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Assessment of fresh water security in coastal Bangladesh: An insight from

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DOI: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.12.005

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 Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean & Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Assessment of fresh water security in coastal Bangladesh: An insight

from salinity, community perception and adaptation
M. Tauhid Ur Rahman a, c, *, Md. Rasheduzzaman a, Md Arman Habib a, Afzal Ahmed b,
Syed Mohammed Tareq a, Shah Md Muniruzzaman a
a
Climate Change Lab, Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST), Bangladesh
b
Department of Environmental, Water Resources and Coastal Engineering, Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST), Bangladesh
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, SUST, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Safe drinking water scarcity is an acute problem in the coastal regions of Bangladesh which is mainly
Received 31 July 2016 caused by salinity intrusion. In this context, drinking water sources are severely affected, including
Received in revised form adverse effects on agriculture, health, fisheries and the ecosystem. This research investigates i) selected
4 December 2016
water quality parameters ii) local people's perception on drinking water scarcity iii) how local people's
Accepted 5 December 2016
Available online 28 December 2016
cope with safe drinking water scarcity. This research was conducted using local water samples, ques-
tionnaire survey of 200 households and 4 focus group discussions (FDGs) in Shyamnagar and Tala sub-
district of Satkhira district. The study of the water quality parameters exposed the extreme conditions of
Keywords:
Salinity intrusion
the drinking water sources in the area. The average values of total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical
Coastal regions conductivity (EC) and Chloride concentration (Cl
) were found respectively 4044.12 mg/L, 7186.7 mS/cm,
Community perception and 3143.6 mg/L in Shyamnagar and 2313.60 mg/L, 4390.3 mS/cm, and 1402.1 mg/L in Tala. The result of
Safe drinking water community perception reveals that local people are aware of the safe water scarcity and nearly all of
Community adaptation them perceive that salinity is the main reason behind it. Even though there are a number of socioeco-
Water scarcity nomic factors, communities have their own adaptation technologies to cope with the problem. The study
concludes with the development of a community based model defining the key responsibilities of the
stakeholders, including local and central government, NGOs and community people to work in a well-
coordinated manner which will be effective for reducing the scarcity of the safe drinking water.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to half of the world's population. In 2003 the population density

