Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Regional Office VIII – Eastern Visayas
Schools Division of Tacloban City
District Learning Center IV
LEYTE NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL - SHS
Tacloban City

ENERGY TRANSFER

Term Paper
Presented to: Mr. Valente O. Tayanes

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the subject General Biology I

By:

Bautista, Christine Mae B.

Buena, Justine Paul N.
Cuevas, Neilmark B.
Lamsin, Estelle Nerie R.
Mawili, Dolly Anne A.
Mil, Ferdinand Jr. M.
Narez, Mario Jr. J.
Nicolas, Jullian Paul N.
Pedrosa, Karlos Drake C.
Trinidad, Geryck A.

Group I
Grade XI - Santol
S.Y. 2019 – 2020

March 2020
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………. 3

Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………………….... 4

Electrons and Energy ………………………………………………………………. 6

Adenosine Triphosphate ……………………………………………………………. 8

ATP Synthase ………………………………………………………………………. 10

Hydrogen Ion Pump ………………………………………………………………... 12

Oxidation and Reduction Process …………………………………………………. 14

References …………………………………………………………………………... 17

2
 INTRODUCTION

Energy is the ability to do work, as defined by science, and has many forms, such as

kinetic and potential energy [CITATION Hel18 \l 13321 ]. It cannot be created or destroyed and is

only conserved. Energy is required by organisms to perform heavy tasks. Virtually, every task

performed by organisms require energy to be done, where nutrients and other molecules are

imported to the cell to meet such energy demands [CITATION Fis19 \l 13321 ].

The human body carries out its main functions by consuming food and turning it into

usable energy, which is supplied to the body in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

[ CITATION Kha12 \l 13321 ]. Since ATP is the primary source of energy for every body function

and processes, other stored energy is utilized to replenish ATP, which exists in the body in only

small amounts so it is necessary to have sufficient energy stores for backup. Cells of every

organism constantly utilize energy to perform its functions and processes. Scientists coin the

term bioenergetics to discuss the concept of energy flow through living systems, such as cells.

Bioenergetics is the branch of biochemistry that focuses on how cells transform energy, often by

producing, storing or consuming adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [ CITATION Bio \l 13321 ].

Bioenergetic processes, such as cellular respiration or photosynthesis, are essential to most

aspects of cellular metabolism, therefore to life itself. These processes occur through stepwise

chemical reactions, where some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous in releasing energy

while others require energy to proceed. Just as organisms must continually consume food to

replenish what has been utilized by the body, cells must continue to produce more energy to

replenish what is used by the many energy-requiring chemical reactions that constantly take

place. Energy production within cells involve many coordinated chemical pathways, where most

of these pathways are combinations of oxidation and reduction reactions, which usually occur in

a tandem, therefore being called redox reactions [CITATION Avi16 \l 13321 ].

This term paper will explain the function of electrons and electron carriers in the transfer

of energy in living systems; discuss the structures of adenosine triphosphate (ATP); explains

how energy is stored or produced during ATP synthesis or breakdown; and explains how ATP is

utilized by the cell as an energy source.

3
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Adenosine Triphosphate – is the primary energy carrier in all living organisms on earth

[ CITATION Don16 \l 13321 ]. Microorganisms capture and store energy metabolized from food

and light sources in the form of ATP.

ATP Synthase - ATP synthase is an enzyme that directly generates adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) during the process of cellular respiration [ CITATION ATP \l 13321 ] ATP is the main

energy molecule used in cells. ATP synthase forms ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and

an inorganic phosphate (Pi) through oxidative phosphorylation, which is a process in which

enzymes oxidize nutrients to form ATP. ATP synthase is found in all lifeforms and powers all

cellular activities.

Bioenergetics - the biology of energy transformations and energy exchanges within and

between living things and their environments [ CITATION Mer \l 13321 ]

Cell – in biology, is the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental molecules of

life and of which all living things are composed [ CITATION Alb20 \l 13321 ]

Cellular Respiration – Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose

and produces ATP [CITATION Ste \l 13321 ] The stages of cellular respiration include glycolysis,

pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid or Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Electron – is lightest stable subatomic particle known [CITATION Enc \l 13321 ] It carries a

negative charge of 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb, which is considered the basic unit of electric

charge. The rest mass of the electron is 9.1093837015 × 10−31 kg, which is only 1/1,836 the mass of

a proton. An electron is therefore considered nearly massless in comparison with a proton or

a neutron, and the electron mass is not included in calculating the mass number of an atom.

