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Cell Biology

SEM, pancreatic acinar cell

Cells – The Essence of Life

• Basic living, structural, and functional units
of the body
• Eukaryotic cells
– Eu = true, karyon = nucleus
– Have a defined nucleus
– Evolved from prokaryotic cells
– Pro = before, so no defined nucleus
• Specialization is a necessity

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There is no Generic Cell

Rods & Cones Enterocytes of the Hepatocytes (Liver Cells) Pancreatic

Small Intestine Acinar Cells

Keratinocyte (Skin Cell) Neurons & Glial Cells Bronchi epithelial cells
Pseudo-colored SEMs Use of images for educational purposes only

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Compartmentalization of Eukaryotic Cells:

Cytoplasm & Nucleus
Contents of the cytoplasm:

• Inclusions = metabolic
byproducts, products in storage
etc. that are not surrounded by
a plasma membrane
• Secretion granules
• Pigment
• Glycogen
• Lipid

• Organelles = metabolically
active structures that carry out
specific functions
Make-believe Generic Cell uic.edu

Use of images for educational purposes only

Organelles
Membranous organelle
• Plasma membrane
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondria
• Nucleus

Nonmembranous organelles
• Filaments (actin filaments, intermediate filaments)
• Microtubules

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The Plasma Membrane

1. Lipid bilayer of phospholipid
and cholesterol

2. Proteins:
peripheral or integral

3. Cell Junctions
(tight, anchoring, gap)
Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane

Light Micrograph, Respiratory Epithelium TEM, Pancreatic Cell

Use of images for educational purposes only

The Plasma Membrane: The Cell Coat (i.e., Glycocalyx)

Outer surface contains a heavy investment of carbohydrate chains attached to

proteins or lipids

Glycocalyx

• Chains of carbohydrates attached to the

proteins, forming glycoproteins; or to the
lipids, forming glycolipids

• Establishes extracellular
microenvironments

• Functions in metabolism, cell recognition,

and cell association and serves as
receptor site for hormones

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Mitochondrion
• Energy production &
oxygen use site
• Double membrane
surrounds matrix
• Mitochondrial
membrane
✓ Outer membrane - porous
✓ Inner membrane - selectively
permeable; site of ET chain

Mitochondria
•Structure: Double layered membrane with the inner one folded to form cristae
•Function: Contain the enzymes for oxidative metabolism—make ATP

Fluorescent Micrograph,
mitochondria (red), cytoskeleton (green),
nucleus (unstained)
Canine kidney cells (cultured)
The number, shape, and internal structure of
mitochondria are often characteristic for specific
cell types.

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

• Function: Protein synthesis
• Structure: Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes
• Very well developed in cells making protein for secretion (Secretory Cells)
• The cytoplasm of these cells is basophilic because ribosomes are acidic

Pseudo colored TEM Light Micrograph, H&E medcell.med.yale.edu

Adrenal gland cell; x52,5000 Pancreatic acinar cells
Ribosomes (blue), ER (brown)

Use of images for educational purposes only

Free Ribosomes
• Not all ribosomes are bound to the ER
• These make proteins destined for the
cytoplasm, nucleus, and mitochondria Light Micrograph
Human Spinal Cord, Nissl stain
Light Micrograph, Skin, H&E

Basophilia in the cells of the Stratum granulosum is

caused by the presence of large amounts of RNA:
In this case, ribosomes and polysomes that are free
in the cytoplasm
The large basophilic bodies of nerve
cells are called Nissl bodies, consist of
both rER and large number of free
ribosomes
Use of images for educational purposes only

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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)

• Structure: Flattened sheets, sacs, and tubes (not visible in light
microscope; may or may not be interconnected with rough ER;
may exhibit distinct cytoplasmic eosinophilia (acidophilia)

• Function: Involved with lipid and glycogen metabolism; well

developed in cells that synthesize steroids

Light Micrograph, H&E; Hepatocytes (Liver Cells)

Hepatocytes also produce protein (plasma protein), but not as extensive as pancreatic
acinar cells. Notice the cytoplasm is mostly eosionophilic.
Use of images for educational purposes only