Crisis of fresh water supply is persistent across the world and is
on the rise with the increasing rate of population (Dolatyar and
Gray, 2000). About 2/3 of the global population lives under con-
ditions of extreme safe drinking water scarcity for at least 1 month
of the year (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016). Safe drinking water is
important for all life on earth. Safe water can be helpful for
improving the environment, health condition, economy, and food
production (Jain, 2012). Millions of people in the developing
countries are suffering from diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and para-
sites because of drinking unsafe water (Khan et al., 2011).
It is estimated that the area within 200 km of a coastline is home
* Corresponding author. Climate Change Lab, Department of Civil Engineering,
Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST), Bangladesh.
E-mail address: tauhid_cee@yahoo.com (M. Tauhid Ur Rahman).
near the coastline was twice as that of the global average popula-
tion density (Root, 2008). Salinity intrusion in the groundwater
aquifers and freshwater wetlands has been an ever increasing
phenomenon and is augmented by the sea level rise caused by the
global climate change (Khanom, 2016).
Around 13 percent of the total world urban population lives in
coastal zones and of these, more than 75 percent lives in Asia (ADB,
2013). About half of the land area of Bangladesh lies below 10 m
above sea level. It further suggests that the South Asian countries
are at higher risks with the presence of intricate river networks
which span through different geopolitical areas, thus their flows are
becoming more human-administered rather than natural. Poverty
levels of the countries of this region are also a matter of concern.
The dependency of the people of these countries on agriculture
makes the availability of fresh water for irrigation purposes a pre-
requisite. The search for fresh water will eventually lead people to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.12.005
0964-5691/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
migrate to new places and add to the number of “climate refugees”
(ADB, 2013).
In Bangladesh, groundwater is the principal and safer source for
collecting drinking water compared to other water sources. The
rural population is heavily dependent on tube well for drinking
water. In 2010, 73% of the rural population were using tube well for
drinking water purposes. The number of people who have access to
drinking water have increased significantly over the years, yet one
fourth of the population is still awaiting access to safe drinking
water (WHO, 2008). According to the Coastal Zone Policy (2005)
and Haque (2006), 19 districts of the country are being affected
directly or indirectly by the influence of tidal waters, salinity
intrusion and cyclones/storm surges.
Bangladesh has a coastline of 710 km throughout the length of
the Bay of Bengal (MoWR, 2005). The coastal regions of Bangladesh
are prone to natural disasters (Rahman et al., 2010). The combi-
nation of natural and man-made hazards, like land erosion, high
arsenic content in water, water logging, water and soil salinity,
pollution, risks from climate change, etc., have affected the lives
and livelihood of the coastal peoples (Hossain et al., 2016). Salini-
zation in ground water is depriving a number of populations in
coastal areas from getting safe drinking water (Hoque, 2009).
Salinity intrusion poses significant threat to fresh groundwater
bodies and also to the natural fresh water wetlands (Talukder et al.,
2015). According to the World Bank (2000) anticipation, the
changing climate will cause widespread submergence in the low
lying areas augmented with increased rate of salinity intrusion.
Climate change induced global warming is the main reason for the
rising sea water level (Oude Essink, 1996; IPCC, 2013). On the other
hand, fresh water flow from upstream has gradually decreased,
especially in the dry season. These two natural phenomena cause
incremental salinity intrusion in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. It
is predicted that the area of fresh water zone will be reduced from
45 percent to 36 percent and moderate saline zone will be reduced
from 50 percent to 47 percent because of the sea level rise. But the
area of the salt water zone will increase from 5 percent to 17
percent (Rahman and Rahman, 2015). According to a study of
Participatory Research and Development Initiatives (PRDI), due to
increasing salinity 10% more land relative to 1990 will be saline-
affected and salinity intensity will be increased by 10%. The Soil
Resources Development Institute (SRDI, 2010) suggests that the
rate of increase of salinity intrusion is about 0.74% per year.
There are various causes of salinity intrusion in these areas
which are part of the southwestern coastal belt of Bangladesh. The
principal causes can be cited as geographical location, sedimenta-
tion, sea level rise, cyclone, storm surge and tidal surge and other
human causes like shrimp farming (Clarke et al., 2015). Various
rivers like Kabodak, Shibsha and Kholpetua crisscross these areas
which experience low and high tides. Discharge in these rivers
fluctuates seasonally and when the flow is low during the dry
season saline water intrudes from the sea at the time of high tides
into the estuarine of these rivers (Rahman and Rahman, 2015). Thus
the river waters at most of the places of the mentioned areas have
become saline and unsuitable for drinking water purposes. Storm
surges and tidal flooding also occur frequently, which helps in
salinity intrusion. As the natural wetlands are more or less affected
by salinity the native people are looking into options like digging
artificial ponds to retain fresh water or rain water harvesting. The
interpretation of various water sample tests and geochemical
analysis indicates that groundwater sources along the south-
western Bangladesh are at risk of salinity intrusion (Subramainan,
2015).
Salinity intrusion in the coastal regions of Bangladesh is also
increasing because of decreasing upstream water flow in the
Ganges River. This reduction of water flow is caused by the
69
construction of Farakka Barrage in the upstream of the Ganges
River. Reduction of water flow increased the ground water and river
water salinity in the southwest regions of Bangladesh. Salinity in
these areas was found in greater extent during the post Farakka
period (Gain et al., 2007).
Islam et al. (2013) studied on the perceptions of the commu-
nities exposed to severe water scarcity in the coastal regions. The
perceptions indicate that the local people might not have the
knowledge to understand the changing phenomenon regarding
water security, but they do have the experience to cope against
such adversities. They have their own adaptation measures like
rainwater harvesting and conservation of pond water. Also Parvin
et al. (2008) studied about the vulnerability of Bangladesh to nat-
ural hazards such as floods, cyclones, river erosion, water scarcity,
drought etc.
Many researchers have conducted different studies about the
coastal regions of Bangladesh. However, only a few have focused on
severe water stressed regions. Moreover, there is hardly any
research that focused particularly “Shyamnagar” and “Tala” which
are the hardest climate hit water stressed regions of Bangladesh
(Abedin et al., 2014). This study provides a brief overview of safe
drinking water scarcity caused by salinity at the villages of the
South-Western coast of Bangladesh. It also examines the current
water quality conditions, community perceptions and adaptation
measures to safe drinking water scarcity, the local people's expec-
tations to overcome the water crisis. This paper also suggests a
community based adaptability action plan at the local level to
combat drinking water scarcity.
2. Materials and methods
This study was carried out in four villages spread over two
Upazila (Sub-district) of Satkhira district, in the southwest coastal
zone of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). Satkhira district has a population of
about 1.99 million people (Islam et al., 2015). The four villages of
interest are namely Gabura, Vamia, Dalua and Vabhanipur. Gabura
and Vamia are located in Shyamnagar Upazila and Dalua and
Vabhanipur in Tala. Salinity intrusion and intrusion of other trace
elements have been imposing great threat to this area's drinking
water sources (Abedin et al., 2014). Of these four villages, two
(Gabura and Vamia) have been classified as extreme drinking water
scarcity areas (EDWSA) and two (Dalua and Vabhanipur) as high
drinking water scarcity areas (HDWSA). Classification of severity of
drinking water scarcity villages is not based on quantitative
benchmark rather based on the existing local conditions and
community perceptions on drinking water scarcity (Abedin et al.,
2014).
For example, Dalua and Vabhanipur villages of Tala Upazila
appear to have lower safe drinking water scarcity compared to
Gabura and Vamia villages of Shyamnagar because of the presence
of water more or less satisfying national water quality standards;
rainwater harvesting systems; pond sand filters (PSF); interactive
coordination and participation of several stakeholders such as
governmental, non-governmental organizations and community
bodies. On the contrary, Gabura and Vamia villages of Shyamnagar
Upazila appear to have severe safe drinking water scarcity because
of inadequate safe water sources, insufficient infrastructure like
PSF, unattended salinity problems and least the practice of adap-
tation measures such as rainwater harvesting at the root level
(Abedin and Shaw, 2013).
The climate study of Satkhira district has shown fluctuation in
temperature and rainfall patterns over several decades (Ahmed,
2008; Miah, 2010). The average temperature of Satkhira is about
30.6  C. The average maximum temperature is 33  C during March
to May while the average minimum temperature is about 18.9  C in
70 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
Fig. 1. Location map of the study areas.
December and January (Chowdhury, 2007; UNICEF, 2014). The
average amount of precipitation in Satkhira is about 1710 mm per
annum, much of which falls during May to October (UNICEF, 2014).
This region is of particular concern because of the depletion of
existing fresh surface water sources and safe groundwater aquifers
because of excessive amount of shrimp cultivation by river saline
water and water logging. Saline water seepage from shrimp culti-
vation ponds to nearby fresh water sources is posing threat to the
access of fresh drinking water for the local people. Silting of
regional and local rivers because of reduced flow caused by up-
stream construction of Farakka barrage is causing the intrusion of
salt water during high tides in this area (Mirza, 2004;
Khalequzzaman, 2012).
This study is based on primary data and information collected
from field visits for a broader study that consist of investigating (1)
existing water quality parameters related to salinity (2) local peo-
ple's perception of safe drinking water scarcity because of salinity
(3) coping and adaptation measures for drinking water scarcity, and
(4) the contribution of government and private organizations, in-
stitutions and practices in facilitating local adaptation to safe
drinking water scarcity because of salinity. Field survey and data
collection for this research was carried out from 3rd March to 25th
March 2016 in four villages of interest namely Gabura, Vamia, Dalua
and Vabhanipur. Table 1 represents the methodological approach of
the research.
To determine the existing water quality parameters related to
salinity (Conductivity, TDS, Salinity and concentration of Chloride
ions), water samples from various drinking water sources such as
rivers, ponds and Tube wells were collected in the site area in clean
plastic bottles which were marked properly and then preserved in a
dark place to prevent algal growth. Water samples were also
collected from community sources such as pond sand filters, iron/
arsenic treatment plants for testing. On-site tests were carried out
by Environmental multi-meter on representative samples from the
water collected in the bottles to find the parameters such as Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), conductivity (EC), salinity and noted care-
fully. Chloride concentration was tested by following Mohr's
Method in the Environmental Laboratory of the Military Institute of
Science and Technology (MIST). GIS mapping of TDS, EC and Cl
was
compiled for better understanding of the existing drinking water
scarcity throughout the study areas by using inverse distance
weighting (IDW) spatial interpolation method.
The severity and extent of the problem of safe drinking water
used a face-to-face household survey using a semi-structured
questionnaire with the numbers from statistically selected sam-
ple (n ¼ 200) of household owners. 95% confidence interval and
±5% level of precision was used for calculating the sample size of
the study area. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first
part consisted of the socioeconomic information of the re-
spondents, the second part was about their perception to the
condition of the drinking water and its availability; hardships
sustained for collecting drinking water and how drinking water
conditions are affecting their health, work life and social behavior.
In the last part, the questions highlight their different adaptation
practices and coping measures towards combating the salinity
problem in drinking water sources. The questions of the ques-
tionnaire were not unique and respondent were able to choose
more than one answers for each question. The information of
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81 71