Energy – Energy is defined in science as the ability to do work. [ CITATION Hel18 \l 13321 ] It is a

scalar physical quantity. Although energy is conserved, there are many different types of energy,

such as kinetic energy, potential energy, light, sound, and nuclear energy. 

Energy Transfer – The conversion of one form of energy into another, or the movement of

energy from one place to another [ CITATION You \l 13321 ]

4
Hydrogen Ion Pump –consists of a membrane protein that helps build concentrations of protons

between membranes. This is important in moving high concentrations of hydrogen ions to low

concentrations [ CITATION stu \l 13321 ]

Redox Reaction – An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that

involves a transfer of electrons between two species. [ CITATION Spo19 \l 13321 ] An oxidation-

reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom,

or ion change by gaining or losing an electron. Redox reactions are common and vital to some of

the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and corrosion or

rusting.

Reduction Reaction – is a reaction that adds electrons from an atom in a compound [ CITATION

Avi16 \l 13321 ].

Oxidation Reaction – is a reaction that removes electrons from an atom in a compound

[ CITATION Avi16 \l 13321 ].

5
 ELECTRONS AND ENERGY

The electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle. It can either be free (not bound to

any atom), or connected to an atom's nucleus. Electrons occur in atoms, representing energy

levels, in spherical shells of varying radii. The wider the spherical shell, the more energy the

electron produces [ CITATION Rou05 \l 13321 ]

The removal of an electron from a molecule via a process called oxidation results in a

decrease in the potential energy stored in the oxidized compound. When oxidation occurs in the

cell, the electron (sometimes as part of a hydrogen atom) does not remain un-bonded in the

cytoplasm. Instead, the electron shifts to a second compound, reducing the second compound

(oxidation of one species always occurs in tandem with reduction of another).

The transfer of an electron from one compound to another removes some potential energy

from the first compound (the compound oxidized) and increases the potential energy of the

second compound (the compound reduced). It is necessary to transfer electrons between

molecules through oxidation and reduction because most of the energy stored in atoms is in the

form of high-energy electrons; it is this energy that is used to power cellular functions.

Transferring energy in the form of electrons incrementally helps the cell to transfer and use

energy: in small packages, rather than as a single, damaging blast.

A small class of molecules acts as electron shuttles in living systems: they bind and carry

high-energy electrons in cellular pathways between compounds. The key electron carriers we are

going to consider derive from the vitamin B group, which are nucleotide derivatives. Such

compounds can be easily reduced (i.e., retaining electrons) or oxidized (losing electrons). The

vitamin B3, niacin, is derived from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). NAD+ is the

oxidized form of niacin; NADH is the reduced form after having accepted two electrons and one

proton (which together represent the equivalent of an extra-electron hydrogen atom). It is

noteworthy that two electrons must be admitted at once by NAD+; it cannot act as one-electron

carrier.

6
 By introducing electrons to a compound, it reduces the compound. A compound that

reduces another is referred to as a reducer. RH is a reductive agent in the above equation and

NAD+ is reduced to NADH. The compound is oxidized as electrons are separated from a

compound. NAD+ is an oxidizing agent in the above equation, and RH is oxidized to R. The

NADH molecule is important to cellular respiration and other metabolic pathways.

Likewise, the vitamin B2 comes from flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD+), also called

riboflavin. This shortened version is FADH2. A second NAD type, NADP, includes an

additional group of phosphates. Both NAD+ and FAD+ are commonly used in the extraction of

energy from sugars and NADP plays an important part in anabolic reactions and photosynthesis [

CITATION Bou19 \l 13321 ].

