Elementary surveying

Done by: Haroon Civil-Eng

Chapter 6

SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR MAKING

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many different methods.

These include:-
(1) Pacing,
(2) Odometer readings,
(3) Optical rangefinders,
(4) Tacheometry (stadia),
(5) Tubtense bars,
(6) Taping,
(7) Electronic distance measurement (EDM),
(8) Satellite systems, and others.

PACING

Distances obtained by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in

surveying, engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry, and military field
sketching. Pacing is also used to detect blunders that may occur in making
distance observations by more accurate methods.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required
distance. The length of an individual’s pace must be determined first. This is
best done by walking with natural steps back and forth over a level course at
least 300 ft long, and dividing the known distance by the average number of
steps. For short distances, the length of each pace is needed, but the number of
steps taken per 100 ft is desirable for checking long lines. It is possible to
adjust one’s pace to an even 3 ft, but a person of average height finds such a
step tiring if maintained for very long. The length of an individual’s pace
varies when going uphill or downhill and changes with age. For long distances,
a pocket instrument called a pedometer can be carried to register the number of
paces, or a passometer attached to the body or leg counts the steps.
Some surveyors prefer to count strides, a stride being two paces.
Pacing is one of the most valuable things learned in surveying, since it has
practical applications for everybody and requires no equipment. If the terrain is
open and reasonably level, experienced pacers can measure distances of 100 ft
or longer with an accuracy of 1/50 to 1/100 of the distance.
 Elementary surveying
Done by: Haroon Civil-Eng
Chapter 6
OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS

These instruments operate on the same principle as rangefinders on

single-lens reflex cameras. Basically, when focused, they solve for the
object distance f2 in Equation (4.12), where focal length f and image
distance f1 are known. An operator looks through the lens and adjusts
the focus until a distant object viewed is focused in coincidence,
whereupon the distance to that object is obtained. These instruments
are capable of accuracies of 1 part in 50 at distances up to 150 ft, but
accuracy diminishes as the length increases. They are suitable for
reconnaissance, sketching, or checking more accurate observations for
mistakes.

TAPING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

 Elementary surveying
Done by: Haroon Civil-Eng
Chapter 6

Over the years, various types of tapes and other related equipment
have been used for taping in the United States. Tapes in current use are
described here, as are other accessories used in taping.

Surveyor’s and engineer’s tapes are made of steel 1/4 to 3/8 in. wide
and weigh 2 to 3 lbs/100 ft. Those graduated in feet are most commonly
100 ft long, although they are also available in lengths of 200, 300, and
500 ft. They are marked in feet, tenths and hundredths. Metric tapes
have standard lengths of 30, 60, 100, and
150 m. All can either be wound on a reel [see Figure 6.1(a)] or done up
in loops.
Invar tapes are made of a special nickel-steel alloy (35% nickel and 65% steel)
to reduce length variations caused by differences in temperature .The thermal
coefficient of expansion and contraction of this material is only about 1/30 to
1/60 that of an ordinary steel tape. However, the metal is soft and somewhat
unstable.
This weakness, along with the cost perhaps ten times that of steel tapes,
made them suitable only for precise geodetic work and as a standard for
comparison with working tapes. Another version, the Lovar tape, has
properties and a cost between those of steel and Invar tapes.
Cloth (or metallic) tapes are actually made of high-grade linen, 5/8 in.
widewith fine copper wires running lengthwise to give additional strength and
prevent excessive elongation. Metallic tapes commonly used are 50, 100, and
200 ft long and come on enclosed reels [see Figure 6.1(b)]. Although not
suitable for precise work, metallic tapes are convenient and practical for
many purposes.

HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS ON SLOPING GROUND

 Elementary surveying
Done by: Haroon Civil-Eng
Chapter 6
In taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice to hold the
tape horizontally and use a plumb bob at one or perhaps both ends. It is
difficult to keep the plumb line steady for heights above the chest. Wind
exaggerates this problem and may make accurate work impossible.
On steeper slopes, where a 100-ft length cannot be held horizontally
without plumbing from above shoulder level, shorter distances are
measured and accumulated to total a full tape length. This procedure,
called breaking tape, is illustrated in Figure 6.3. As an example of this
operation, assume that when taping down slope, the 100-ft end of the
tape is held at the rear point, and the forward
tapeperson can advance only 30 ft without being forced to plumb from
above the chest. A pin is therefore set beneath the 70-ft mark, as in
Figure 6.4.
The rear tapeperson moves ahead to this pin and holds the 70-ft
graduation there while another pin is set at, say, the 25-ft mark. Then,
with the 25-ft graduation over the second pin, the full 100-ft distance is
marked at the zero point. In this way, the partial tape lengths are added
mechanically to make a full 100 ft by holding the proper graduations,
and no mental arithmetic is required. The rear
tapeperson returns the pins set at the intermediate points to the
forward tapeperson to keep the tally clear on the number of full tape
lengths established

SLOPE MEASUREMENTS
 Elementary surveying
Done by: Haroon Civil-Eng
Chapter 6

In measuring the distance between two points on a steep slope, rather than
break tape every few feet, it may be desirable to tape along the slope and
compute the horizontal component. This requires measurement also of either
the altitude angle or the difference in elevation d (Figure 6.5). Breaking tape is
more time consuming and generally less accurate due to the accumulation of
random errors from marking tape ends and keeping the tape level and aligned
for many short sections.
In Figure 6.5, if altitude angle is determined, the horizontal distance between
points A and B can be computed from the relation
(6.1a) where H is the horizontal distance between points, L the slope length
separating them, and the altitude angle from horizontal, usually obtained
with an Abney hand level and clinometer (hand device for measuring angles
of inclination). If the difference in elevation d between the ends of the tape is
measured, which is done by leveling (see Chapter 5), the horizontal distance
can be computed using the following expression derived from the
Pythagorean theorem:
H = 2L2 - d2