Endoplasmic Reticulum & Golgi

Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus
– Protein trafficking & sorting
– 4-8 cisternae (stacks)
– Tubular networks at either end:
• Cis-Golgi network - entrance
• Trans-Golgi network - exit
– Connected to ER by transport vesicles

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Golgi Apparatus
• Structure: Consists of a stack of flattened membranous sacs with dilated
ends
• Functions in the post-translational modification, sorting, and packaging of
protein & lipids in nearly all eukaryotic cell
• Very well developed in secretory cells where it lies between the nucleus
and the apical cell membrane
• H&E staining characteristics: chromophobic

Pseudocolored SEM Pseudocolored TEM Light Micrograph, H&E

Hepatocyte (Liver cell) x12,500 Plasma cell

Use of images for educational purposes only

Lysosomes & Peroxisomes

• Enzyme-filled organelles
• Lysosomes - cell’s “digestive system”
• Peroxisomes - site of oxidative catabolic
reactions

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Lysosomes & Peroxisomes

• Lysosome functions:
– Phagocytosis
– Autolysis
– Bone resorption
– Hormone secretion & regulation
• Peroxisome functions:
– Oxidize fatty acids to acetyl CoA
– Amino acid catabolism
– Detoxifying reactions

Nucleus
• Largest organelle and surrounded by nuclear envelope
• Contains DNA
– Cell genome is the entire set of genetic
information
• Nucleoli - condensed chromatin
• DNA replication
• Protein synthesis = transcription, translation & elongation

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Nucleus

• Nucleic acids
• DNA & RNA
• Macromolecules formed from
units of nucleotides/bases
✓ Adenine, guanine, cytosine in both
✓ Uracil in RNA only
✓ Thymine in DNA only

• Complementary base pairing

• Semi-Conservative

Nucleus
• Cells can have a single nucleus or multiple nuclei
• Nuclear envelope: double layered membrane with
nuclear pores
• Outer membrane is continuous with rER

Nucleus

nuclear pore

TEM

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Nucleus
Chromatin—chromosomal material: DNA plus other associated molecules

Euchromatin- uncoiled, active, pale staining—transcription is happening!

Heterochromatin- coiled, inactive, dark staining

Euchromatic nucleus Heterochromatic nucleus

nucleus
Cytoplasm

Light micrograph, H&E Light micrograph, H&E

Autonomic ganglia Nucleus Plasma cell

Note: a cell may show a mixture of heterochromatin and euchromatin if only a portion of the
DNA is actively being transcribed
Use of images for educational purposes only

Nucleus

Light micrograph, H&E

Plasma cell

Note: a cell may show a mixture of heterochromatin and euchromatin if only a portion of the
DNA is actively being transcribed
Use of images for educational purposes only

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Organelles
Membranous organelle
• Plasma membrane
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondoria

Nonmembranous organelles
• Filaments (actin filaments, intermediate filaments)
• Microtubules
Unique proteins self-assemble into
polymers and form the structural element
of the cytoskelton

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Cytoplasmic Matrix
• Microtrabecular lattice or cytoskeleton
provides:
– Structural support to define shape
– Framework for positioning of organelles
– Network to direct the movement of materials and
organelles within the cells
– Means of independent locomotion for specialized
cells

Cytoplasmic Matrix
• 3 Components of
the cytoskeleton
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate
filaments
• Fluid

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Cytoplasmic Matrix
• Microtubules are rigid providing mechanical support
for the cell to determine its shape.
• Microfilaments are “assembled” or “disassembled”
for cell locomotion, changes in cell shape,
phagocytosis, etc.
• Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength
to cells subjected to physical stress such as neurons,
muscle cells, and epithelial cells
• Intercelluar communication
• Transfer of DNA/RNA

Cytoskeleton
Function: Involved in maintaining cell shape, shifting organelles around
inside the cell, and moving the cell or extensions of the cell

2 Kinds of Filaments: 1. Actin filaments and 2. Intermediate filaments

1. Actin filament (aka microfilaments)

composed of polymers of the protein, actin

Provides mechanical support for the cell

membrane through a network just inside the
cell and via connections with proteins in the
cell membrane (anchoring junctions!)