7
 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that carries energy obtained in the cells of

all living organisms. ATP stores chemical energy from the breakdown of food molecules and

releases it to fuel other cellular processes. Cells need chemical energy for three major types of

tasks: to drive metabolic reactions which does not occur involuntarily; to transport needed

substances across membranes; and to do mechanical work, such as muscle movements. ATP

does not serve as a storage molecule for chemical energy; it is the function of carbohydrates,

such as glycogen, and fats. Whenever energy is needed by the cell, it is converted from storage

molecules into ATP. ATP then serves as a shuttle, delivering energy to places within the cell

where energy-consuming activities are taking place. [ CITATION Boy18 \l 13321 ]. ATP is a

nucleotide that has three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the sugar, ribose; and a

chain of three kinds of ribose-bound phosphates. The three phosphate groups, in order of closest

to furthest from the ribose sugar, are labeled alpha, beta, and gamma. Together, these chemical

groups constitute an energy power house. However, not all bonds within this molecule exist in a

particularly high-energy state [ CITATION Avi16 \l 13321 ].

ATP’s phosphate tail is the main source of power that cells tap. The available energy is

found in the phosphate bonds and released when broken, which happens by adding water

molecule. Typically, only the outer phosphate is removed to produce energy from ATP; when

this happens, ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the nucleotide form containing

only two phosphates.

Hydrolysis is the mechanism by which complex macromolecules split apart. During

hydrolysis, water is broken, or lysed, adding to the larger molecule the resulting hydrogen atom

and a hydroxyl group. ATP hydrolysis, combined with an inorganic phosphate ion, creates ADP

and releases free energy. The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is reversible as with most chemical

reactions. ATP from ADP is regenerated by reverse reaction. Since ATP hydrolysis releases

energy, ATP regeneration must require free energy input. ATP is continually broken down into

ADP to conduct life processes, and like a rechargeable battery, ADP is continually regenerated

into ATP by reattaching a third group of phosphates. During hydrolysis, water, which was

8
broken down into its hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group, is regenerated by adding a third

phosphate to the ADP molecule, thereby reforming ATP [ CITATION Avi16 \l 13321 ]. Whenever a

cell needs energy, it breaks the beta-gamma phosphate bond to create adenosine diphosphate

(ADP) and a free phosphate molecule.

Cells get energy in the form of ATP through a process called respiration, a series of

chemical reactions oxidizing six-carbon glucose to form carbon dioxide. Phosphorylation is the

attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule. Photophosphorylation uses the radiant energy of

the sun to drive the synthesis of ATP. This is a process seen only in cells capable of

photosynthesis. Light energy activates chlorophyll causing it to transfer an electron to an electron

transport chain, and in the process, produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. Substrate-

level phosphorylation is the production of ATP from ADP by a direct transfer of a high-energy

phosphate group from a phosphorylated intermediate metabolic compound in an exergonic

catabolic pathway. These intermediate compounds are sometimes called high-energy transfer

compounds (HETCs) and several of these are found as intermediates during glycolysis and

aerobic respiration.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the production of ATP using energy derived from the

transfer of electrons in an electron transport system and occurs by chemiosmosis. The

chemiosmotic theory explains the functioning of electron transport chains, in which it is the

transfer of electrons down an electron transport system through a series of oxidation-reduction

reactions releasing energy. This energy allows certain carriers in the chain to transport hydrogen

ions (H+ or protons) across a membrane [CITATION Kai19 \l 13321 ]

9
 ATP SYNTHASE

According to the IUBMB Enzyme Nomenclature, the enzyme is called "ATP

phosphohydrolase (H+-transporting)". However, the name "ATP synthase" reflects the primary

function of the enzyme more clearly and nowadays is most wide-spread. (Feniouk, 2012)

ATP synthase is an enzyme, a molecular motor, an ion pump, and another molecular

motor all wrapped together in one amazing nanoscale machine. It plays an indispensable role in

our cells, building most of the ATP that powers our cellular processes. The mechanism by which

it performs this task is a real surprise.

Cryoelectron microscopy has been used to determine the entire structure of ATP

synthase. The resolution of these studies is not quite enough to see individual atoms, but it allows

us to arrange all the subunits in their proper places. One of the surprises from this work is that

the ATP synthase in our mitochondria forms a dimer, and the dimer is sharply bent. This is

thought to help shape the extensively folded inner membrane of the mitochondrion (Goodsell,

2005).