Table 1
Methodological approach.

Time period Number of samples Purpose of data collection Method of data collection Target group

3rd marche25th 29 To determine the water quality parameters Direct visiting the samples e
march, 2016 site
200 (50 questionnaires To find out the impact of drinking water scarcity on Questionnaire survey Household head
from each village) livelihood and recognize local coping measures through random sampling
4 focus groups (one To confirm and validate the responses from Focus group discussion Each group consisted of teachers, local
from each village) respondents. community leaders, and NGO staff.

questionnaire survey was collected by the lead author in assistance
with co-authors. A total of 50 sets of answers was collected for each
village. Fig. 2 shows the sampling structure of the research. After
collecting overall information on socioeconomic profile, perception
to the existing condition and adaptation practices through ques-
tionnaire survey, 4 focus group discussions were conducted to
confirm and validate the responses from respondents.
3. Results
3.1. Water quality of the study areas
The water quality of the coastal regions of Bangladesh (Satkhira
District) was assessed by analyses of some particular parameters
and compared with the standard values. Fig. 3 represents the
spatial distribution of assessed water parameters in the study areas.
Standards of drinking water quality parameters according to ECR
and WHO are represented in Table 2.
3.1.1. Electrical conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity usually used for indicating the total
concentration of ionized constituents of water (Huq and Alam,
2005). The highest EC (13,540 mS/cm) was found in the Gabura
village of Shyamnagar Upazila and the highest EC (8390 mS/cm) was
found in the Kabodak River (Near Pakhimara beel) at Tala Upazila.
The electrical conductivity value of the Shyamnagar Upazila ranges
from 129.4 mS/cm to 29,600 mS/cm with an average value of
7186.7 mS/cm and the EC value of the Tala Upazila ranges from
1019 mS/cm to 8390 mS/cm with an average value of 4390.3 mS/cm.
3.1.2. Total dissolve solids (TDS)
TDS in water is referred to the amount of inorganic salts and
trace amounts of organic matter. It is also very important to
consider TDS in water for determining the salinity. Both the values
of EC and TDS are indicative of salinity because they are interrelated
for groundwater. The TDS value of the Shyamnager Upazila ranges
from 59 mg/L to 17,600 mg/L with an average value of 4044.12 mg/
L. Also the TDS value of the Tala Upazila ranges from 498 mg/L to
4510 mg/L with an average value of 2313.60 mg/L.
3.1.3. Salinity and chloride
The average values of Salinity at Shyamnagar and Tala are
respectively 4236.4, and 2370 mg/L. The salts in sea water are
primarily sodium chloride (NaCl). As Chloride concentration is
mainly responsible for salinity, the concentration of Chloride ions
was tested. The average values of Chloride at Shyamnagar and Tala
are respectively 3143.6, and 1402.1 mg/L. The highest Chloride
found in Kholpetua river of Shyamnagar was 10,261.3 mg/L, and at
the Balidah ferry ghat of Tala was 3353.69 mg/L.
3.2. Socioeconomic characteristics
A total of 200 households were included in the study. House-
holds maintained by males are significantly higher in the areas of
extreme water scarcity (75%) and high water scarcity (65%)
(Table 3).
In all the 2 distinctive areas the proportion of middle aged
(25e44) people are found to be highest which is a positive factor
due to the credibility of their perception and also length of expo-
sure to water scarcity. The percentage of old aged people (45e59
years) was also significantly noticeable in all the areas. The per-
centage of young aged (below 24) and aged people (over 60 years)
are relatively low in the study areas (Table 3).
The percentage of illiterate people in the extreme zones are the
highest (26%) and lowest in the high scarcity zones (11%). A very
less percent of people were found to have completed graduation as
far as all the two types of areas are concerned. A significant per-
centage of people were found to have completed secondary school
in all the two areas, with almost half of the respondents (46%) in the
high scarcity zones were found to have completed secondary
school.
Agriculture is the dominant practice of earning for livelihood in

