures of anxiety, self-
Emotional intelligence
efficacy, and team identification before and after the
intervention. The study found that those assigned to the
experimental group had greater increases in self-efficacy
and greater decreases in anxiety than those assigned to
the control condition. These findings suggest that devel-
oping knowledge of trait EI (i.e. the knowledge level of
the tripartite model) might be an effective method of
developing positive psychological states in athletes.
The conclusions that can be drawn from two (rather
different) experiments are limited, but they provide some
initial evidence that ability EI might be modifiable
through training and that an understanding of trait EI
might also be of value to applied practitioners. However,
more research is needed into the short-term and long-
term consequences of EI training. The theoretical
advancement brought by the tripartite model makes it
possible to envisage long-term changes in EI through
interventions that target all three levels of the model
(Nelis et al., 2009, 2011; Kotsou et al., 2011) and we
recommend future applied studies to take steps toward
designing interventions that target knowledge, ability,
and trait components in sport and physical activity. In
addition, multimodal interventions that target multiple
psychological skills have been particularly successful in
developing sport performance (e.g., Barker & Jones,
2006) and interventions that incorporate EI training with
other more established psychological training techniques
are to be encouraged. For example, the integration of EI
training with the training of coping skills (Devonport &
Lane, 2009, 2014) and emotion regulation (Wagstaff
et al., 2013) might be particularly successful in this
regard (Lane et al., 2012).
Research progression
EI training holds much promise for improving the emo-
tional experience of athletes, coaches, officials, specta-
tors, and regular exercisers. However, more research is
required if sound empirically guided interventions are to
be developed. There are a number of directions EI
research can take – some of which we have already
discussed – but we believe sport and physical activity
would benefit from research into three areas in particu-
lar: (a) an understanding of the association of EI and
executive functions, (b) an understanding of cultural dif-
ferences in EI and implications for EI training, and (c) an
understanding of the role of EI in conscious and uncon-
scious emotional processes.
It has been proposed that EI is not a component of
traditional measures of general intelligence, either for
ability EI (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Curci et al., 2013) or
trait EI (Mavroveli et al., 2009). However, a number of
recent studies have shown meaningful correlations
between EI and general intelligence measures
(Aminabadi et al., 2011; Fox et al., 2011; Copestake
et al., 2013; Iliescu et al., 2013). This suggests that EI
might be connected to specific cognitive abilities such as
869
Laborde et al.
learning, memory, reasoning, problem solving, and deci-
sion making. Further, several executive functions are
known to play an important role in stress reactivity and
stress recovery (Williams et al., 2009). Given the role of
EI in stress and emotion regulation (Laborde et al., 2011,
2014b), we can speculate that EI might relate to stress
and emotion regulation through specific executive func-
tions. Consideration of the interrelationships between
these variables might help us understand how EI devel-
ops and why some people perform poorly on cognitive
tasks. In addition, given the role of cognitive functions in
athletic behavior and sport performance (Furley &
Memmert, 2010; Laborde et al., 2013, 2014c; Laborde &
Raab, 2013;) research into this area can inform theoreti-
cal development and guide applied practice.
EI is a western concept. It therefore remains to be
clarified whether EI has a similar level of importance in
non-western countries where emotional rules can differ
(e.g., Miyamoto & Ma, 2011). Some initial research in
sport has explored trait EI in Chinese and French table
tennis players and observed similar functioning of EI
across these two nations (Laborde et al., 2012). In par-
ticular, the study found that in both cultures a higher
trait EI was associated with a greater use of task-
oriented coping. We encourage researchers to further
explore cultural differences in sport and physical activ-
ity. At the theoretical level, such research can help
clarify the nature of emotional intelligence, its anteced-
ents and consequences, as a universal or cultural phe-
nomenon. Methodologically, it is important to ensure
that the scales used to assess EI in western samples are
valid and reliable in non-western samples. At the
applied level, an understanding of cultural differences
can inform professional practice in terms of guiding
practitioners in selecting the intervention techniques