ATP synthase has two sections. The part inserted inside the layer of the mitochondria (in

eukaryotes), thylakoid film of the chloroplast (just in plants), or plasma layer (in prokaryotes) is

called FO. This is an engine that is controlled by H+ particles streaming over the film. The part

inside the mitochondria, stroma of the chloroplast, or inside the bacterial or archaeal cell is called

F1-ATPase. This is another engine that is utilized to produce ATP. These two sections are

thought to have been two separate structures with two unique capacities that in the end

developed into ATP synthase. The FO area is like DNA helicases (chemicals that unfasten DNA

with the goal that it very well may be utilized as a format for propagation), while the F1-ATPase

district is like the H+ engines that permit flagella, arm-like limbs on certain microscopic

organisms, to move. F1-ATPase has a focal stalk and rotor that, when turned, changes over ADP

and Pi into ATP (Biologydictionary.com, 2017).

ATP synthase is a large mushroom-shaped asymmetric protein complex. The simplest

bacterial enzyme is composed of 8 subunit types, of which 5 form the catalytic hydrophilic F1-

10
portion (the "cap" of the mushroom). These subunits are named by Greek letters (Alpha, Beta,

Gamma, Delta and Epsilon) in accordance with their molecular weight. The proton translocating

FO portion is composed of subunits of 3 types named a, b and c. The catalytic portion of ATP

synthase (F1) is formed by Alpha 3 Beta 3 hexamer with Gamma subunit inside it and Epsilon

attached to the Gamma. Subunit Delta is bound to the "top" of the hexamer and to subunits b.

The hydrophobic transmembrane segment of subunit b is in contact with subunit a. Subunits

Gamma and Epsilon of the catalytic domain are bound to the ring-shaped oligomer of c-subunits.

Proton translocation take place at the interface of subunits a and c.

ATP synthesis catalyzed by ATP synthase is powered by the transmembrane

electrochemical proton potential difference, Delta mu H+ composed of two components: the

chemical and the electrical one. The more protons are on one side of a membrane relative to the

other, the higher is the driving force for a proton to cross the membrane. As proton is a charged

particle, its movement is also influenced by electrical field: transmembrane electrical potential

difference will drive protons from positively charged side to the negatively charged one.

ATP synthase is found in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts. In bacteria it is located

in the cell membrane with the bulky hydrophilic catalytic F1 portion sticking into cytoplasm.

The orientation is quite easy to remember, for the bacterium need ATP to be synthesized inside

the cell, not outside. With the proton flow it is less easy; I found it helpful to think that protons

always go “along” with ATP: during ATP synthesis they enter the bacterial cell (more ATP

inside, more protons inside), and during ATP hydrolysis they leave the cell and go into the outer

medium (less ATP inside, less protons inside). In mitochondria ATP synthase is located in the

inner membrane, the hydrophilic catalytic F1 portion is sticking into matrix. In a way a

mitochondrion is a bacterium “swallowed” by the eukaryotic cell: then the inner mitochondrial

membrane corresponds to the bacterial cell membrane. In chloroplasts the enzyme is located in

the thylakoid membrane; F1 portion is sticking into the stroma. (Feniouk, 2012)

11
 HYDROGEN ION PUMP

Hydrogen ions are positively charged ions of acids consisting of a hydrogen atom whose

electron has been transferred to the anion of the acid [ CITATION Hyd \l 13321 ]. In hydrogen ions,

the nucleus of a hydrogen atom is separated from its accompanying electron and its nucleus is

made up of a particle carrying a unit positive electric charge, called a proton [ CITATION Aug20 \l

13321 ]. The isolated hydrogen ion that is represented by the symbol H+, is usually used in

representing protons. Since the bare nucleus can readily combine with other particles such as:

electrons, atoms, and molecules, this type of hydrogen ion can be existing only in a nearly

particle-free space like in a high vacuum and in the gaseous state [ CITATION Aug20 \l 13321 ].

Hydrogen ions play a vital role inside the cell in the life span of organisms. Many

physiological processes and biochemical reactions are highly accompanied by changes in pH

[ CITATION Xud19 \l 13321 ].