District (1) Satkhira

Upazila (2) Shymnagar Tala

(EDWSA) (HDWSA)

Gabura Vamia Dalua Vabhanipur

Village (4)
(50 Q) (50 Q) (50 Q) (50 Q)

Fig. 2. Sampling structure of the study in Satkhira.

72 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81

Fig. 3. Spatial Distribution of water quality parameters in the study areas.

all the communities involved with physical labor the next preferred agriculture and 21% are in labor. A good percentage of people in all
practice. About 45% of the respondents in extreme drinking water the areas earn in the range of BDT 46,000 to BDT 60,000 (USD 590
scarcity areas are engaged in agriculture as their occupation. In high to USD 789) per year.
drinking water scarcity areas, about 40% respondents are in
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81 73

Table 2
Drinking water quality standards for some important parameters.

Water quality parameters Unit Bangladesh standards WHO guideline values

TDS mg/L 1000 1000

EC mS/cm 1563 1563
Chloride mg/L 150e1000 250

Source: ECR, 1997 and WHO, 2011.

3.3. Perception analysis
3.3.1. Perception on safe drinking water scarcity
The entire coastal region of Bangladesh is vulnerable to clima-
tological hazards like cyclones, tidal surges, tidal flooding natural
hazards like salinity intrusion, trace element contamination (e.g.:
arsenic, iron) and also man made hazards like water logging caused
by improper construction and maintenance of water retaining
structures (Abedin et al., 2012).
Salinity intrusion caused by the sea level rise augmented by
climatic variation is imposing increasing threat to the potable water
sources in the coastal area. Keeping these facts in the background a
questionnaire set up was prepared for the respondents asking them
about what particular existing hazard they relate to the water
scarcity issues in their area. Fig. 4 shows the perception of the re-
spondents towards salinity, water logging and draught specifically.
In the extreme zones almost all respondents (93%) related salinity
to the existing water scarcity issue (Fig. 4). Water logging (32%) and
draught (10%) drew less response from the people of this area.
Respondents in the high scarcity areas, mostly related salinity (73%)
and water logging (65%) simultaneously to the safe drinking water
scarcity issues. Drought seemed to be less prevalent in all the areas
hit by water scarcity as it drew much less response overall from the
respondents (Fig. 4).
In addition to this, a further questionnaire set up was prepared
after categorizing the some natural and anthropogenic causes
behind the existing water scarcity. Responses were noted for each
of the causes.
The results shown in Fig. 5 suggest that under the category of
natural causes of hazards, increase of salinity intrusion was
mentioned the most in all the scarcity zones. It picked a higher
response of 93% in the extreme scarcity zones with also a significant
percentage of mentioning in the high (85%) scarcity zones. The next
most significant natural cause of water scarcity identified by the
local respondents was sedimentation. Cyclone and storm surges are
seasonal phenomena in the southwestern Bangladesh and were
also mentioned by the respondents. Sea level rise and high tem-
perature caused by global warming received less response than
anticipated because of the absence of the minimum level of edu-
cation required to understand these facts.
Under the anthropogenic causes for increasing drinking water
scarcity in the study areas, extensive shrimp cultivation got the
highest response in the extreme (55%) and high (65%) scarcity
zones. This identifies the role of shrimp cultivation in contributing
to the increased levels of salinity in the coastal areas. Respondents
were also aware about the establishment of Farakka Barrage over
the upstream Ganges and its contribution to the salinity issues. The
control of water upstream has decreased the flow of water in the
downstream rivers and tributaries causing sedimentation as well as
the intrusion of sea water to fresh water wetlands due to the

Table 3
Socioeconomic profile of respondents in the study areas.