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Actin Filaments (cont’d)

Fluorescent micrograph
Endothelial cell
Cytoskeleton (green)
Mitochondria (red),
Nucleus (blue)
Use of images for educational purposes only
Pseudocolored TEM
Microvilli of intestinal cell
Top: Light Micrograph
Cardiac muscle
Bottom: Fluorescence micrograph
Contractile filaments (actin), green
Nuclei, blue
Interacalated discs (orange)

Cytoskeleton
2 Kinds of Filaments: 1. Actin filaments and 2. Intermediate filaments

2. Intermediate filaments

• mostly structural in function

• many different kinds
• 6 major classes on the basis of gene structure,
protein composition, and cellular distribution
Class 1 & 2: Keratins/tonofilaments (epithelial cells)
Class 3: Vimentin and Vimentin-like (neuroglia)
Class 4: Neurofilaments (neurons)
Class 5: Lamins (nucleus)
Class 6: Beaded Filaments (Eye lens fiber cells)

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Intermediate Filaments (cont’d)

Fluorescent micrograph
Endometrial epithelial cell
Actin (green)
Intermediate filaments(red--labeled for vimentin),
Nucleus (blue)
Use of images for educational purposes only

Microtubules: Another component of the cytoskeleton

• Structure: made of polymers of tubulin dimers

• Can assemble and disassemble quickly
• Function: intracellular vesicular transport (e.g.
movement of secretory vesicles, endosomes, and
lysosomes):

The molecular motor proteins associated with microtubules

Use of images for educational purposes only

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Microtubules (cont’d)
Specific functions
Align the mitotic spindle during cell division

Fluorescent micrograph
Endothelial cell
• The spindle fibers are microtubules Microtubules (green)
Nucleus (blue)
• In the mitotic process, spindle fibers are
formed connecting chromosomes to anchor
points in each forming daughter cell.

Use of images for educational purposes only

Microtubules (cont’d)
Specific functions—cilia and flagella structural support and movement

Basal
Cilia Cilium
bodies

Microtubule

Light micrograph, trichrome stain

Respiratory epithelium Basal body
TEM
Cilia

Cilia are motile cell surface structures that

have a core of microtubules
Use of images for educational purposes only

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The Cell Cycle

200 µm 20 µm

Growth and development. Tissue renewal. These dividing

This micrograph shows a bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly give rise to new blood cells (LM).
after the fertilized egg divided,
forming two cells (LM).

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Phases of the Cell

Cycle
INTERPHASE

S
G1 (DNA synthesis)

G2

Chromosomes and DNA Replication

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Cellular Death
• Types
– Apoptosis – controlled cellular disintegration
(blebbing)
– Autophagic cell death – controlled cellular
autodigestion (autolysis)
– Necrosis – uncontrolled – cell lysis

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Apoptosis
• Programmed cellular death

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Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology

Response to Stimulus
• Ability to adapt
• Normal adaptations
– Increased HR with exercise
– Expansion of uterus during pregnancy
– Increase in steroid hormone secretion during
puberty

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Pathologic Responses
• Pathologic adaptation
– Injury, neoplasia, aging, death
– Some temporary, some permanent
• Reversible – sublethal
• Irreversible - lethal
– Causes
• Disruption of cell structures
• Oxygen deprivation
• Nutrient deprivation

Cellular
Adaptation

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Atrophy
• Types
– Physiologic –
developmental
– Pathologic
• Organs affected
– Any; muscle, heart,
brain
• Causes
– Decreased use
– Malnutrition

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Hypertrophy =
Increased size

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Hyperplasia
• Increased rate of cell division (number, not size)
• Nuclear enlargement, chromatin clumping, enlarged
nucleoli
• Physiologic
– Compensatory
– Hormonal
• Pathologic
– Malignancy

Metaplasia
• Changing of one epithelial type for another
• Usually reversion
• Example:
– Smoking: Ciliated columnar → Str. Squamous
• Reversible?
• Can lead to dysplasia,
neoplasia

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Dysplasia
• Abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization

Cellular Injury

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Manifestations of Cellular Injury

• Cellular accumulations (infiltrations)

– Water
– Lipids and carbohydrates
– Glycogen
– Proteins

Manifestations of Cellular Injury

• Cellular accumulations (infiltrations)

– Pigments
• Melanin, hemoproteins, bilirubin
– Calcium
– Urate

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