Hydrogen Ion Pump is any of a number of membrane proteins that transport hydrogen

ions through membranes [ CITATION Oxf \l 13321 ]. It consists of a membrane protein that helps

build concentrations of protons between membranes. This is important in moving high

concentrations of hydrogen ions to the region of low concentration. The hydrogen ion pump uses

energy to transport protons across cell membranes. It has an equation of H ++energy → H +¿

wherein it tells that energy is needed for the transportation of protons from one side to the other.

An example of this is on how a hydrogen ion pump transports protons between the matrix of the

mitochondrion and the inner-membrane space of the organelle, where cellular respiration take

place [ CITATION stu \l 13321 ].

Hydrogen ion pump or also called as proton pumps are a special kind of transporter that

push hydrogen ions from areas of low concentration to areas with high concentration. Ions

moving down a gradient release energy, but when they move up a gradient, it takes energy

[CITATION How \l 13321 ]. In cell respiration, the proton pump uses energy to transport protons

from the matrix of the mitochondrion to the inner-membrane space (Shimada, et. al, 2015). It is

12
an active pump that generates a proton concentration gradient across the inner mitochondrial

membrane because there are more protons outside the matrix compare to the inside.

The difference in pH and electric charge creates an electrochemical potential difference

that works similar to that of a battery or energy storing unit for the cell (Campbell, 2008). This

type of pump does not create energy, but forms a gradient that stores energy for later use (Onishi,

2010).

Hydrogen ion pump is a membrane-integrated enzymatic complex which is able to

mobilize protons to generate a proton gradient across the membrane. This proton gradient

constitutes a fundamental energy reservoir and plays an important role in cell respiration and

photosynthesis. The electron transport chain in cell respiration generates an electrochemical

potential which is coupled to the proton pumps located in the membrane. This proton gradient is

an energy reservoir because it is the driver for the generation of chemical energy (ATP), or any

secondary transport system associated to it, such as: transport of nutrients, the maintenance of the

ionic homeostasis of cell, or the movement of bacterial flagellum (Gomez, 2011).

13
 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION PROCESS

Oxidation and reduction reactions are process that happens in conjunction. Oxidation is a

reaction that removes electrons from an atom in a compound while adding this electron to

another compound is called a reduction reaction [CITATION Gis16 \l 1033 ]. These pairs are often

called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions. This chemical reaction includes the

transfer of electrons in two species [CITATION Spo19 \l 1033 ]. Both reactions require agents to

complete the reactions which are called oxidizing agents such as halogens, potassium nitrate, and

nitric acid and reducing agents like active metals [ CITATION Bodnd \l 1033 ].

All chemical reactions with net changes in atomic charges depend on redox reactions,

they facilitate the formation of compounds from elements, combustion, generation of electricity

and cellular energy [CITATION Illnd \l 1033 ].

In order for cellular respiration to occur, reactions that pass electrons to molecules are

essential like how redox reactions play an important role in the metabolism of the cell. In the

electron transport chain, the downhill movement of the electrons release energy which is then

captured as an electrochemical gradient and is used to create ATP which is also essential for

cellular respiration [CITATION Carnd \l 1033 ].

The oxidation number (O.N.) or the oxidation state is the charge an atom would have if

electrons were transferred completely. There are three general rules for assigning the oxidation

number: [ CITATION Illnd \l 1033 ]

1. An atom in its elemental form is equal to zero

2. A monoatomic ion is equal to its ion charge

3. The added O.N. values for atoms in a molecule or formula unit of a compound is

equal to zero

14
 In redox reactions, both oxidation and reduction happen simultaneously. Balancing redox

reactions is different from other reactions. There are two methods you can use to balance redox

reactions: The Half equation method and Oxidation number method. Though the way of doing

both methods are also different in different conditions such as neutral, acidic, and basic

conditions.

In the Half Equation Method, the equation is separated into two equations which are half:

one half for oxidation and the other half for reduction. Every equation is balanced through

adjusting coefficients then adding H2O, H, and e [ CITATION Ann19 \l 1033 ].

In the Oxidation Number Method, all elements are assigned an O.N. then the number of

electrons gained and lost are computed. Then we balance the number of electrons gained with the

number of electrons lost using multiplication and finally the balancing is finalized through

inspection [ CITATION Illnd \l 1033 ].

15
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18