Socioeconomic parameter % of respondents in extreme drinking water scarcity areas % of respondents in high drinking water scarcity areas

Gender
Male 75 65
Female 25 35
Age group
Young (below 24 years) 7 13
Middle (25e44 years) 52 44
Old (45e59 years) 37 41
Aged (above 60 years) 4 2
Education
Illiterate 26 11
Primary School 27 31
Secondary School 29 46
College 15 7
Graduate 3 5
Religion
Islam 50 69
Hindu 50 31
Buddhist 0 0
Christian 0 0
Occupation
Agriculture 45 40
Services 9 16
Business 7 13
Labor 36 21
Other 3 10
Annual Income level (Taka)
Below 30,000 Tk 7 16
31,000e45,000 Tk 17 14
46,000e60,000 Tk 32 27
61,000e80,000 Tk 29 30
Above 80,000 Tk 15 13
74 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81

Fig. 4. Hazards related to safe drinking water scarcity in the study areas.

decreased flow pressure in the rivers. Islam and Gnauck (2008) and
Khalequzzaman (2012) suggested that one of the chief reasons of
increase in salinity levels in the Southwestern part of Bangladesh is
the construction of Farakka Barrage. Overall, it can be said that
increase in the salinity levels are perceived to be the governing
cause behind the existing fresh water scarcity issues by the local
respondents.
3.3.2. Perception on impacts of salinity on the study areas
The spread of salinity in the coastal area is about 53% (Rasel
et al., 2013). It is found that people receive 50%e100% of their ex-
pected daily salt intake from drinking water as it has contaminated
with different kinds of salts (Khan et al., 2011). All the respondents
interviewed in the extreme and high zones agreed that salinity
somehow affects their daily lives.
3.3.2.1. Impact on drinking water. Scarcity of drinking water has
become a major vulnerability of these people as the water sources
have been affected by salinity. Different natural hazards such as sea
level rise, cyclones, flood, land erosion, etc. have caused an influx of
sea water into the ground water sources. As a result, fresh water
sources otherwise have turned into saline water. People are
required to travel long distances in search of fresh water, which is
economically infeasible and time consuming. Time management
for the women in the household becomes difficult as they need to
fetch the water and complete the household chores at the same
time. Therefore, the people either harvest the rainwater or prefer to
drink the saline water. In all the zones all respondents (100%)
related salinity to the main cause of their daily life problem (Fig. 6).
3.3.2.2. Impacts on agriculture. Fig. 6 also reveals the impact of high
salinity levels on the farming and fishing practices. The effect of
salinity shows its highest effect in the high scarce zones with
around 79% people saying that their agricultural practices are facing
difficulties with increasing levels of salinity. The percentage is low
in the extreme scarce zones (73%).
3.3.2.3. Impact on fisheries and aquaculture. The impact on the
livestock sector is more prominent than that of fisheries, 42% re-
spondents in the high scarce zones indicate that their livestock