most likely to be effective in particular populations. This
is becoming more important given the increasing
number of overseas athletes competing in top-level sport
(Schinke & Moore, 2011).
We also recommend that future EI research address
the question of emotional processes being conscious and
unconscious (Feldman-Barrett et al., 2005). Current
theorizations of EI imply that individuals are fully aware
of their emotional reactions, and can consciously control
their emotional responses. However, there is evidence
that much emotion processing is largely unconscious
(see, for example, Feldman-Barrett et al., 2005).
Researchers might investigate whether individuals high
in (knowledge, ability, trait) EI rely more on conscious
or unconscious emotional processes through the use of
implicit or explicit association tests (see, for example,
Egloff, Schwerdtfeger, & Schmukle, 2005). Finally, this
notion of conscious and unconscious emotion processing
might also extend to automaticity – the tendency to com-
plete actions without conscious thought. There is a posi-
tive relationship between coping effectiveness and
coping automaticity in athletes (Nicholls et al., 2009).
870
In this manuscript, we have systematically reviewed
the available literature on EI in sport and physical activ-
ity and proposed a sound theoretical integration of dif-
fering EI perspectives (the tripartite model of EI) that
might be valuable for theoretical advancement and
applied practice. Our review identified 35 studies that
had assessed EI in an athletic or physical activity
context. To date, most research has conceptualized EI as
a trait and EI assessment measures have varied consid-
erably across studies. The correlates of EI in sport
settings are frequently explored and consistent findings
are that EI relates to emotions, physiological stress
responses, successful psychological skill usage, and
more successful athletic performance. Studies have also
found that trait EI is positively related to physical activ-
ity levels. Currently, there is a shortage of research into
the EI of coaches, officials and spectators, non-adult
samples, and longitudinal and experimental studies.
One of the main goals of this review was to outline
possibilities for the progression of the field with a par-
ticular focus on adopting a new conceptual foundation
for the assessment of EI in sport and physical activity.
The tripartite model (Mikolajczak, 2009; Nelis et al.,
2009) integrates ability and trait perspectives on EI and
offers a theoretical model that predicts an interplay
between different levels of EI. We believe this frame-
work can not only contribute to the development of psy-
chological theory but can guide practitioners in their use
of EI perspectives in applied research and professional
practice. In order to draw reasonable conclusions from
applied research, it is important that the measures used to
assess EI are valid and reliable. Validation efforts of
commonly used questionnaire measures are ongoing,
and researchers need to think critically about the scales
that best align with their theoretical foundations and
target outcomes. From a trait EI perspective, researchers
might consider adopting the TEIQue (Petrides, 2009b)
given that the factor structure has been supported in an
athletic sample (Laborde et al., 2014a) and the scale can
predict outcomes at the neurophysiological level
(Laborde et al., 2011, 2014b, 2015).
Perspectives
The two studies available that have explored EI training
provide some promising findings regarding the potential
usefulness of both trait and ability EI assessments in
sport. As more research accumulates, the use of EI
instruments among practicing sport psychologists may
become more commonplace, particularly if further
research confirms initial findings (Barlow & Banks,
2014) that general feedback on EI scores can have psy-
chological benefits for athletes. Currently, the use of EI
training in the development of physical activity remains
untested but research inquiry into this possibility would
be particularly valuable to health professionals targeting
the promotion of physical activity and healthy living

across the life span. In short, our review has highlighted
a number of important findings from the empirical
studies conducted to date, but further theoretical and
measurement progression is required in addition to a
wider consideration of EI among alternative actors (e.g.,
coaches, officials, managers), populations, and cultures.
Emotional intelligence
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Performance Group of the Institute of
Psychology of the German Sport University in Cologne for their
support and their helpful comments during the realization of this
review.

Key words: Emotional intelligence, emotional compe-

tence, emotional regulation, emotional skills, coping,
stress.

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