Fig. 5. Natural and Anthropogenic cause for increasing drinking water scarcity in the study areas.
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
have been affected with high salinity levels while 35% people in the
extreme scarce zones said the same. The impact on the practice of
fisheries does not appear to be a major one as a comparatively
lower percentage of 25% and 15% people in high and extreme scarce
zones indicated that (Fig. 6).
3.3.2.4. Impacts on ecosystem. Salinity is one of the major cause for
the loss of bio-diversity and loss of ecosystem. 59% of the re-
spondents in the high scarce zones perceived that they noticed
changes in the environmental patterns as salinity levels went
higher over the years. This response was more or less the same in
the extreme (56%) scarce zones as well (Fig. 6).
3.3.2.5. Impacts on health. The responses from the respondents in
the study area were asked about their health conditions and Fig. 7
was plotted using the response received.
Diarrhea, indigestion and skin diseases (black spot on the skin)
appear to be the most common diseases in the water scarce areas.
Particularly respondents who suffered from diarrhea in the near
past were found in almost 93% in the extreme scare zones. Diarrhea
patients were also present in high percentages in the high (85%)
scarce areas. Indigestion and skin diseases come in next with about
65% people suffering or have been suffering from it in the extreme
scarcity zones. Cholera, blood pressure and gestational hyperten-
sion patients were also found in some percentages in the study
areas.
3.3.2.6. Impacts on daily life. Fig. 8 represents the hardships
endured by the local respondents. As expected, drinking water
scarcity was identified as the biggest impact due to salinity intru-
sion with 100% people in the extreme zones responding positively
to it. The drinking water hardship is also persistent in the high
(93%) scarce zones. Water scarcity has its effects on the health of
the local people as shown in the figure. Domestic work disturbance
is the next highest impact observed due to water scarcity. About
94% people in the extreme zones and 73% people in the high zones
have reported that they experience disturbance in their everyday
activities due to the water scarcity issues. The hardship of women
was noticeable in a big scale as most households are maintained by
Fig. 6. Overall impacts of safe drinking water scarcity in the study areas.
75
women and the responsibility of day-to-day water collection rests
upon them.
A gynecological anomaly was observed in several women in the
study area in the sense that they were found to suffer from the
lowering of the uterus, having pain in the lower abdomen, caused
by regular carrying of water jars on their hips. Nearly 70% women in
the extreme scarce zones have reported about their hardships
while around 40%e45% women said that they faced hardships due
to the scarcity of fresh water in their areas. Social conflict and
school dropouts were the other impacts of water scarcity in the
study area. Politics and fights often take place during the collection
of fresh/treated water from the collection points. The rate of school
dropout was the highest in the extreme scarce zone with children
suffering from the health impacts already discussed earlier and
eventually falling out from schools.
3.4. Adaptation and coping measures
Adaptation is a two way process, which initially requires the
recognition of changes and then responding to change through
adaptation (Abedin et al., 2012). Adaptation practices have evolved
with time and the growth of population. Some techniques are
indigenous and have transferred from generations to generations.
In the study area, for combating water scarcity issues due to salinity
adaptation and coping practices are carried out at three different
levels. They are i) individual level, ii) community level and iii)
institutional level. Fig. 9 represents different drinking water sour-
ces from where people are collecting drinking water in the study
areas.
3.4.1. Individual level
Survey results in Table 4 display the existing adaptation and
coping measures that are followed by individuals as well as com-
munities to combat drinking water scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is
a relatively costlier option and therefore are chosen by the well-off
households. It is most popular in the extreme scarce zones (25%)
and the least in the high scarce zones. Conservation of ponds is the
relatively cheaper option where there is no infrastructure cost and
thus is more popular. Almost 65% respondents in the extreme
76 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
Fig. 7. Impact of safe drinking water scarcity on human health in Satkhira.
Fig. 8. Impact of safe drinking water scarcity on daily life in Satkhira.
scarce zones utilize ponds and is also more popular than rainwater
harvesting in the high (35%) scarce zones.
3.4.2. Community level
At the community level, several households merge their effort
for setting up an adaptation technique. Although conservation of
natural ponds is slightly more popular (41%) than rainwater har-
vesting (35%) in the extremely scarce zones. Use of pond sand filter
is the most popular practice in the high scarcity zones (48%)
(Table 4).
3.4.3. Institutional level
Institutions like Sushilan, Uttaran, ActionAid, Caritas, Concern
Worldwide, UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), USAID
(United States Agency for International Development), and gov-
ernment organizations such as DPHE (Department of Public Health)
and CDMP (Comprehensive Disaster Management Program) are
working relentlessly to ensure safe drinking water to the people of
the zone hit by water scarcity. Using of pond sand filter is the more
popular practice to cope with salinity issues as far as the opinion of
the respondents is concerned.
Pond sand filter is more than twice popular (56%) than rain-
water harvesting (23%) in the extreme zones. Due to the abundance
of salinity and other harmful heavy metals in the groundwater
aquifers, digging of deep tube well are not preferred by the in-
stitutions in the extreme (3%) and high (7%) scarce zones. However
deep tube wells were found in a good percentage in the high scarce
zones (Table 4).
3.5. Expectation of local peoples to enhance adaptability and coping
capacity
Fig. 10 reflects the different ideas that people in the local area
hold to combat the safe drinking water scarcity.
Rainwater harvesting grabs maximum attention in the extreme
water scarcity areas. About 75% residents prefer rainwater har-
vesting at the individual level. According to the local people the
amount of water sustained during the rainfall of one season can
meet the demands of drinking water for a single household for the
rest of the year. Another significant portion of the respondents
(45%) emphasized on the proper maintenance and monitoring of
the existing ponds as freshwater ponds are found in every one or
two households, but due to infringement of domestic animals, they
are not in a good condition for being used as a drinking water
source. Piped water system did not appear to be a popular option
and many people are reluctant to add bills to their everyday
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81 77

Fig. 9. Different drinking water sources in the study areas (A: Collection of pond water for drinking; B: Plastic container for rainwater harvesting; C: Pond Sand Filter (PSF); D: Deep
tube well with overhead tank for water treatment).

Table 4
Adaptation and coping measures at different levels in study areas.

Adaptation and Coping Practice of Salinity Respondent in extreme drinking water scarcity area (%) Respondent in high drinking water scarcity area (%)

Individual level
Rainwater harvesting 25 29
Conservation of pond water 65 35
Community level
Rainwater harvesting 35 23
Use of pond sand filter 26 48
Digging of pond 4 17
Conservation of pond water 41 29
Institutional level
Rainwater harvesting system 23 26
Pond sand filter 56 38
Installing deep tube well 3 7

expenses. In the high scarcity zones, community based tube well
(one tube well for 3e5 households), construction was preferred by
a significant portion of people (45%). The next higher percentage of
people (27%) preferred the maintenance and digging of existing
ponds. Here also piped water supply system gathered the least
response (Fig. 10).
4. Discussions
Socioeconomic characteristics help to identify the vulnerable
portion of the community to hazards and crisis. Presence of low
income groups in the community indicates the inability to afford
buying of fresh water bottle/jars from other sources. The income of
the local people is lower than the GNI (Gross National Income) of
USD 1080 (The World Bank, 2014). Thus a low income and low
literacy rates make these people more susceptible to safe drinking
water scarcity (Table 3).
Tested water quality parameters of most of the drinking water
sources of the study areas exceeded the standard values. According
to World Health Organization (WHO) and Bangladesh standards,
the standard value of EC is 1563 mg/L for drinking water purpose
(Table 2). Tested values of the EC of Shyamnagar indicate that all the
drinking water sources do not fall within the drinking water quality
standards. Though values of EC of most of the drinking water
sources of Tala exceeded the Standard value, values of EC of some
drinking water sources of both Shyamnagar and Tala were found
within permissible limits. High amount of EC is indicating that the
water of the study areas are highly salinity affected. If the EC crosses
the value of 3700 mS/cm, then it can be harmful to human health. It
can cause salt and water imbalance in children and increment of
blood pressure of heart patients and renal patients (DWAF, 2001).
As most of drinking water samples of our study areas exceed this
78 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
Fig. 10. Expectation of local peoples of the study areas.
value, it can have severe negative impacts on the population of the
study areas.
The amount of TDS is a qualification criterion for water that is to
be used for domestic purposes. High values of TDS do not cause
health problems all the time, but it can cause degradation in taste
and odor problems (Oram, 2012). According to WHO and
Bangladesh standards, the standard value of TDS is 1000 mg/L for
drinking water purposes (Table 2). Water sample values indicate
that some of the drinking water sources have TDS value within
permissible limits (less than 1000 mg/L), but many of the sources
exceed the standard limits. If TDS value is greater than 1500 mg/L,
then the water is not fresh and it does not supply all the minerals.
As most of water samples exceed the value (>1000 mg/L) which is
indicating a threat to safe drinking water security in the study
areas. Moreover, the standard value of Chloride is 150e1000 mg/L
for drinking water in the coastal regions of Bangladesh (Table 2).
Most of the drinking water sources of Shyamnagar and Tala
exceeded the Standard value, but comparatively a large number of
drinking water sources of Tala were found within permissible
limits.
A total of more than 5 million people in the southwestern
Bangladesh are affected from fresh water crisis (Swapan and
Mamun, 2006). Saline water intrusion in the study areas in-
creases the scarcity of fresh drinking water for the rural peoples.
The treatment facilities of salt water are also limited, costly and
time consuming. So the people are made to drink contaminated
water containing salinity and other trace elements. Drinking of
contaminated water is having adverse effects on the health and
livelihood of the local people (Fig. 6). For example, women are
needed to walk from 6 to 12 km each day to collect 3 jars of water
(Abedin et al., 2014). Drinking of contaminated water can cause
various diseases like diarrhea, indigestion, fever and other intesti-
nal diseases (Swapan and Mamun, 2006; Abedin et al., 2012;
ICDDRB, 2015). Salinity has also a direct effect on stroke, left ven-
tricular mass, cancer of the stomach and many more diseases (He
and MacGregor, 2008).
Salinity also has negative impacts on the quality of land and
reduced the production (Lauchli and Epstein, 1990). The agricul-
tural production in the study areas is complex and diverse because
of risk of natural hazards (Saha, 1999) (Fig. 6). Saline tolerant va-
rieties are the only option for most of the areas. Frequent inflow of
saline water during different natural disasters like Aila had con-
verted the agricultural areas into wasteland (Datta et al., 2011).
Salinity affects the growth rate of certain plants by altering the
chemical processes that take place inside the plants. (Rashid et al.,
2004; Ashraf et al., 2002). In a study, Ali (2009) found in a village of
Satkhira that rice production has decreased by 69%e1151 metric
tons from 1985 to 2003. Saline conditions are favorable for shrimp
culture which has a high economic return, but on the other hand it
threatens the existence of the fresh water fish species and leads to
their extinction (Mustari and Karim, 2014). Shrimp culture con-
tributes up to 77% of the total causes of loss of crop fields (Sarwar
and Golam, 2005).
The world largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans are located
in the South-Western part of Bangladesh covering part of the
Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat districts. Increased amount of
salinity has changed the habitat pattern of the mangrove forest.
Shrimp culture in these areas also threatens the existence of the
fresh water fish species and lead to their extinction (Mustari and
Karim, 2014). Increased levels of salinity and accumulation of
sediments may affect the flora of the Sunderbans (Gopal and
Chauhan, 2006). Altered food chains combined with the effect of
salinity will also cause an impact on the animal population.
Appropriate management of the freshwater sources available in the
Sunderbans to meet the needs of the humans and the environment
is a pre-requisite to ensure a safe and sustainable future of the
world's largest mangrove forest.
Despite the different impacts of Salinity, it directly affects live-
lihoods, drinking water sources, public health and the total envi-
ronment of this region. However, the local people, government, and
different local and international organizations are trying their best
to survive with these negative situations.
Communities of people are practicing different adaptation
measures to mitigate the impacts of increased salinity. The adap-
tation measures at the household level are usually carried out by a
particular household to meet their household demands. To meet
the scarcity of safe drinking water, household practice measures
such as rainwater harvesting, conservation of pond waters and
harvesting drinking water through ring wells. As Rainwater har-
vesting is a relatively costlier option, conservation of ponds and
pond water is more popular among local peoples. At community
level, digging of artificial ponds and using pond sand filters (PSF)
are additional techniques than the individual level. Rainwater
harvesting gets preferred at the community level as there are more
hands to join together as far as the cost is concerned.
Institutions play a leading role in supplying safe drinking water
in the whole country. NGOs are implementing different projects
like pond re-excavation, deep tube well with overhead tank to
 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
combat drinking water scarcity in the study areas. Another national
NGO, The Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), is also
helping people in their own communities to run water organiza-
tions, called Pani Parishad, which bring people together to identify
the best water supply options for households and the communities
in their own villages.
Adaptation and coping practices taken at the individual, com-
munity and institutional levels are increasing gradually but it is still
appears to be insufficient to combat the existing water scarcity is-
sues. The local people, representatives of the government and
related experts are working relentlessly to come up with new
technologies. But these actions need to be more planned and co-
ordinated. The respondents came up with their own ideas when
asked about how to address the water scarcity issue during the
focus group discussions (FGDs) for a broader understanding of the
potential drinking water sources. The key ideas identified rainwater
harvesting, installation of tube well for every 3e5 households,
excavation of ponds, piped water supply network and proper
maintenance and monitoring of the ponds.
The study results were utilized to prepare a community based
model to integrate an effective coping mechanism at the commu-
nity level. The model (Fig. 11) suggests that for an effective, efficient
and environmentally friendly coping strategy, the communities,
government, NGOs and international organizations need to func-
tion as a single body.
In the proposed community based model central government,
local government, NGOs and coastal community will work in an
integrated way to solve the drinking water scarcity problem in the
coastal regions of Bangladesh. Though central government is
responsible for proper policy making, it should be properly
implemented by local government and NGOs in participation with
the community people. The central government will not only
provide support but also monitor the performance of local gov-
ernment and NGOs to ensure proper implementation of the policy.
The active collaboration of local government with NGOs is missing
in current practices. To run the model successfully, local govern-
ment's active participation is a must and they should interact with
community and NGOs for building awareness. The key re-
sponsibilities of the NGOs will be selecting proper adaptation ini-
tiatives and implementation strategies based on their previous
experiences. Active participation and feedback of community
people is a prerequisite for the community based model.
Islam et al. (2013) and Parvin et al. (2008) also suggested inte-
grated community based model for combatting the safe drinking
Fig. 11. Integrated community based model to combat safe drinking water scarcity.
79
water scarcity but central government was not a part of their
model. Central government plays an important role in policy
making, supporting local government and monitoring the perfor-
mances of NGOs. Without the presence of central government, it is
nearly impossible to evaluate the performance of local government
and NGOs. But the integrated community based model (Fig. 11)
identifies the roles and responsibilities of the central government
and the linkups between the other components such as commu-
nities, local government and NGOs with the central government.
Thus, this community model can be said to be self-supportive as it
involves all the parties needed to get involved in developing
adaptation strategies. The findings in this study paper will further
support the policy makers/managers by providing quantitative
values of the crisis situation (such as the salinity concentrations) by
helping to develop an instantaneous perception of the crisis. The
study also tries to find the extent of adaptation measures in prac-
tice, the gaps in them and suggests the course of actions that may
be taken to diminish the short comings.
In place of separated actions, integration is needed between
different stakeholder and constitutional management operator to
resolve the safe drinking water crisis and to ease a community's
adaptation. There are many government organizations and NGOs
are working to solve this problem, but the main problem is coor-
dination between them. Parvin et al. (2008) suggested that it is
necessary to have cooperation and exchange of experiences among
the affected community, government organizations and NGOs to
develop an effective and environmental friendly hazard reduction
program.
5. Conclusion
Salinity is a persistently growing threat to the coastal region of
Bangladesh, particularly in the study areas where TDS, EC and
chloride concentration levels were found to be surpassing the
allowable limits by a significantly greater margin. This research has
documented community perception, adaptation measures along
with scientific data about the salinity intrusion and it's imposed
threat to the agriculture, ecosystem, health, fisheries and aqua-
culture. Both climate change factors (i.e. high temperature, cyclone,
sedimentation, and sea level rise) and anthropogenic causes (i.e.
extensive shrimp cultivation, construction of Farakka barrage) are
increasing salinity intrusion into the coastal regions of Bangladesh.
It is recommended that overall understanding of the community's
exclusive perceptions and evaluation of their adaptive and
80 M. Tauhid Ur Rahman et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 68e81
proactive capacities are vital for creating successful coastal hazard
management programs. This research has also featured the at-
tempts of government organizations and NGOs for overcoming safe
drinking water crisis.
Though the salinity problem is becoming more dreadful in the
context of safe drinking water, existing stakeholder and constitu-
tional management operator are not giving proper attention to it.
Some socioeconomic factors (such as education level, income level)
and geographical factors are increasing coastal people's vulnera-
bilities to safe drinking water crisis, though they are struggling to
reduce their vulnerabilities by implementing different adaptation
measures. Although different adaptation measures like rainwater
harvesting, pond water conservation, PSF have been applied at the
local and community levels and funded by different organizations,
the salinity problem until now has not been given importance in
the government's disaster management policy. Government and
NGOs both national and international should give proper attention
to overcome the salinity problem in near future. Though the gov-
ernment and NGOs are working in different parts of the coastal
regions but coordination is absence among them and there is no
perspective of integration among community's adaptation mea-
sures and efforts of development organizations, which is compul-
sory for successful coastal hazard management programs. The
national coastal management policy of the Bangladesh government
should integrate the practices of coordination and partnership
among development attempts of government, NGOs, and com-
munities to ensure proper application at the root level. This would
assist and promote pragmatic actions which will ease the integra-
tion by knowing and executing community perception, coping
measures, and community expectations to adopt with and resolve
the safe drinking water crisis.
Acknowledgements
This research received funding from the Higher Education
Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP, CP-3143) jointly funded by
the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) (grant no: HEQEP-CP-3143)
and the World Bank and implemented by the University Grants
Commission of Bangladesh. The authors gratefully acknowledge the
supports of concerned authorities and the staffs of the Climate
Change Laboratory and Environmental Engineering laboratory of
Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka. Help
and sincere cooperation of the local communities, local govern-
ment representatives, NGOs of Tala and Shyamnagar Upazilas of
Satkhira district are greatly appreciated as well.
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